Community-based tourism: perspectives and future possibilities
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(2) COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: PERSPECTIVES AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES. Thesis submitted by Pimrawee Rocharungsat BA, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand MS in Hospitality and Tourism, University of Wisconsin-Stout, USA in February, 2005. for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Business, Tourism Program at James Cook University.
(3) ii STATEMENT OF ACCESS. I, the undersigned, the author of this thesis, understand that James Cook University will make it available for use within the University Library, and via the Australian Digital Theses network, for use elsewhere. I understand that, as an unpublished work, a thesis has significant protection under the Copyright Act. All users consulting this thesis will have to sign the following statement: “In consulting this thesis I agree not to copy or closely paraphrase it in whole or in part without the written consent of the author; and to make proper written acknowledgement for any assistance which I have obtained from it.”. Beyond this, I do not wish to place any restriction on access to this thesis.. ------------------------------------(Signature). ------------------------------(Date).
(4) iii DECLARATION. I declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at any university or other institution of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references given.. ------------------------------------(Signature). ------------------------------(Date).
(5) iv. ELECTRONIC COPY. I, the undersigned, the author of this work, declare that the electronic copy of this thesis provided to the James Cook University Library is an accurate copy of the print thesis submitted, within the limits of the technology available.. ------------------------------------(Signature). ------------------------------(Date).
(6) v. STATEMENT ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF OTHERS. This research was financially supported by Rajabhat Petchaburi University (Thailand) for the researcher’s tuition fee and expenses while at James Cook University; The Doctoral Research Scheme scholarship in 2003 and FLBCA Internal Research Grants in 2004 (From the Faculty of Law, Business and the Creative Arts) for the research data collection. This thesis is also the product of help and collaboration from the respondents in all the four studies; friends and helpful coordinators in Malaysia (APECO 2003 organiser), Thailand (at Koh Pratong and Mae Kampong) and Indonesia (Desa Wirun and Seloliman). The person who has given much contribution to this thesis is my supervisor, Prof. Philip Pearce. Without his encouragement, effort and editorial skills, it may take longer to write this thesis..
(7) vi. DECLARATION ON ETHICS. The research presented and reported in this thesis was conducted within the guidelines for research ethics outlined in the National Statement on Ethics Conduct in Research Involving Human (1999), the Joint NHMRC/AVCC Statement and Guidelines on Research Practice (1997), the James Cook University Policy on Experimentation Ethics. Standard Practices and Guidelines (2001), and the James Cook University Statement and Guidelines on Research Practice (2001). The proposed research methodology received clearance from the James Cook University Experimentation Ethics Review Committee (approval number: H1438 and H1562).. ------------------------------------(Signature). ------------------------------(Date).
(8) vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is the hardest section to write because along the three years and one month journey of my PhD study life at James Cook University, there are so many people who involve and being a part of my life and my thesis. I then would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to them in this page. To my supervisor, Prof. Philip Pearce, who has devoted his valuable advice all through the years and his patience and confidence in my work; To Robyn Yesberg and Anne Sharp who are always there when I need help and suggestions, they always suggest me with their smile; To all staff in the Tourism Program and the School of Business and the Faculty who are helpful and supportive (Prof. Sandra, Elaine, Katherine, Pierre, Laurie, Gianna, Alastair, Danielle, Carmel, Sue, and others) and the facilities that help me write my thesis more comfortably; To people who helped me during my data collection in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia (especially to Erna, Chipto, Sally, Metta, Filmon, Falicia, Citra, , Pho, Alta, NGO staff at PPLH, Head of Mae Kampong Village and his wife, Khun Ae and her father at Koh Pratong, Desa Wirun Administrative Office); To all my international friends at Tourism Building from the year 2002 until now, thanks for sharing your smile, stories, laughter, encouragement and party (Chiemi, Aram, Erna, Lui, Wata, Anoma, John, Ice, Frieda, Sally, Tito, Arnie, Sue, Claire, Isabel, Raphael, Henry, Mitsu, Shuyen, Allison, Ali, Matt, Dean, Kay, Laura, Jescinta, Daniel, Francisco, Nui, Alf, Anna, Brian, Taku, and others); To my Thai friends who make me feel like home (especially to Mek, Anoma, B, Ploy, Gikna, Oh and others); To my friends/ students in Thailand and America (especially to P’Joe, P’Pla, P’Som, P’Un, P’Mod, Dough and Nancy and others); To my previous advisor at UW-Stout, USA, Dr. Randall Upchruch who directed me here and my ‘favorite teacher’, Dr. Jafar Jafari for his support; More than everything, to my beloved family back home and in America (Mom, Dad, Nong O, June and Ja). I have learnt that ‘research’ could not be accomplished by only one person. Thank to you all who make my PhD comes true..
