The Australian National University Institute of the Arts
Canberra School of Art
GRADUATE DIPLOMA OF ART 1997
Ljmdall Kennedy
Report 66%
Abstract
This project researches the hierarchical relationships surrounding an object of furniture, with particular reference to ornament and structure. The Sub-Thesis is a comparative study of the design careers of Eileen Gray and Charlotte Perriand and the recording of their design work within a
Acknowledgements
T would like to acknowledge the support from and accordingly thank the following people:
Vivien Munday for convincing me I could ride a bike
George Ingham for showing me how to ride a bike and for
throwing u p obstacles to run into
Mary Roberts for showing me alternatives to riding (and also for
riding Pinky)
Kirsten Farrell for convincing me that it's OK to run into
C o n t e n t s
Statement of Aims
It's Lovely and Ornamental, Dear, but i f s Hardly Practical 2
Hierarchies Re-Ordered
(i) Hang (ii) Screen
Hierarchies Abandoned
(i) Love Platform 1 (ii) Love Platform 11 (iii)Lot;e Platform HI
Annexure - Research Proposal 1 3
Curriculum Vitae 20
Statement of Aims
To produce objects of furniture which:
1) explore the hierachical relationship between
—ornament and structure
—utilitarian and aesthetic function
—the object and the user or viewer
—the object's maker and the viewer of the object
—exotic and banal materials
2) extend my technical expertise in areas such as advanced
laminating and veneering techniques and the investigation of
" Its Lovely and Ornamental, Dear, but it's Hardly Practical" My proposed programme of study stemmed from an off-the-cuff comment - "It's lovely and ornamental dear, but it's hardly practical." Such was the unsolicited (aren't they always) opinion of the president of the organisation staging the exhibition in which my furniture was exhibited.
The object to which the remark was directed does have a strong decorative presence. That and other examples of my work closely reflected my interest in Art Deco furniture and design, particularly that of Emile Jacques Ruhlmann, Pierre Chareau, Jean-Michel Frank and Eileen Gray. My interest in French Art Deco design led me to read Le Corbusier's The Decorative Art of Today.' This famous Modernist text crystallised for me many of the issues I wanted to address in my post-graduate year of study.
Numerous hierarchical relationships underpin the rhetoric in The Decorative Art of Today, the major one being the dominance of function over decoration. Also implicit in Le Corbusier's writing is the negative association between decoration and the feminine. It is these two relationships which were so succinctly encapsulated in the remark, "it's lovely and ornamental dear, but it's hardly practical," and which occupy the major part of the framework of my proposed programme.
My reading of Le Corbusier was also influential in determining my sub-thesis research component. A comparative study of the careers of Le Corbusier's collaborative partner, Charlotte Perriand, and her contemporary, Eileen Gray, provides an interesting forum for investigating the relationship of the decorative and the feminine.
Both women were at the forefront of early Modernist furniture design. Their decorative arts backgrounds and their use of decoration in their Modernist designs placed them at odds with the anti-decorative philosophy of Modernist design. My sub-thesis looks at various ways Modernist design historiography under-recorded the design
Hierarchies Re-Ordered
For we may certainly believe in a hierarchy, and not put a piece of poker-work on the same level as the Sistine Chapel ( nor glass beads, embroidery, or ornamental woodwork).
Le Corbusier^
(i) Hang
A concerted attempt to re-order the relationship between ornament and structure resulted in the first work of my programme. "Hang" is a tall object of furniture, made from Tasmanian blackwood, Queensland walnut and gold leaf. It could function in a traditional utilitarian sense as a table. Conceptually, "Hang" consists of two elements: the
ornament and the structural platform which supports the ornament. An early title initially considered for the work was "Pendicler", meaning a holder of a pendicle, or hanging ornament. The rather awkward word encapsulated the piece: the pendicle was a partially laminated hoop just suspended above the floor by the horizontal surface it penetrated. Together with the semi-cylindrical upright, the horizontal surface constituted the holder. "Pendant" was another option for a title; the gold leaf applied to one face of the hoop obviously connotative of jewellery..
"Hang" represents a challenge to the hierarchical dominance of structure over ornament. 1 sought to exact that challenge by giving the hoop visual pre-eminence, firstly via the application of gold leaf to the inside of the hoop; secondly by allowing the hoop to penetrate the horizontal surface at the vortex of its sunburst pattern. Finally this
issue is addressed by framing the hoop with the structure of the object itself; with all the neutrality afforded the 'frame' as an aesthetic element. The impression I wanted to create was that the table components (flat horizontal surface and supporting upright) existed primarily to support the ornament (hoop). To strengthen this impression I compromised the potential table-top function of the horizontal surface by making the hoop protrude through it.
