Internal migration in Indonesia : outmigration from Java and Bali

B

y

S t e p h a n u s S u p a d i

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for

the degree of Master of Arts in Demography

M.A. Program in Demography,

Development Studies Centre,

Australian National University,

Canberra,

D E C L A R A T I O N

Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work.

Stephanus Supadi

It is a pleasure to acknowledge certain forms of indebtedness

during the work on this thesis. I wish to express my thanks to the

Australian Government’s Colombo Plan Scholarship scheme; to the

Australian Development Assistance Bureau (ADAB); and to my own

Department of Manpower and Transmigration for granting me permission

to attend this course.

I am most grateful to Dr. S.K. Jain, my supervisor, for his

invaluable advice and comments at every stage of the study. I am

also indebted to the lecturers of the M.A. Demography Program,

Dr. S.K. Jain, Dr. D.W. Lucas, and Dr. P.F. McDonald, for their help

and understanding during the duration of the course. Special thanks

are extended to Dr. D.W. Lucas and Dr. D.T. Rowland for offering

valuable comments and criticisms.

Computing would not have been possible without the advice

and assistance of Miss M. Grimwood, Mr. B. Pearce, Ms. A. Sandilands

and others in the computer center.

I would like to express my gratitude to Mrs. P. Ashman,

secretary, and Miss T. Shcrlaimoff, research assistant, who have

been a real help in many respects. Appreciation is also extended

to (Sr) Borromeo, who assisted with the English; and to Mrs. J.

Gordon for skilfully typing the final version of the thesis.

Finally, sincere gratitude is expressed particularly to my

wife, Dien, for affectionate encouragement and continuing support.

A B S T R A C T

The thesis is a study of internal migration in Indonesia

focussing on out-migration from Java and Bali to the Other Islands.

The analysis is in three main parts:

1) The flow and volume of out-migration from, as well as in-

migration into Java and Bali, based on the 1930, 1961 and

1971 Censuses.

2) The flow and volume of the government-sponsored migrants

(colonists and transmigrants).

3) The characteristics of out-migrants in general based in 1971

Census; the characteristics of people in Java and Bali; and

the characteristics of transmigrants (based on some case

studies).

The following conclusions were reached: First, an examination

of the stream and volume of transmigrants and out-migrants shows that

there is a relationship between those two groups of migrants. Second,

from the demographic point of view out-migration has no significant

effect in reducing the population pressure in Java-Bali, and third,

the characteristics of out-migrants are slightly superior (particularly

in education and occupation) to that of both transmigrants and people

in Java-Bali.

The findings indicate that the government-sponsored migration

stimulates spontaneous and voluntary migrants. Therefore the policy

of transmigration should be emphasized as a stimulator in attracting

other people rather than as a direct means in redistributing population.

Furthermore, policy should aim at tho success rather than the quantity

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ii

A B S T R A C T ... iii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 The movement of population in Indonesia.. 1

1.2 The movement of population in Java and Bali ... 3

1.3 Socio-economic situation in Java and Bali ... 6

1.4 Present study and its importance .. .. 8

1.5 Sources of data ... 10

1.6 Definitions ... 12

1.7 Limitations of the study ... 13

1.8 Organization of the s t u d y ... 14

CHAPTER 2. ESTIMATES OF INTERNAL MIGRATION ... 15

2.1 Internal migration in Indonesia .. .. 15

2.2 Out-migratlon from Java and Bali .. .. 16

2.2.1 Total out-migration... 16

2.2.2 Transmigration ... 24

2.3 In-migration into Java and Bali .. .. 37

CONTENTS ( C o n t i n u e d )

P ag e

CHAPTER 3. CHARACTERISTICS ... 47

3 . 1 A g e - s e x a n d m a r i t a l s t a t u s ... 47

3 . 2 R u r a l a n d u r b a n r e s i d e n c e ... 54

3 . 3 E d u c a t i o n ... 58

3 . 4 O c c u p a t i o n ... 64

3 . 5 F e r t i l i t y ... 73

3 . 6 C a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s ... 75

CHAPTER 4. SOME IMPLICATIONS OF OUT-MIGRATION FROM JAVA-BALI ... 84

4 . 1 S o c i a l a n d d e m o g r a p h i c i m p l i c a t i o n s . . 84

4 . 2 I n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n a n d r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ... 86

CHAPTER 5 . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ... 91

APPENDICES ... 1 0 3 - 1 0 9 a

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1.1 Number of households in the Second National