(9) viii TABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENT OF ACCESS. i. STATEMENT OF SOURCES. ii. STATEMENT ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF OTHERS. v. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. vii. TABLE OF CONTENTS. viii. LIST OF TABLES. xii. LIST OF FIGURES. xiv. APPENDIX LIST OF CONTENTS. xv. ABSTRACT. xvi. CHAPTER 1 COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: A GENERAL OVERVIEW. 1. 1.1. Introduction and significance of the research. 1. 1.2. Why “community-based tourism development?”. 4. 1.3. Research in “community tourism”. 9. 1.3.1. Research issues. 9. 1.3.2. Research needs. 15. 1.4. 1.5. 1.3.3 Scholars’ debates. 19. Definitional context. 22. 1.4.1. Community. 23. 1.4.2. Development. 27. 1.4.3. Community tourism development. 30. 1.4.4. Sustainability/ Sustainable tourism. 31. 1.4.5. Community-based tourism. 38. Critique of literature on community-based tourism development. 43. CHAPTER 2 COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: RESEARCH QUESTIONS/ DILEMMAS/ METHODS. 47. 2.1. Introduction. 47. 2.2. Present situation and trends of communities and tourism (A focus on of developing countries). 47.
(10) ix 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. Advantages and disadvantages of tourism in the community. 55. 2.3.1. 55. General discussion. 2.3.2. Social issues. 58. 2.3.3. Economic issues. 61. 2.3.4. Environmental issues. 63. The core strategies for community tourism development. 64. 2.4.1. Strategies. 64. 2.4.2. Success stories. 74. 2.4.3 Main stakeholders’ roles. 80. Research methodologies. 90. 2.5.1 Previous research methodologies. 90. 2.5.2. Research strategies. 91. 2.5.3. Summary of thesis methodology implemented in the studies. 2.6. 2.7. 97. Pivotal concepts for the research. 101. 2.6.1. Stakeholder Management. 101. 2.6.2. Social Representations. 103. 2.6.3. Values and Attitudes. 105. Connecting the literature review to the study. 115. 2.7.1. Research needs and justifications. 116. 2.7.2. Goals and study objectives. 117. 2.7.3. Chapter outline. 118. CHAPTER 3 COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: THE PERSPECTIVES OF PROFESSIONALS. 122. 3.1. Introduction. 122. 3.2. Aims of the study. 123. 3.3. Methodology. 123. 3.4. Study results. 129. 3.5. Discussion. 170.
(11) x CHAPTER 4 COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: THE PERSPECTIVES OF THREE STAKEHOLDER GROUPS. 176. 4.1. Introduction. 176. 4.2. Aims of the study. 177. 4.3. Methodology. 177. 4.4. Study results. 190. 4.5. Discussion. 209. CHAPTER 5 COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM: THE PERSPECTIVES OF COMMUNITIES. 223. 5.1. Introduction. 223. 5.2. Aims of the study. 224. 5.3. Methodology. 224. 5.4. Study results. 250. 5.5. Discussion. 273. CHAPTER 6 CONSENSUS OFCOMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES. 287. 6.1. Introduction. 287. 6.2. Aims of the study. 288. 6.3. Conceptual approaches. 288. 6.4. Study results. 293. 6.5. Discussion. 306. 6.6. Conclusion. 324. CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. 325. 7.1. Introduction. 325. 7.2. Discussion. 325. 7.3. Implication of the study. 337.