Another hierarchical relationship I wanted to investigate in "Hang" was that of maker of the object to that of user of the object; and both of these roles to the furniture itself. One area of investigation was ambiguity of utilitarian function. I have found that most people, on viewing "Hang" ask what it is or what it is to be used for. A number of people assumed it was a lectern. A prominent member of the ACT Woodcraft Guild suggested I enclose the base of the half cylinder and lie the object on its side so that it could then be useful in holding beer and ice. By pursuing this ambiguity I wanted to encourage interaction with the object on the part of its viewers, by allowing them to speculate upon what it is.
(ii) Screen
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movement implied by the pointed ellipse of the maze and so grounds the object.
The relationship of the dot to the maze represents a delineation between what I refer to as structural and applied ornament. Structural ornament is a term I use to describe ornamental components which, due to their essentiality to the structure of the object, have the character of structure. Without the maze the screen would be an entirely
different object; and I propose that without the maze the object would no longer be able to be called a 'screen'. Herein lies the basis for the term 'structural ornament': ornament which has the character of structure and which is essential to the aesthetic and functional nature of the object.
In contrast, the inlaid circle is something that is added to or applied to the structure and conforms to the more traditional notion of
'ornament'. The nature of the object would not change dramatically if the inlay were not there. As in the hoop in "Hang", the essentiality of structural ornament to the object is a key factor in the issue of
hierarchies inherent in traditional notions of furniture design, which I am exploring through these objects.
Furniture and objects of French Art Nouveau provided useful reference points in my investigation of structural ornament and the pursuit of a visual dialogue between this kind of ornament, applied ornament, and other elements in my objects. The work of leading exponents of French Art Nouveau such as Emile Galle, Hector
designers are viewed as competitors in a visual and technical
hierarchy, then it is the organic ornament which triumphs.
The utilitarian function of "Screen" is not obvious. Whilst I identify
the object as a screen, the ambiguity surrounding its actual use is
deliberate. It is left to the viewer to interpret the sculptural elements of
the object. The three panels are freestanding and mobile. The user is
able to and encouraged to move the panels in order to explore the
spatial relationships between the panels and the interior spaces this
movement creates.
Whilst the solid components of "Screen" may seem visually simple,
the technical hurdles encountered in their production were significant.
The forms consist of an MDF (Medium Density Fibreboard) substrate
with Sapele Mahogany skin. The edging is of Queensland Walnut.
The flared bases of the substrate were initially built up with MDF and
shaped. However due to a defect in the MDF (man-made boards are
not always flat) a series of kerfs and veneer wedges were inserted in
one side of the form to correct the cupping. The inside face of the
cut-out section of the substrate was lipped and then the cut-outside skin
veneer applied using vacuum technology. The substrates and panels of
veneer were placed upright in a large custom-made plastic bag. The bag
was sealed both ends and attached to a vacuum bag. By creating a
vacuum in the bag, the thick plastic applied significant uniform
pressure to the object and the veneer moulded itself to the substrate.
Thus the veneer was applied to both the flat and curved sections of the
form. The vacuum pressure had to be maintained for at least eight
hours while the epoxy resin adhesive cured. When the adhesive had
dried, the surfaces were cleaned up and the lipping applied to the
The mazes consist of laminated curved sections mitred at each end and
joined with solid spacers of Queensland Walnut. The mitres are
supported by hand-cut splines. Once the spacers had been glued into
place, gaps were cut into the curved components to form the mazes.
Each maze is supported in the upright form by mahogany dowels.
The influence of Art Deco upon my work is apparent in the use of
highly figured "decorative" veneered surfaces. The Sapele Mahogany
has a beautiful water mark figure that is accentuated by a high polish
treatment. The finish is the same as the one I used for "Hang". It
consists of a mixture of commercial buffing oil and polyurethane. The
success of the technique is dependent upon numerous applications of
the mixture combined with vigorous hand-buffing. Although
labour-intensive, this techniques achieves a deep lustre without the wood
appearing to be coated in plastic. The timber retains its quality as
Hierarchies Abandoned
"Like music, a work acquires its value only through the love it manifests"
Eileen Gray
The completion of "Screen" marked a hiatus in my studio practice. In addition to the physical and mental demands of constructing the three individual panels , I had run into a conceptual brick wall. My agenda of subverting the relationship between ornament and structure changed its focus. I decided to adopt a less adversarial position in regard to the hierarchical relationship of ornament and structure and concentrate on other interactive possibilities. I still wanted to maintain a visual debate between decorative and structural elements in my objects, but in a less overt and therefore less contrived way.