S u r v e y ... 12

2.1 Life time migration in Indonesia, 1971

2.2 Migrants b o m in Java, Bali and Lombok living

in Other Islands, 1930 ... 17a

2.3 Distribution of Java-bom population in

Outer Provinces, 1961 ... 20

2.4 Migrants b o m in Java and Bali living in

Other Islands, 1971 ... 21

2.5 Java-bom living in Sumatra, Kalimantan,

Sulawesi and Maluku ... 23

2.6 Numbers of sponsored migrants arriving in

settlement areas, 1905-1941 26

2.7 Number of transmigrants moved to Other

Islands, 1951-1970 ... 35

2.8 Outer Island-bom people in the province of

Java, Bali and Lombok, 1930 38

2.9 Outer Island-born people in the Provinces of

Java and Bali, 1971 ... 41

2.10 Distribution of Outer Island-bom people in

the Province of Java, 1930, 1961 and 1971 . . . . 42

2.11 Number of net migrants and net migration rate

from and to Java-Bali for each province, life

LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Table Title Page

2.12 Effectiveness of net m i g r a t i o n ... 45

3.1 Age-sex distribution: recent out-migrants

from Java and Bali, 1971 ... 48

3.2 Age-sex distribution: people in Java and

Bali, 1 9 7 1 ... 49

3.3 Age-sex distribution: recent out-migrants

in and outside Sumatra, 1971 ... 50

3.4 Percentage distribution of recent out-migrants

by marital status, age and sex ... 51

3.5 Percentage distribution of people in Java and

Bali by marital status, age and sex, 1971 .. .. 52

3.6 Percentage distribution of recent out-migrants

in and outside Sumatra by marital status, age

and sex ... 53

3.7 Percentage distribution of all out-migrants by

urban and rural in Other Islands, 1 9 7 1 ... 55

3.8 Percentage distribution of migrants by urban

rural destination and total and recent migrants.. 57

3.9 Percentage distribution of recent out-migrants

by education attainment and sex, 1971 ... 58

3.10 Percentage distribution of people in Java and

Bali by education and sex, 1971 59

3.11 Percentage distribution of recent out-migrants

in and outside Sumatra by education attainment,

LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Table Title Page

3.12 Percentage distribution of recent out-migrants

by education qualification and sex, 1971 .. .. 62

3.13 Percentage distribution of people in Java and

Bali 10 years and over by education

qualification and sex, 1971 64

3.14 Per cent distribution of recent out-migrants by

occupation and sex, 1 9 7 1 ... 65

3.15 Per cent distribution of people in Java and

Bali by occupation and sex, 1 9 7 1 ... 66

3.16 Per cent distribution of recent out-migrants

in and outside Sumatra by occupation and sex,

1 9 7 1 ... 67

3.17 Per cent distribution of recent out-migrants by

type of industry, age and sex, 1971 68

3.18 Percentage distribution of people in Java and

Bali 10 years and over by type of industry and

sex, 1971 70

3.19 Per cent distribution of recent out-migrants in

and outside Sumatra by type of industry and

sex, 1 9 7 1 ... 71

3.20 Percentage distribution of the out-migrants and

people in Java-Bali by employment status, 1971.. 72

3.21 Average number of children born alive of women

in Java-Bali and the Other Islands, by age

LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Table Title Page

3.22 Average number of children b o m alive of

out-migrants by age group, 1971 74

3.23 Percentage distribution of migrants

according to the reasons for change of

r e s i d e n c e ... 77

A.1 Java-Bali b o m migrants live in Outer Islands

by Regency, 1 9 7 1 ... 103

B Java and Bali b o m migrants in Outer Islands

by urban and rural, 1971 108

C.l Labour force participation rate among

out-migrants, 1971 109

C.2 Labour force participation rate of people in

LIST OF MAPS

Map

Page

Map

2.1 Out-migration from Java, Bali and Lombok,

based on birth place data, 1930 ... 17b

2.2 Out-migration from Java, based on birth

place data, 1961 ... 20a

2.3 Out-migration from Java and Bali, based on

birth place data, 1971 ... 21a

2.4 Net migration rate of Java-Bali b o m in the

Other Islands and vice versa ...

A. 2 Java-Bali b o m migrants in Other Islands

by regency, 1971 ... 107a

C H A P T E R

1

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1 The movement of population in Indonesia

The Indonesian Archipelago consists of thousands of islands

spreading from Sabang in Northern Sumatra to Merauke in West Irian.

Therefore it is not surprising that the sea-ways as well as road­

ways have played an important role in Indonesia’s transportation

system for the last few centuries. According to Indonesian

history the movement of people from one place to another or from

one island to another has been a common occurrence.

Some people moved to another place temporarily, but others

left their home and settled down in new places permanently. The

Moluccas, for example, have been a centre of trade for centuries

(N.I.D., 1920:205). Therefore it is possible that people from the

eastern part of Indonesia made contact with the Moluccas a long time

ago and that some of them mingled with the indigenous people of the

islands. Another example is the population movement in North Sumatra

before the twentieth century. Cunningham (1958:84) wrote: "When

planters (Western people) came to the East of Sumatra, in the middle

of the nineteenth century, they found this area primarily peopled by

Karo - and Simelungun - Bataks as well as the coastal Malays."

Unfortunately there has not been any further information about the

The acceptable evidence on the internal migration in Indonesia

has its origin in 1905 when a group of Javanese left for Lampung from

Java. (More detailed explanation will be given in Chapter 2). But

this movement was initiated by the Dutch Colonial Government. The

information on the movement of people on a nation wide scale was

collected for the first time in the Population Census of 1930. Due

to the difficulty of transportation during the Second World War, not

many people migrated voluntarily to other islands. On the contrary,

the population movement was forced and arranged by the Japanese

mainly for defence purposes (Nitisastro, 1964:75). After the gain

of Independence in 1945 and with the improvement in transportation

between the islands the number of in and outmigrants must have

increased. Unfortunately no reliable data on this population

movement were obtained until 1961. The two post independence

population censuses in Indonesia, i.e., the 1961 and 1971 censuses,

collected information on the migrants.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century people have

manifested their interest in studying internal migration in Indonesia.

Some of them paid attention just for their own interest and some

limited their studies to one or two ethnic groups. For example:

Cunningham (1958) was interested in portraying and analysing the

migration of Batak people into East Sumatra before 1950, while

Naim (1975) focussed his attention on the out-movement of the

Miningkabau from their homeland in West Sumatra. Unlike Naim who

used the census data for his study, Cunningham went into the field

Hugo ( 1 9 7 5 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) w r o t e t h a t m i g r a t i o n r e s e a r c h i s b a s i c a l l y

o f t h r e e t y p e s i n I n d o n e s i a . The most i m p o r t a n t m i g r a t i o n r e s e a r c h

i s on t r a n s m i g r a t i o n , i . e . , t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t o f p e o p l e from I n n e r

I n d o n e s i a ( J a v a , B a l i , Lombok) t o o t h e r l e s s d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d

i s l a n d s , c h i e f l y S u m a t r a , K a l i ma nt a n and S u l a w e s i . A s e c o n d m a j o r

theme o f m i g r a t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s been t h e h i g h l y m o bi l e e t h n i c g r o u p s ,

such as t h e Bu g in e se . The t h i r d s t r a n d o f r e s e a r c h h a s b ee n t h a t

c o n c e r n e d w i t h r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n .