(12) xi 7.4. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research. 342. 7.5. Conclusion of the thesis. 345. REFERENCES. 347.
(13) xii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1:. Examples of Steps in Community Development. 67. Table 3.1: Table 3.2: Table 3.3: Table 3.4:. Successful CBT Destinations Positive perspectives towards CBT Negative perspectives towards CBT Comparison of professionals’ positive and negative views of CBT Professionals’ views toward CBT Definition of “Community” Definition of “Community” provided by the respondents Definition of “Development” Definition of “Development” provided by the respondents Professionals’ rating of the Characteristics of Community-based Tourism “Actor” who should take most responsibility First step recommended for community-based tourism development First Step Recommended: Consultancy and Support of community The Second “First Step” Recommended: Clear Plan Successful CBT Based on Respondents’ Experiences Criteria of Successful CBT Destination. 130 132 139. Idealised types, mass tourism and alternative tourism Respondent Profile Mean Ranking of the four scenarios (Section 1 of the questionnaire) Reasons for “Best CBT” from the three stakeholders Agreement on statements concerning CBT (Section 1 of the questionnaire) Themes describing successful community-based tourism for the three stakeholder groups Criteria contrasts in viewing successful CBT Willingness to pay for a CBT destination (Section 1 of the questionnaire) Management characteristics which describe CBT (Section 2 of the questionnaire) Actor who should take the most responsible for CBT (Section 2 of the questionnaire) Ranking of the first step taken to develop CBT (Section 3 of the questionnaire) Ranking of the benefit to community from CBT (Section 3 of the questionnaire) Top five criteria for successful CBT from each group Comparison of successful factors between CBMT and CBT Ranking priority of first steps of CBT in each group Ranking of the priority of values for each group. 180 189. Table 3.5: Table 3.6: Table 3.7: Table 3.8: Table 3. 9: Table 3.10: Table 3.11: Table 3.12: Table 3.13: Table 3.14: Table 3.15: Table 3.16: Table 4.1: Table 4.2 Table 4.3: Table 4.4: Table 4.5: Table 4.6: Table 4.7: Table 4.8: Table 4.9: Table 4.10: Table 4.11: Table 4.12: Table 4.13: Table 4.14: Table 4.15: Table 4.16:. 146 147 148 149 152 153 155 157 158 159 161 166 167. 190 192 195 198 200 200 201 202 203 205 213 215 217 219.
(14) xiii Table 4.17:. Conclusion of the perspectives of the three stakeholders. 220. Table 5.1: Table 5.2: Table 5.3: Table 5.4: Table 5.5: Table 5.6: Table 5.7: Table 5.8: Table 5.9: Table 5.10: Table 5.11: Table 5.12:. Respondent Profile Ranking of the four scenarios Reasons for “Best CBT” from the four communities Agreement on statements about CBT Desire to have CBT in the community Successful Community-based tourism Management characteristics describe CBT Actor who should take the most responsibility for CBT Ranking of the first step taken to develop CBT Questions from communities before CBT development Ranking of the benefit to community from CBT The Top Three Steps for Community Tourism Development in each Community Top Three Values Ranked from each Community. 250 251 253 255 258 260 263 263 264 266 269. 294 294. Table 6.4: Table 6.5: Table 6.6: Table 6.7:. Most preferred scenarios Detailed description of the scenarios Positive and negative perspectives towards CBT (each stakeholder) Influential values towards stakeholders’ perspectives Characteristics of CBT First steps in developing CBT (the consensus) Examples of steps in developing CBT. Table 7.1: Table 7.2: Table 7.3:. Summary of the thesis content in each study Consensus of stakeholders towards CBT characteristics Priorities for CBT success criteria. 327 333 336. Table 5.13: Table 6.1: Table 6.2: Table 6.3:. 281 283. 298 299 300 302 323.