A desire to extend the role of the user (or users) in realising the potentials of my furniture led to a group of objects named Love
All three objects pursue the ambiguity of utilitarian purpose explored in my earlier pieces. Indeed, here I was concerned with achieving an even greater abstraction in the form of these pieces. The use of non-traditional forms of decoration is a feature of the platforms. Banal and unconventional materials are re-contextualised by using traditional decorative technology.
(i) Love Platform I
The cylindrical enclosure implied in this object creates what could almost be described as a rocking cradle for two adults. It has four removable arms attached to the main body by a dry-structure spline joint derived from traditional Chinese joinery. The puzzle-like mechanics of this joint is one of the elements of physical interaction offered by the object. Its three upholstered panels can be removed, and in particular the middle panel can be taken out and the void forms a leg space to allow users to be seated facing each other. The three panels together have the same dimensions as a tatami mat. The tatami mat, simultaneously a model and symbol for harmony in human
interaction, is also associated with the systematic defining of living areas. The modularity implied by the use of the tatami's proportions is carried through to the detailing of the components of Love Platform I. They are shaped to form a rounded-square cross-section reminiscent of sixties and seventies modular style.
Decorative concerns are still at large: the removable arms, whilst having the appearance of structure, are superfluous to the mechanical rocking function of the platform. They are best described as structural ornament which serves to imply a cylindrical form. Scotchbrite kitchen scourer, impregnated with epoxy resin, has been inlaid into the ends of the detachable arms. Cubes of contrasting timber not only
provide enhanced structural integrity to the platform, but also serve as decorative features, paradoxically hidden under the upholstery, yet revealed if any of the three upholstered sections are removed.
(ii) Love Platform IThe horizontal surface of Love Platform II is again the size of a tatami mat, this time upholstered in dark purple velvet. Structural elements have been reduced even further. The hoops upon which the structure rocks, however, continue past the horizontal platform - superfluous structure is still an 'essential' element in the design. On the other hand, the protruding components look like they could be handles and depending on your level of co-ordination they just might need to be. Wandering (or desperately clinging) fingers may discover sculpted details on the underside of the structure, all but obscured from normal view.
Applied decoration is also utilised—inlay of ebony accents the juncture of the horizontal components and the hoops. Ebony and hair
suspended in casting resin are inlaid into the ends of the hoops. Although hair has a long history of decorative use by humans, many find the use of it in the context of furniture repugnant. The inlay of other materials derived from living creatures such as mother of pearl, marine or animal leathers, tortoise shell or bone does not seem to attract the same level of derision. Rather the exotic qualities of these materials are respected and signify the use of skill. By combining and contrasting the hair with ebony I am highlighting the inconsistency of such a view and refer to the traditional association of ebony and ivory: ivory being another decorative material derived from a living creature the use of which is truly repugnant.
(iii) Love Platform III
Upholstery fabric is abandoned in this third platform, leaving bare foam on the horizontal surface and around the back-rest. The nakedness of the foam is alluded to by the small areas of knitted fabric suspended in casting resin and inlaid into the Silver Ash framework. By leaving the foam bare a strong contrast is made with the velveted surfaces of the first two platforms. It also seems contradictory in the context of the highly "finished" woodwork- not just the polished timber but the detailed and complex joinery and the use of time-consuming inlay.
Whilst the previous rocking structures functioned as platforms for the fully extended horizontal body (or bodies). Love Platform III primarily envisages that two people sit opposite each other on the square area of foam using the foam bolsters as back rests. Alternatively, users can position themselves (side by side or with their backs facing each other) by sitting on the edge of the structure and rocking sideways. A single user can curl up in the middle. My main concern is that the physical use of the object be sufficiently equivocal that it encourages the user or users to explore its potential.
Annexure - Research Proposal
APPLICATION TO THE GRADUATE DIPLOMA (VISUAL ARTS) BY STUDIO PRACTICE AND RESEARCH - LYNDALL KENNEDY
I. Proposed Studio Practice Program (Representing 67% of total workload)
In 1925 Le Corbusier in Decorative Art of Today described furniture in terms of tools or, specifically, "human-limb objects". Furthermore he stated that:
"The human-limb object is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing, in order to leave his master free."