R e c e n t l y , due t o t h e s e r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n p r o bl em i n I n d o n e s i a ,

t h e m i g r a t i o n from and i n t o J a v a - B a l i h a s been a t t r a c t i n g t h e

a t t e n t i o n o f t h e I n d o n e s i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . In t h i s s t u d y , however ,

emph asi s w i l l be o n l y on o u t m i g r a t i o n from J a v a and B a l i , b o t h

from t r a n s m i g r a t i o n and v o l u n t a r y m i g r a t i o n v i e w p o i n t s .

1.2 The movement o f p o p u l a t i o n i n J a v a - B a l i

S i m i l a r t o t h e movement o f p o p u l a t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a i n g e n e r a l ,

t h e movement o f p e o p l e i n J a v a - B a l i h a s been o c c u r r i n g f o r t h e l a s t

few c e n t u r i e s ( K e y f i t z and N i t i s a s t r o , 1 9 6 4 : 7 3 ) . B a l i h a s be en

c o n s t a n t l y i n t o u c h w i t h J a v a s i n c e t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s due t o t h e

l o c a t i o n o f t h e two i s l a n d s . The c h i e f waves o f e m i g r a t i o n from

J a v a t o B a l i t o o k p l a c e i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , a f t e r t h e f a l l o f t h e

Hindu kingdom i n C e n t r a l J a v a , and a g a i n i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

a f t e r t h e f a l l o f t h e Hindu kingdom i n E a s t J a v a , ( N . I . D . , 1 9 2 0 : 2 3 9 ) .

K e y f i t z and N i t i s a s t r o ( 1964: 73) s a i d t h a t t h e s p r e a d o f Moslem

r e l i g i o n i n Bant en was f o l l o w e d by m i g r a t i o n o f J a v a n e s e from Demak.

I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e movement o f p e o p l e from Madura I s l a n d t o

However, the data to substantiate this population movement before

the twentieth century are not available.

The main information on internal migration during the earlier

decades of this century is from the census data. Within the island

of Java there was movement of population from the densely populated

regions of Central and East Java to the neighbouring regions with

lower population densities. Besuki was the region that received

many inmigrants, while the regions of outmigration were Kedu and

Yogyakarta in Central Java and Madura, Kediri, and Madiun in East

Java (Nitisastro, 1970:87). During the Second World War many people

moved to the cities or to the regions with better conditions and

security, for example: migration from Yogyakarta to Banyuwangi.

Some of them migrated to the villages as refugees and later returned

to their own places after the Independence.

The other interesting population movement within Java was

migration that occurred in West Java. Unlike the other population

movements, this kind of migration was carried out by the system of

transmigration. In 1951, three new settlement areas were opened

in Banten Residency: Cibogo in Lebak Regency, and Träte and

Pamengkang in Serang Regency (Sjamsu, 1960:80). In the same year,

there were 114 families of 402 people who moved from East Priangan,

e.g. Garut and Cirebon, to these new areas. This movement, then,

was called local transmigration since the places of origin and

destination were in the same Region. In the subsequent years,

there were 154 families or 682 people in 1952, 1010 families or

3,868 people in 1953, and 21 families or 80 people in 1954, re-settled

C o o p e r a t i v e s : u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ) . However, t h e s e m i g r a t i o n p r o j e c t s

f a i l e d t o t a l l y ( S o e d i g d o , 1 9 6 5 : 1 6 8 ) . I t i s known t h a t t h e s e m i g r a n t s

came from E a s t P r i a n g a n , an a r e a t h a t has r e l a t i v e l y f e r t i l e s o i l .

They were moved f o r s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s . T h e r e f o r e , when t h e c o n d i t i o n s

i n t h e i r p r e v i o u s a r e a s became b e t t e r , t h e y l e f t t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t

a r e a s and r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r e v i o u s p l a c e s .

S i n c e 1930 t h e g r ow th o f t h e c i t i e s i n J a v a had be en s l o w e r

compared w i t h t h a t i n t h e O u t e r p a r t o f J a v a . T h i s was c a u s e d by t h e

r a p i d growth o f i n d u s t r i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e O u t e r p a r t o f

J a v a (McNicoll and Mamas, 1 9 7 3 : 3 1 - 3 3 ) . I f t h e r e was a r a p i d growth

i n J a v a , i t was n o t i c e d o n l y a f t e r t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e due t o t h e

economic and s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s ( K e y f i t z and N i t i s a s t r o , 1 9 6 4 : 7 5 ) .

Between 1961 and 1971 t h e o n l y two towns which grew v e r y f a s t were

J a k a r t a and S u r a b a y a ( J o n e s , 1 9 7 5 : 2 ) .

In J a v a , b e s i d e s B e s u k i , t h e R e s i d e n c y o f J a k a r t a r e c e i v e d many

m i g r a n t s d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r d e c a d e s o f t h i s c e n t u r y . Most o f t h e

m i g r a n t s came from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r e g i o n s i n West J a v a : Bogor,

Bandung, and C i r e b o n ( N i t i s a s t r o , 1 9 7 0 : 8 7 ) . The r e a s o n i s t h a t

J a k a r t a h a s been a c e n t r e o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r a l on g t i m e .