(15) xiv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1:. The organisation of literature informing the present research. 4. Figure 2.1:. Chart of the proposed research chapters. 119. Figure 3.1:. Locations of successful community-based tourism destinations (based on respondent replies) A Comparison between Positive and Negative Characteristics of Community-based Tourism. 147. Figure 4.1. Figure 4.2: Figure 4.3: Figure 4.4: Figure 4.5:. Destination possibilities /Source: Weaver (2000) Ranking of the best Scenario of CBT Agreement on the statements about CBT Ranking of the first steps in developing CBT Ranking of the benefits (values) of CBT. 181 207 208 208 209. Figure 5.1: Figure 5.2: Figure 5.3: Figure 5.4: Figure 5.5: Figure 5.6: Figure 5.7: Figure 5.8:. Ranking of the best Scenario Agreement on the statements about CBT Ranking of the first steps in developing CBT Ranking of the benefits (values) of CBT Best CBT Scenario from each Community Communities’ Expectations from CBT Development Successful CBT Criteria Emphasised in each Community Questions from Communities. 270 271 271 272 274 277 279 282. Figure 6.1: Figure 6.2:. 292. Figure 6.7:. Conceptual frameworks of the study Best CBT from each group perspective (Social representations in each individual group of stakeholder) The general agreement of the best CBT from the four stakeholders (The broad social representations from every group) Successful criteria (Consensus from the 5 stakeholders) Questions before developing CBT- Voice of the communities Possible CBT present problems and directions for successful development Priorities of first steps in developing CBT from the consensus. Figure 7.1: Figure 7.2:. Coherent scenario from the consensus First Steps for CBT Development. Figure 3.2:. Figure 6.3: Figure 6.4: Figure 6.5: Figure 6.6:. 131. 296 297 303 305 318 322 331 335.
(16) xv APPENDIX LIST OF CONTENTS Appendix A Definitions of “Community”. 381. Appendix B Definitions of “Sustainable Tourism Development”. 383. Appendix C Examples of “Sustainable Tourism Principles”. 384. Appendix D Definitions of “Community-based Tourism”. 385. Appendix E The Characteristics of Management Approaches. 387. Appendix F List of Tourism Journals Used in Gaining the Professionals’ Names. 388. Appendix G List of the developing countries from UNDP. 389. Appendix H Questionnaire Study 1. 392. Appendix I Questionnaire (Study 2: English/ Thai/ Indonesian Version). 394. Appendix J Questionnaire (Study 3: Thai/ Indonesian Version). 418. Appendix K Mae Kampong’s SWOT Analysis. 434. Appendix L Reasons for “Best CBT” from the four communities. 436. Appendix M Reasons for why respondents want and do not want tourism in the community. 438. Appendix N The agreement on CBT characteristics. 440. Appendix O Ethics Approval Form of Study 1. 441. Appendix P Ethics Approval Form of Study 2 and 3. 442.
(17) xvi ABSTRACT The concept of community involvement in tourism has been significant for over 20 years. The concept has also been given a priority status at every level of the tourism research agenda, as it is believed that involving the community can make tourism sustainable. The term “community-based tourism” integrates many agendas and approaches. Nevertheless, several scholars have questioned the practice of community-based tourism. They have raised a concern that community-driven tourism planning may be an unachievable ideal. The problems and limitations include such issues as conflicts within a community or with outsiders. The clarification of the community-based tourism concept is needed for the better and successful practice of future community tourism development. The primary aim of this thesis addresses the need to define and fully explore the views of multiple stakeholders concerning community- based tourism. The studies seek to establish empirical generalisations about community-based tourism and are shaped by stakeholder theory and a social representations approach as well as the considerable existing literature in this field. Four studies specifically within a South East Asia context explored the overall topic area. Study one (Chapter 3), Community-based Tourism: The perspectives of professionals, examines professionals’ perspectives towards the community-based tourism concept. The professionals were chosen because of their executive positions and their writing on the topic. The survey explored overall attitude towards CBT, definitions of community and development, factors used to evaluate successful CBT, and expectations for future CBT development. Respondents mostly held mixed views about CBT with eleven positive themes and ten negative themes being identified. The term community was most frequently seen as a specific boundary and the web of individuals’ interactions while development was most often viewed as socioeconomic transformation. Being community centred was seen as the major characteristic of CBT. Respondents cited 30 examples of successful CBT and reported six key criteria to guide development. Nine initial steps were also recommended for developing community tourism. The questionnaires in the subsequent studies were designed based in part on the results of Study one. Study two (Chapter 4), CBT: The perspectives of three stakeholders groups, focused on the perspectives of diverse participants based on the stakeholder theory. The.