The furniture I intend to produce will represent a step away from a functionalist/modernist view, in favour of the creation of intimacy between the object of furniture and the user or viewer.
This will lead to an exploration of the relationship between
functionalism and decorative and aesthetic considerations. Whilst I do not propose to abandon functionalism as an objective of my furniture making, I will emphasise to an equal or greater extent decorative or aesthetic elements. It is part of an investigation into the notion espoused by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann that there is more to an object of furniture than its purpose.
In pursuing this investigation an underlying aim is to produce pieces of furniture that are personal, humanistic and intimate and which people can interact with other than on a utilitarian level. One way this will be achieved is through the process of handcrafting and by incorporating elements such as ornament, humour, sexuality and subtle contradiction into the furniture design.
I intend to experiment with the use of exotic materials such as figured timbers and veneers, sharkskin, gold leaf and mother of pearl in order to pursue what Ruhlmann refers to as an "excess presence".
The types of furniture to be explored in my program are objects designed for a domestic setting and include:
• screen • rocking chair • chaise longue • side table
II. Relation to Prior Practice and Experience
The proposed program is an extension of previous study into the work of designers of the Art Deco period and early Modernism. Specifically my research has centred on furniture designed by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, Eileen Gray, Pierre Chareau, Jean-Michel Frank and Le Corbusier.
My furniture making to date has referred to a style and symbols associated with the Art Deco period and to a lesser extent early
Modernist furniture. On a more general level my design work reflects a commitment to decoration and ornament in modern furniture design.
III. Methods and Resources
It is my intention to combine traditional woodworking techniques with modern laminating techniques and to investigate the
combination of timber and veneers with non-wood materials.
A large part of my attraction to furniture of the Art Deco period is the combination of different craft disciplines necessary to produce the type of furniture of that period. The skills which I propose to develop refer to this collaboration and the decorative effects created as a result. I also propose to further investigate modern furniture making techniques necessary to combine different materials and to use those materials in a sensitive and efficient manner.
IV. Context
Whilst many of the contemporaneous influences that led to the development of modernist design during the first half of this century
may not apply today, many aspects of modernist design philosophy and practice are prevalent in modern furniture design. In addition, whilst there has been a renewed interest in the Art Deco period and the style of furniture that that period produced, decoration in furniture, and the collaboration of decorative artists to produce furniture that is decorated or ornamented, does not appear to have been rekindled. These issues reflect my wider concern about the role of decoration in household objects in modern society and whether a modern decorative style can be developed.
My focus on labour and skill intensive techniques in the proposed program is part of a larger concern with contributing to the
appreciation within the Australian public of hand-crafted, sophisticated furniture and objects.
V. Timeframe
It is anticipated that two pieces from the list specified above be completed by the mid-year break, with the remaining (more time-consuming) pieces to be completed during the remainder of the year and over the Christmas break.
I. Proposed Research Paper
In 1930 the Union des Artistes Modernes was formed to promote the goals of modernism. Among its members were Charlotte Perriand and Eileen Gray.
Feminist writers have described modernism in terms of a patriarchal movement .
The focus of my research paper will first be on the design work of Charlotte Perriand and Eileen Gray and their contribution to the development of modernist design in furniture. The overall aim is to analyse the careers of Perriand and Gray, particularly during the 1920's and 1930's, in the context of feminist design theory. Issues that I intend to address include:
•what influences were behind Perriand's and Gray's move towards modernist principles of design.
• how, if at all, the careers and design work of these two designers were affected by the male-domination of their profession.
• was the work of Perriand and Gray perceived as "feminine" by their contemporaries and by critics. Did this perception change with the designers' adoption of modernist design goals.
• the role decoration played in Perriand's and Gray's pre-modernist design and later work, as well as, on a more general level the changing attitude to decoration by Perriand's and Gray's contemporaries.
• the prevalence, and implications, of female patronage of Perriand and Gray (specifically) and of their contemporaries (in general).
A major focus of the research paper is the analysis of modernism in terms of feminist design theory with reference to the work of Charlotte Perriand and Eileen Gray. This involves a discussion of such concepts as male domination in modernist design and the design profession; the rejection of decoration and ornament in design; the importance of pure functionalism; and, the severing of intimacy between furniture and users of furniture.