From t h e economic p o i n t o f v i e w , McNicoll and Mamas ( 1 9 73 :3 2) s a i d

t h a t t h e gover nment e x p e n d i t u r e was c e n t e r e d i n t h a t R e s i d e n c y .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1971 Cen su s, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 p e r c e n t o f J a k a r t a ’ s

p o p u l a t i o n was l o c a l l y b o r n , t h e r e m a i n i n g 40 p e r c e n t b e i n g b o m

o u t s i d e J a k a r t a . Almost h a l f o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n b o m o u t s i d e J a k a r t a

had b een b o m i n West J a v a , a n o t h e r 31 p e r c e n t i n C e n t r a l J a v a

( i n c l u d i n g Y o g y a k a r t a ) and a much s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n ( l e s s t h a n 7 p e r

c e n t ) i n E a s t J a v a . A f u r t h e r 19 p e r c e n t o f m i g r a n t s t o J a k a r t a

came from a r e a s o f I n d o n e s i a o u t s i d e J a v a ( J o n e s , 1 9 7 5 : 5 ) . R e l a t i v e l y

a few p e o p l e from E a s t J a v a moved t o J a k a r t a b e c a u s e t h e y p r e f e r r e d t o

1.3 Socio-economic situation in Java and Bali

In Java, there is rich volcanic soil which makes possible an

intensive cultivation of rice and other crops. The most fertile

soils are found around young volcanoes: on the slopes, at the bases,

and in the basins of the rivers that receive water and mud from these

volcanoes. With an even warm temperature and a relatively plentiful

rainfall aided by a complex system of irrigation, it is possible to

grow rice and crops throughout the year. Bali on the other hand is

located between Lombok Strait and Bali Strait, extending from

longitudes 114°241 to 115°42' east and lying between the latitudes

8°04’ and 8°50' south. It is because of the two volcanoes, Mount

Agung and Mount Batur, that the soil in Bali is very fertile.

The rivers that contain mineral properties from the active volcanic mountains in Java and Bali make their soil fertile.

McNicoll and Mamas (1973:26) cited a statement given by the Asian Development Bank that a high proportion of land area in Java and Bali can support wet rice cultivation, and an extensive irrigation system

permits 25 per cent of rice land to be double-cropped. Unfortunately,

only a few parts in the other islands have any such benefits. The

main occupation of the people in those two islands is agriculture, particularly in rice cultivation, for rice forms their staple food. The life of the inhabitants who live near the north coast of Java

depends mostly upon fishing.

Land has a high value in Java and Bali. In connection with the

role of land in Java, Pelzer (1948:165) wrote: "Since Indonesian

e s p e c i a l l y o f sawah (wet r i c e - f i e l d ) , i s o f t h e g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e ;

w i t h o u t l a n d t h e J a v a n e s e v i l l a g e r h a s no s o c i a l s t a n d i n g " . T h i s

e m p h as is i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e J a v a n e s e d e s a

( a d m i n i s t r a t i v e v i l l a g e ) , which i n c l u d e s a number o f c l a s s e s b a s e d

on l a n d o w n e r s h i p . T h e i r way o f l i f e depends more o r l e s s on n a t u r e ,

i . e . , r a i n , s o i l e t c . S i n c e t h e y can do l i t t l e a b o u t n a t u r e , t h e y

h a v e a s t a t i c r a t h e r t h a n dynamic way o f t h i n k i n g ( S o e d i g d o , 1 9 6 5 : 5 5 ) .

In 1817 R a f f l e s (19 65: 163 ) w r o t e : " I n a c o u n t r y l i k e J a v a ,

where t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y i s s i m p l e , and t h e wants o f t h e p e o p l e

a r e few, where t h e r e i s no a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l and l i t t l e d i v i s i o n

o f p r o f e s s i o n s , i t can n o t be e x p e c t e d , t h a t m a n u f a c t u r i n g s k i l l s h o u l d

be a c q u i r e d , t h a t m a n u f a c t u r i n g e n t e r p r i s e be e n c o u r a g e d , t o any

g r e a t e x t e n t " . The s i t u a t i o n h a s changed s i n c e . R e c e n t l y t h e o t h e r

o c c u p a t i o n a l s e c t o r s , such as m i n i n g , commerce and i n d u s t r i e s , have

b ee n i m p r o v i n g . In 1 9 6 0 ’s Hawkins ( 1962: 76 ) s a i d t h a t a l t h o u g h J a v a

r e m a i n s p r i m a r i l y an a g r i c u l t u r a l economy, a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f

c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e , and t h e r e a r e some b e g i n n i n g s o f

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .

The o t h e r i s l a n d s o f I n d o n e s i a a r e o v e r t h i r t e e n t i m e s l a r g e r

t h a n J a v a and B a l i i n a r e a , b u t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f J a v a and B a l i i n 1971

was a l m o s t t w i c e as l a r g e as t h a t o f t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s . The p o p u l a t i o n

d e n s i t i e s o f J a v a and B a l i i n 1971 wer e 563 and 377 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e

k i l o m e t e r r e s p e c t i v e l y , which were v e r y h i g h as compared w i t h t h e

p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s , such as Sumat ra and K al i mant an which

h a d a d e n s i t y o f 38 and 9 p e r s o n s . O b v i o u s l y , t h i s f a c t becomes a

p r o b l e m and i n d i r e c t l y i t h a s an e f f e c t on b o t h s o c i a l and economic

increase in job opportunities, the number of unemployed will rise.

Similarly, due to the surplus in the number of labour force, the

level of wages has a tendency to decrease. Hawkins (1962:75) said:

"The large rural overpopulation, especially in Java, Madura, and Bali,

therefore, contributes to the low wage structure of the country".

For example, the daily wages paid in 1971/72 on public works projects

in provincial Central Java, the Special Region of Yogyakarta and Bali,

were the lowest among the wages in the other provinces (Arndt, 1972:

89-90).

In the social aspect it is worth noting that the Javanese

character that still exists very strongly, particularly in rural areas,

is "gotong-royong" (cooperative-work). For example, if a member of a

society builds a house or holds a traditional ceremony, usually his

relatives or his neighbours will give some help voluntarily.

Similarly, in Bali, such a system still exists in the society.

Daroesman (1973:29) described Bali as the land of "gotong-royong".