(18) xvii research examined the groups of decision-maker, operator, and visitor using a selfadministered questionnaire. Respondents were mainly from Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. The results demonstrated that the decision maker and visitor groups prefer to have highly regulated small scale tourism forms whereas operators prefer to have controlled carrying capacity but high intensity forms. All groups suggested that the best and most successful CBT should involve the community and maintain the community’s benefits and life style. The visitor group emphasised cultural exchange and friendly communities. The shared management form was the most preferred although it was generally considered that the community group should take the most responsibility for CBT. Each group identifies a different first step to develop CBT. Factors that most influenced the decision makers and the visitors were their aesthetic and moral values while the operators’ were more driven by moral and economic values. Study three (Chapter 5), CBT: The perspectives of communities, attempted to complete the multiple stakeholder perspectives by focusing on the communities’ views. The aims in this study were concerned with the communities’ overall attitude and future expectation towards community-based tourism, the factors which influence their perspectives and the similarities and differences among the communities. The four communities were Desa Wirun, Indonesia and Koh Pratong, Thailand with low tourism development; and Seloliman, Indonesia and Ma Kampong, Thailand with medium levels of tourism development. The research methodology was based on the same research questionnaire as in Study two but some questions were edited and added to serve the aims of exploring the communities’ understanding or social representations. The results illustrated the differences between communities of different countries especially in the best scenario for community-based tourism destinations. Therefore, the specific community’s characteristics are an important influence, and shape their overall attitudes. The positive characteristics of communitybased tourism that gained the highest agreement from every community were that CBT brings more money to the community’ and CBT develops an opportunity for community involvement.’ These dimensions were also confirmed by measuring the communities’ expectations and the factors influences their perspectives. Community benefits were the main reasons for community acceptance and remain a focus of their concerns. In the negative attitudes, a consensus was achieved that community-based.
(19) xviii tourism still has its limitations and practical problems. The communities highlighted moral and aesthetic values whereas economic value was of secondary significance. Study 4 (Chapter 6), Consensus of CBT and future possibilities, establishes the consensus among all the stakeholders and portrayed community-based tourism in full for its optimal development. The study synthesised the core findings of the previous studies and employed thematic coding. The concept of social representations was also used in this study to help summarise stakeholders’ perspectives and values. The findings showed the stakeholders’ preference for Planned Alternative Tourism and Controlled Mass Tourism form in CBT. There was a different emphasis for the best CBT from each group but their consensus was also seen. The most influential values towards stakeholders’ views were moral, aesthetic and economic values. The first steps ranked in each group were varied but a broad priority was agreed on. Community benefits and involvement was emphasised as the most successful criteria for CBT from every group. Finally, Chapter 7 reviews the core findings of the previous studies based on the thesis objectives and considers the implementation issues for future community-based tourism development. The highlights were the coherent scenarios reflecting some common representations, a consensus among stakeholders, and the contribution and evolution of the CBT approach. Also, the recommendations for further community tourism research were presented. It is anticipated that the results from the studies could guide future research on community-based tourism in general and could aid the practice of successful community-based tourism. To benefit community tourism research, some sections of the thesis have been published or are in the process of being published in conference proceedings and refereed journals..
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