The furniture I intend to produce represents an attempt to re-establish intimacy between furniture and its users by emphasising the hand-crafted nature of the furniture; by placing importance on the role of decoration in modern furniture design; by making social or historical references; and, by considering functionalism in furniture design simply as another variable rather than a dominant consideration.
III. Methods and Resources
I propose to analyse the design work of Perriand and Gray within the framework of feminist design theory.
IV.Context of Research Paper
The proposed research paper addresses issues of gender influence and bias in professional areas which are male-dominated, both in numbers of practitioners and in decision making bodies. Many of these issues apply to the woodworking/furniture-making profession in Australia.
Perriand and Gray in pursuing modernist design goals moved away from elements in furniture design, such as decoration. As elaborated in my studio practice proposal I am concerned, in a wider sense, with the role and development of a modern decorative furniture style in Australia.
The proposed research, together with my studio practice, will touch on the concept of a "feminine aesthetic" as it applies to the work of Perriand and Gray and the development of my own design work.
V. Timeframe
Topic finalisation - 1st week of May Chapter outline - 3rd week of May Monthly chapters
1st full draft - mid-October
Final full draft - end of acadennic year
VI. Reference Material
Peter Adam, Eileen Gray: Architect/Designer: A Biography. New York 1987
Judy Attfield and Pat Kirkham (eds), A View from the Interior: Feminism.Women and Design. London 1989
Yvonne Brunhammer, "Charlotte Perriand: un art de vivre" Apollo. no. 121, March 1985, pp.201-202
Yvonne Brunhammer and Suzanne Tise, French Decorative Art 1900-1942: The Societe des Artistes Decorateurs. Paris, Flammarion, 1990 Florence Camard, Ruhlmann: Master of Art Deco. London 1984
Whitney Chadwick, Women. Art and Society. London 1990
Peter Dormer, The Art of the Maker: Skill and its Meaning in Art. Craft and Design. London 1994
Peter Dormer, The Meanings of Modern Design. London 1990
Michael Collins and Andreas Papadakis, Post-Modern Design. London 1989
Domus, "Charlotte Perriand: Mobili Come Metafore di Un'Fpoca", no.697, September 1988, pp. 17-24
Domus, "Eileen Gray: Transat Chair 1924: Bibendum Chair 1926", no. 697, September 1988, pp. 81-85
Domus, "Le Corbusier; Pierre Jeanneret; Charlotte Perriand: Fauteuil Grand Confort 1929: Siege a dossier basculant 1928", no. 697, September 1988, pp.90-95
Alastair Duncan, The Encyclopedia of Art Deco: An Illustrated Guide to a Decorative Style from 1920 to 1939. New York 1988
Suzi Gablik, The Reenchantment of Art. New York 1991
Philippe Garner, Eileen Gray: Designer and Architect. Koln 1993
Tag Gronberg, "Decoration: Modernism's 'Other'", Art History, vol. 15,
no. 4, December 1992, pp. 547-52
Jeanette Hoorn, "Misogyny and Modernist Painting in Australia: How
Male Critics Made Modernism Their Own", Journal of Australian
Studies, no.32, March 192, pp. 7-17
Charles Jencks, Post-Modernism: The New Classicism in Art and
Architecture. New York 1987
J. Stewart Johnson, Eileen Gray : Designer. London 1979
Le Corbusier, The Decorative Art of Today. Cambridge 1987
Adolf Loos, "Ornament and Crime" in L. Muntz and G. Kunstler (eds),
Adolf Loos: Pioneer of Modern Architecture. Thames & Hudson,
London, 1966, pp. 226-231
Matrix, Making Space. Women and the Man Made Environment.