They carry on "gotong-royong" in almost every level of work. Even

if they live far from their birth-place, e.g. Sumatra, this character

is still continued (Soedigdo, 1965:56).

1.4 Frcsent- study and its importance

As mentioned earlier, population distribution within Indonesia

is such that the islands of Java and Bali are overpopulated and the

so-cnlled Outer Islands arc underpopulated. If the disparity in the

population density and the level of economy between the Islands is

too high, it can cause a lot of problems. A popular conception of

land/man and resources/man ratio to decline, with the consequence

that the per capita output of the land drops; "welfare" declines

accordingly (Swasono, 1969:7). Similarly, Wertheim (1958-59:184)

wrote: "Symptoms of overpopulation are to be found not only in the

low average level of living, but also in the social system itself,

rightly described by Clifford Geertz as one of shared poverty".

Many attempts and policies have been tried to solve the problem

of overpopulation in Java and Bali. From the demographic view point,

outmigration has been carried out officially since the beginning of

this century, followed by the family planning program that has been

pushed hard during the last decade. In this study, however, emphasis

will be put only on the first policy. Besides the outmigration that

was encouraged by the Government and known as "transmigration",

discussion will also include the other type of migration that was

arranged and financed by the migrants themselves, i.e. the "voluntary

migration".

People believed that from the demographic point of view the

migration to the other islands had only small effect in solving

population pressure in Java and Bali. (Further clarification is

given in Chapter 2). The function of transmigration, should not

only be considered from the demographic view point, but also in

relation to the economic matters (Iskandar, 1970:57). Therefore,

transmigration can be described as the population redistribution and

the movement of labour force to other islands. Migrants, usually

less productive in their places of origin, provide the labour force

in the new settlement areas. Gunadi (1970:65) classified them as

surplus labour, and mentioned that without them the production in

Most migrants to other islands lived in rural areas (World

Population Year, 1974:45). In the new areas, only a few of them

received irrigated lands. In their previous lands, in Java and

Bali, they cultivated the prepared soil they inherited from their

ancestors. But in the new settlement areas, they had to work hard

to prepare their soil before they could cultivate paddy or other

crops. Besides working hard, they sometimes had to face a lot of

new problems, e.g., the adapting to norms and values to the local

people. These are the reasons why until today the results of the

transmigration program continue to be favorably and unfavorably

evaluated. After a few years in the new places, some of the migrants

found a better living than they had in their places of origin.

Swasono (1969:118) wrote that the living standard of settlers, who

usually came from the most depressed areas, had improved, and was

higher than the average level of subsistence of people in Java.

In contrast, many of them are still in economic difficulties despite

the fact that they have lived-in the new areas for many years. It

is because of such findings that it has been argued that the

implementation of the transmigration program is not more than the

movement of poverty from one place to another (Brotokusumo, 1970:207).

From the above illustration, one conclusion can be drawn: the

system of the implementation of transmigration should be checked.

This study, therefore, is designed to study the outmigration from

Java and Bali from both demographic and economic view points.

1.5 Sources of data

Data resources in this study can be classified into three basic

types: Censuses, the National Sample Surveys and the transmigration

1 . 5 . 1 Censuses

The m a j o r d a t a u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e t h e 1930, 1961 and t h e

1971 C e n s u s e s . As i n t h e 1930 and 1961 P o p u l a t i o n C e n s u s e s , t h e

1971 Census a l s o employed t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f de j u r e and de f a c t o

methods o f e n u m e r a t i o n . The de j u r e method was u s e d f o r e n u m e r a t i o n

e x c e p t f o r p e r s o n s w i t h o u t a p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e , such as h om e l e s s

p e r s o n s , crews o f I n d o n e s i a n s h i p s s a i l i n g i n I n d o n e s i a n w a t e r s , and

m o b i l e o r f l o a t i n g h o u s e s ( S u h a r t o , 1 9 7 6 : 7 8 ) . In t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s

t h e de f a c t o method was u s e d . The 1930 Ce ns u s, c o n d u c t e d by t h e

Dutch Government, a s k e d some q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n t e r n a l

m i g r a t i o n , i . e . , p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e , p l a c e o f b i r t h and t h e e t h n i c

o r i g i n . T h e r e f o r e t h i s d a t a can g i v e some i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e

d i r e c t i o n and m a g n i t u d e o f i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n . The 1961 Census

gave l e s s i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n . Among t h e t h r e e

C e n s u s e s , t h e 1971 Census gave t h e most i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t e r n a l

m i g r a t i o n b e c a u s e more d e t a i l e d q u e s t i o n s were a s k e d . These w e r e:

p l a c e o f b i r t h , w h e t h e r t h e r e s p o n d e n t e v e r l i v e d i n a n o t h e r p r o v i n c e ,

p r o v i n c e o f p r e v i o u s r e s i d e n c e , and t o t a l y e a r s l i v e d i n p r e s e n t

p r o v i n c e . Alt ho ugh t h r e e Cens us es w i l l be u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y ,

e mp has is w i l l be p u t on a n a l y s i n g t h e 1971 Census d a t a .

1 . 5 . 2 . T h e N a t i o n a l S u rv ey

The Second N a t i o n a l S o c i o - e c o n o m i c Sur vey h e l d d u r i n g November

1964 t o F e b r u a r y 1965 c o v e r e d a l l I n d o n e s i a e x c e p t E a s t N u s a t e n g g a r a ,

Maluku, West I r i a n and J a k a r t a Raya. T h i s s u r v e y c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n

from s e l e c t e d h o u s e h o l d s t h r o u g h o u t I n d o n e s i a ( s e e T a b l e 1 . 1 ) . I t

was r ema rk ed t h a t t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e d a t a on m i g r a t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a a r e

a g e , s e x , p r e v i o u s p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e , and m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f m i g r a n t s ,

t h e s u r v e y a l s o c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e

movement. A c co r di ng t o t h i s s u r v e y , m i g r a n t s were d e f i n e d as t h o s e

who had r e s i d e d i n t h e same v i l l a g e , c i t y o r m u n i c i p a l i t y f o r l e s s

t h a n f i v e y e a r s and had come t h e r e from some o t h e r p l a c e ( I n d o n e s i a

B . P . S . , 1968 : VI11) .