London and Sydney, Pluto, 1984
Mary Mcleod, "Furniture and Femininity (furniture designed by
Charlotte Perriand with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret", The
Architectural Review, vol. 181, January 1987, pp. 43-47
Peter McNeil, "Designing Women: Gender, Sexuality and the Interior
Decorator, c. 1890-1940", Art History, vol. 17, December 1994, pp.631-57
Metropolis, "Charlotte Perriand", January/February 1996, pp. 64-65, 85,
87
Linda J. Nicholson, Feminism /Postmodernism, New York 1990
Norma Roude and Mary D Garrard, Feminism and Art History:
Ouestioning the Litany, New York 1982
Naomi Schor, Reading in Detail: Aesthetics and the Feminine, New
York, 1987
Nancy J. Troy, Modernism and the Decorative Arts in France: Art
Nouveau to Le Corbusier, New Haven and London, Yale University
Press, 1991
Peter Wollen, "Fashion/Orientalism/the body". New Formations,
no.l. Spring 1987, pp. 5-34
Curriculum Vitae Lyndall Anne Kennedy
Born 1967, Sydney, New South Wales
Education
1996-1997 Candidate for Graduate Diploma of Art (Visual Arts) Canberra School of Art, Institute of the Arts, ANU
1994-1995 Associate Diploma of Art (Visual Arts)
Canberra School of Art, Institute of the Arts, ANU
1990 Diploma of Legal Studies
University of Technology (College of Law)
1985-1989 Bachelor of Law and Commerce (Finance) University of New South Wales
Group Exhibitions
1997 Well Furnished, Elisabeth Gallery, Newtown,
1996 The Box as a Container, Canberra School of Art Gallery 1995 Under Wraps, Graduating exhibition. Wood Workshop,
Bibliography
Adam, P., Eileen Gray: Architect/Designer: A Biography, New York, 1987
Anscombe, I., A Woman's Touch: Women in Design from 1860 to the Present Day. London, 1984
Attfield, J., and Kirkham, P., (eds), A View from the Interior: Feminism Women and Design, London, 1989
Benton, C., Charlotte Perriand: Modernist Pioneer. catalogue,Design Museum, London 1996.
Benton, C., "Eileen Gray : Designer and Architect", Tournal of Design History, vol. 9 no.l, 1996, pp.71-72
Benton, C., Benton, T., and Sharp, D., Form and Function: A Source Book for the History of Architecture and Design 1890-1939. Cambridge, 1975
Brunhammer Y. and Tise S., French Decorative Art 1900-1942: The Societe des Artistes Decorateurs. Paris, Flammarion, 1990
Buckley , C., "Made in Patriarchy: Toward a Feminist Analysis of Women and Design".Design Discourse. Chicago, 1989, pp.251-262. Buckley, C., "Designed by Women", Art History, vol.9, September 1986, pp.400-403
Canard, F., Ruhlmann: Master of Art Deco. London, 1984 Chanaux, A., Tean-Michel Franck. Paris, 1980
Dilnot, C., "Gendered or Generic: Questioning the veracity of universal design", LD,, November 1993, pp.30-31
Dormer, P., The Art of the Maker: Skill and its Meaning in Art. Craft and Design. London 1994
Dormer, P., The Meanings of Modern Design. London 1990
Ellis, C. and Meade, M.K.,"Charlotte Perriand looks back and forward". The Architectural Review. November, 1984, p.66.
Garner, P., Eileen Gray: Designer and Architect. Koln, 1993 Grabar, O., The Mediation of Ornament. New Jersey, 1992
Gronberg, T., "Decoration: Modernism's Other", Art History, vol. 15, no,4, December 1992, pp.550-552.
Le Corbusier, The Decorative Art of Today. Paris, 1925, English translation. Great Britain, 1987
Le Corbusier, "The Furniture Adventure", Precisions. Vincent Freal, Paris, 1930, pp 102-122, as translated and reprinted in Benton,C., Benton, T., and Sharp, D., Form and Function: A Source Book for the History of Architecture and Design 1890-1939. Cambridge, 1975 pp 233-238
Loos, A., "Ornament and Crime" in The Architecture of Adolf Loos. Arts Council Exhibition Catalogue, London, 1985
McLeod, M., "'Architecture or Revolution': Taylorism, Technocracy, and Social Change", Art Tournal. vol. 43,1983, pp.132-147
McLeod, M., "Furniture and Femininity", The Architectural Review. vol.181, January 1987, pp.43-47
McNeil, P., "Designing Women: Gender, Sexuality and the Interior Decorator c. 1890-1940", Art History. December 1994, pp631-657 Pevsner, N., Pioneers of Modern Design: from William Morris to Walter Gropius. Great Britain, 1960 edition, p.217.
Pollock, G., "Vision, Voice and Power: Feminist Art History and Marxism", Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism and the Histories of Art, London, 1988,
Stewart Johnson, J., Eileen Gray: Designer. New York, 1979 Stimpson, M., Modern Furniture Classics: A Sourcebook of Styles. Designers, and Manufacturers from 1855 to Today. New York,1987
Troy N.J., Modernism and the Decorative Arts in France: Art Nouveau to Le Corbusier. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1991
Wolff, J., The Social Production of Art. London 1981