TABLE 1.1 NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE SECOND NATIONAL

SURVEY

Number o f h o u s e h o l d s Area

Urban Rur al T o t a l

I n d o n e s i a 4 , 019 17, 286 21, 305

J av a- Ma du r a 2, 575 12, 197 14,772

O t h e r I s l a n d s 1, 444 5, 08 9 6, 53 5

S o u r c e : C e n t r a l Bu re au o f S t a t i s t i c s , t h e Second S o c i o - e c o n o m i c S u r v e y , 1 964- 65, p. IV.

1 . 5 . 3 T r a n s m i g r a t i o n f i g u r e s

Thes e f i g u r e s show t h e a c t u a l number o f p e o p l e who were moved

t o t h e new s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s , by p r o v i n c e o f o r i g i n . The t a b l e s a r e

a v a i l a b l e f o r each y e a r from 1905 t o 1975 which c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n

r e g a r d i n g t h e a n nu a l numbers o f h o u s e h o l d s and m i g r a n t s by p r o v i n c e s

o f o r i g i n and d e s t i n a t i o n .

1. 6 D e f i n i t i o n s

I n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n

Th er e i s no u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e d e f i n i t i o n o f i n t e r n a l

( 1 95 8 : 4 6 ) i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n i s d e f i n e d as m i g r a t i o n w i t h i n a g i v e n

s t a t e , which c o n s i s t s o f movement bet wee n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h a t

s t a t e .

L i f e - t i m e i n - m i g r a t i o n : t h e number o f p e r s o n s e nu m e r a t e d i n a g i v e n

a r e a a t a p a r t i c u l a r c e n s u s , who were b or n o u t s i d e t h e a r e a o f

e n u m e r a t i o n b u t w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s ( Z a c h a r i a h , 1 9 6 4 : 8 ) .

L i f e - t i m e o u t - m i g r a t i o n : t h e number o f p e r s o n s b o m i n a g i v e n a r e a

and e nu m e r a t e d o u t s i d e t h e a r e a b u t w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s i n

a g i v e n c e n s u s ( Z a c h a r i a h , 1 9 6 4 : 8 ) .

T r a n s m i g r a t i o n : t h e movement o f p e o p l e from t h e d e n s e l y - p o p u l a t e d

i s l a n d s o f J a v a , B a l i and ( s i n c e 1973) Lombok t o new a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s

op ened by t h e gover nment i n o t h e r a r e a s o f I n d o n e s i a ( J o n e s , 0 : 1 ,

no d a t e ) .

1 . 7 L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y

As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r t h e emphasi s i n t h i s s t u d y i s on o u t m i g r a t i o n

from J a v a - B a l i t o t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s . Mor eover , t h e a n a l y s e s a r e m a i n l y

b a s e d on p l a c e o f b i r t h ( l i f e t i m e m i g r a t i o n d a t a ) . The r e a s o n s a r e :

(1) t o f i n d a b e t t e r r e s u l t by co mpar ing t h e c e n s u s d a t a w i t h t h e

t r a n s m i g r a t i o n d a t a , s i n c e t h e t r a n s m i g r a t i o n d a t a c o n s i s t o f t h e

number o f t r a n s m i g r a n t s who wer e m o s t l y b o m i n J a v a - B a l i ; (2) u n l i k e

t h e 1971 c e n s u s , t h e 1930 c e n s u s r e c o r d e d m i g r a n t s b a s e d o n l y on t h e i r

p l a c e s o f b i r t h . T h i s s e c o n d p o i n t can be s e e n from a s t a t e m e n t w r i t t e n

in V o l k s t c l l i n g 1930 ( 19 36 - VTTT: 4 6) : "However, in o r d e r t o g e t some

i d e a o f t h e e x t e n t o f t h i s movement o f t h e p e o p l e , a l l n a t i v e s were

s p e c i a l l y n o t e d who a t t h e t i m e o f t h e ce ns u s were found o u t s i d e t h e

D i s t r i c t i n which t h e y were b o r n o r , i n t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s , o u t s i d e

F o l l o w i n g t h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r t h e s t r e a m s and e s t i m a t e s

o f m i g r a n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2. A n a l y s e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f o u t m i g r a n t s a r e u n d e r t a k e n i n C h a p t e r 3. The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h a t

c h a p t e r examines t h e a g e - s e x and m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f o u t m i g r a n t s . T hi s

i s f o l l o w e d by t h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s d i s c u s s i n g r u r a l and u r b an

r e s i d e n c e s , e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , f e r t i l i t y , and c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s .

C h a p t e r 4 d e a l s w i t h some i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o u t m i g r a t i o n from J a v a and

B a l i . T h i s C h a p t e r p r e s e n t s two s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s : s o c i a l and

d emogra phic i m p l i c a t i o n s ; and o u t m i g r a t i o n and r e g i o n a l d e v el o p me nt .

C H A P T E R 2

ESTIMATES OF INTERNAL MIGRATION

T h i s c h a p t e r i s an a t t e m p t t o f i n d t h e n e t l i f e t i m e m i g r a t i o n

among t h e m a j o r i s l a n d s w i t h i n I n d o n e s i a b a s e d on t h e 1971 C e ns u s,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e n e t m i g r a t i o n b e t we e n J a v a and Sumat ra i s l a n d s .

S e c o n d l y , t h e c h a p t e r a n a l y s e s t h e s t r e a m s o f o u t - m i g r a t i o n from J a v a -

B a l i t o t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s and i t s t r e n d from p e r i o d t o p e r i o d . F i n a l l y ,

t h e c h a p t e r a l s o a n a l y s e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e number o f o f f i c i a l

t r a n s m i g r a n t s t o t h a t o f o u t - m i g r a n t s b a s e d on t h e c e n s u s by compar ing

t h o s e two gr ou ps o f m i g r a n t s i n a g i v e n p e r i o d .

2.1 I n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a

I n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n b r i n g s p e o p l e t o a community from o t h e r p l a c e s

( i n - m i g r a t i o n ) and a l s o t a k e s them away from a community t o l i v e i n

o t h e r p l a c e s ( o u t - m i g r a t i o n ) . T a b l e 2. 1 shows t h e s i t u a t i o n o f l i f e ­

t i m e m i g r a t i o n i n I n d o n e s i a i n 1971 by i s l a n d . I n t h i s T a b l e , I n d o n e s i a

i s d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t g r o u p s o f i s l a n d s . Also N u s a t e n g g a r a c o v e r s b o t h

E a s t and West N u s a t e n g g a r a p r o v i n c e s . I t can be s e e n t h a t a bo u t

2 , 7 9 8 , 6 0 0 p e o p l e were e n u m e r a t e d o u t s i d e t h e i s l a n d o f t h e i r b i r t h .

T h i s f i g u r e i s 2 . 3 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f I n d o n e s i a . The

i s l a n d s t h a t r e c e i v e d many i n - m i g r a n t s were S u m a t r a , J a v a and K a l i m a n t a n ,

w h i l e i s l a n d s t h a t l o s t a b i g number o f o u t - m i g r a n t s were J a v a , Sumat ra

and S u l a w e s i .

The e f f e c t o f i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n can be s e en more c l e a r l y i n n e t

m i g r a t i o n , which i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b et wee n t h e i n - m i g r a t i o n and o u t ­

m i g r a t i o n (Bogue, 1 9 5 9 : 3 8 7 ) . By s u b t r a c t i n g t h e number o f i n - m i g r a n t s

i n column 10 ( T a b l e 2 . 1 ) from t h e number o f o u t - m i g r a n t s from e a c h

T A B L E 2 . 1 - L I F E T I M E M I GRA TI ON I N I N D O N E S I A , 1 9 7 1 CJ) X)

s

(1)

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found. For example, the island of Sumatra had a gain of 1,865,800

people, who were b o m in other islands and had a loss of 368,700 people

who lived in other islands. Therefore Sumatra had a net gain of

1,497,100 persons, that represented a gain through migration of 7.2 per

cent of the total population enumerated in this island. Next to

Sumatra, Irian Jaya had a net gain of 25,700 migrants (17.1 per cent of

the total population in Irian Jaya), Kalimantan: 22,400 persons (0.5 per

cent), Maluku: 5,600 persons (0.5 per cent) and Nusatenggara: 4,500

(0.1 per cent).

Islands that had a net loss of migrants were Java: 1,349,700

persons (1.8 per cent of the total population enumerated in Java),

Sulawesi: 171,200 persons (2.0 per cent) and Bali: 34,400 persons (1.6

per cent).

From these figures, it can be seen that the big stream of internal

migration in Indonesia has been the movement of people from Java to

Sumatra. Among those who migrated to Sumatra most of them lived in the

provinces of Lampung, North Sumatra and South Sumatra. Secondly, there

were about 258,700 Sulawesi born people mostly from South Sulawesi, who

lived in other islands.

2.2 Out-migration from Java and Bali

2.2.1 Total' out-migration

The Dutch colonial Census in 1930 showed that over 800,000

persons born in Java, Bali and Lombok were living outside these islands

at the time of census. This number represented 1.9 per cent of the

total population of Java, Bali and Lombok in 1930 (Volkstelling 1930,

1936:95). Among those living in Outer Islands, 736,456 were in Sumatra,

52,729 in Kalimantan, 11,801 in Sulawesi, and 11,123 in other islands

TABLE 2 . 2 -MIGRA NT S B O R N I N J A V A , B A L I AND L O M B O K L I V I N G I N OTHER I S L A N D S , 1 9 3 0

lO O l v O H H N O O t O N M v O 0 3 O 0 3 r H r H O TO 03 03

LO N M C O t O ^ - O l O v O O v O CM TO" 00 o 0 0 CM 00 NO O

r H TO" o o o N O O f ^ - o a o o o o u o o o r - oo oo 0 0 lO i—1 TO LO i—1

TO •N # \ r \ r \ r \ r x r \ # s # \ r \ r \ r, r r r r r\ r\ *>

P lO C M C M N O - T O - C M C M O O N O Oi lO CM 0 0 NO r H lO LO NO CM

O no L O r H T t N O r H r H L O C M O O LO TO" r H r H

E—1 r - TO" 00

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> lO ( N O O t O N v O N C n r t T O ' r H no LO CM NO o r H r H

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received almost 450,000 migrants (more than 30 per cent of the

population) from Java, Bali and Lombok. The main reasons of the

migration flow to East Sumatra were the expansion of the state

agriculture in the Government of Sumatra's East Coast and the gradual

reduction .in the number of Chinese estate coolies (Volkstelling 1930-

VIII, 1936:46). The areas of out-migration to the East Coast of

Sumatra were residencies of Kedu and Banyumas in Central Java, the

Government of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, and Kediri and Madiun in East

Java.

The immigration into Lampung is also of significance; over a

quarter of the people enumerated there were born in Java. Many of them

migrated voluntarily to Lampung owing to the close location between

Sumatra and Java islands, but some of them were sponsored migrants.

People regarded the sponsored migrants as "colonists". Java born

inhabitants of Lampung came mostly from Banten in West Java and Kedu

in Central Java. In other parts of Sumatra, such as Palembang, the

West Coast, and Aceh, the places of birth of migrants were distributed

more evenly among residencies in Java. Besides Sumatra, the other Outer

Island residency that received many migrants from Java, Bali and Lombok

was South/East Kalimantan. Among more than 40,000 migrants from Java,

Bali and Lombok living in this region, two-thirds came from East Java,

especially from Surabaya and Kediri. Figure 2.1 shows the flow of

migration from Java, Bali and Lombok to the other islands in 1930.

The 1961 Census gives only little information on the inter-

provincial migratory movements in Indonesia. Data available in this

Census have been compiled and interpreted by McNicoll (1968). His

paper is significant as it uses statistics on place of birth from the

1 9 7 6 : 5 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o McNicoll ( 1 9 6 8 : 5 3 ) , o f t h e J a v a - b o m l i v i n g

i n r u r a l a r e a s o f t h e O u t e r I s l a n d s i n 1961, 9 2 . 8 p e r c e n t l i v e d i n

S u m a t r a , 4 . 4 p e r c e n t i n K a l i m a n t a n , 1 . 6 p e r c e n t i n S u l a w e s i , and

1 . 2 p e r c e n t i n N u s a t e n g g a r a and Maluku. Most o f t h o s e who were i n

S u ma t ra l i v e d i n Lampung ( 4 6 . 8 p e r c e n t ) , N o r t h S umat ra ( 2 7 . 9 p e r c e n t ,

and So ut h Su mat ra ( 1 5 . 3 p e r c e n t ) . The p l a c e o f o r i g i n o f t h e s e m i g r a n t s

r e v e a l e d t h a t 6 7 2, 0 0 0 came from C e n t r a l J a v a , 290 ,000 from E a s t J a v a ,

2 30 , 00 0 from West J a v a i n c l u d i n g J a k a r t a , and 57 , 00 0 from t h e S p e c i a l

Regi on o f Y o g y a k a r t a . B e s i d e s t h e m i g r a t i o n t o t h e r u r a l a r e a s i n O u t e r

I s l a n d s , McNicoll a l s o e s t i m a t e d t h e m i g r a t i o n t o b o t h r u r a l and u r b an

a r e a s . These a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 3 and F i g u r e 2 . 2 .

U n l i k e t h e above two C e n s u s e s , t h e 1971 Census p r o d u c e d a more d e ­

t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l m i g r a t i o n movements. In a d d i t i o n , t h e

1971 Census c o n t a i n e d t h r e e q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o m i g r a t i o n : p r o v i n c e o f

b i r t h , p r o v i n c e o f l a s t r e s i d e n c e and d u r a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e i n t h e c u r r e n t

p r o v i n c e . T a b l e 2 . 4 shows t h e number o f m i g r a n t s from t h e p r o v i n c e o f

o r i g i n - J a v a and B a l i - t o t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s ( Appendice s A . l and A . 2 show

t h e J a v a - B a l i - b o m m i g r a n t s l i v i n g i n t h e O t h e r I s l a n d s by r e g e n c y ) .

U n l i k e t h a t o f T a b l e 2 . 1 , t h i s T a b l e does n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t e i t h e r t h e

J a v a - b o m p e o p l e who l i v e d i n B a l i o r t h e B a l i - b o m p e o p l e who l i v e d i n

J a v a . By 1971, t h e number o f p e o p l e from J a v a and B a l i l i v i n g o u t s i d e

t h o s e i s l a n d s had r i s e n t o a l m o s t two m i l l i o n o r a b o u t 2 . 4 p e r c e n t o f

t h e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e s . Among t h o s e l i v i n g o u t s i d e J a v a

and B a l i i n 1971, 8 9 . 7 p e r c e n t l i v e d i n S u ma t ra and 4 . 6 p e r c e n t i n

K a l i m a n t a n . C e n t r a l J a v a d o m i n a t e d as a p r o v i n c e o f o r i g i n o f m i g r a n t s

( 4 7 . 2 p e r c e n t ) , f o l l o w e d by E a s t J a v a ( 2 5 . 9 p e r c e n t ) , West J a v a ( 1 6 . 4

p e r c e n t ) , Y o g y a k a r t a ( 6 . 4 p e r c e n t ) , J a k a r t a ( 2 . 1 p e r c e n t ) , and B a l i

( 2 . 0 p e r c e n t ) . F i g u r e 2 . 3 shows t h e o u t - m i g r a t i o n f low t o t h e O t h e r

I s l a n d s . I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e t h r e e m a j o r o u t - m i g r a n t movements were t o

t h e p r o v i n c e s o f No rt h S u m a t r a , Sout h Sumat ra and Lampung. The Census

a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t of. t h e t o t a l o u t - m i g r a n t s , a l m o s t h a l f o f them moved

TABLE 2.3 - DISTRIBUTION OF JAVA-BORN POPULATION IN

OTHER PROVINCES, 1961

Province Number Percentage

Sumatra 1,528,200 92.8

Aceh 31,300 1.9

North Sumatra 421,400 25.6

West Sumatra 9,900 0.6

Riau 51,600 3.1

Jambi 53,600 3.3

South Sumatra

(including Lampung and Bengkulu provinces)

960,400 58. 3

Kalimantan 76,300 4.6

West Kalimantan 33,100 2.0

Central Kalimantan 4,200 0.2

South Kalimantan 15,800 1.0

East Kalimantan 23,200 1.4

Sulawesi 25,600 1.6

North and Central Sulawesi 9,300 0.6

South and South East

Sulawesi 16,300 1.0

Bali 8,700 0.5

West Nusatenggara 2,500 0.1

East Nusatenggara 1,100 0.1

Maluku 4,700 0.3

West Irian

-Total 1,647,100 100.0

F IG U R E 2 .2 -O U T M IG R A T IO N F R O M J A V A , B A S E D O N BI R TH P L A C E DATA,1961

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