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This is a repository copy of

Birnbaum-Saunders spatial modelling and diagnostics applied

to agricultural engineering data

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White Rose Research Online URL for this paper:

http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/93197/

Version: Accepted Version

Article:

Garcia-Papani, F, Uribe-Opazo, MA, Leiva, V et al. (1 more author) (2017)

Birnbaum-Saunders spatial modelling and diagnostics applied to agricultural engineering

data. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 31 (1). pp. 105-124. ISSN

1436-3240

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-015-1204-4

© 2016, Springer. This is an author produced version of a paper published in Stochastic

Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. Uploaded in accordance with the

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⊆⇔∈∈⇓ ≥↵″↔↑→•°← ±∫

♥•×× ≈ •″↑≈→←≈… ♣ ←÷≈ ≈…•←±→

⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵°°×•≈… ←± ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵×

≈″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ …↵←↵

∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• •≠↔≈× ⇓″≠≈× ⊄→•≈⌠∇°↵ƒ± ⊇•←±→ ≈•♠↵ ∈±≈→← ∧ ⇓♣∝→±♣…

⇓↑←→↵← ⇓°°×•↵←•±″↑ ±≡ ↑←↵←•↑←•↵× ≥±…≈×↑ ←± …≈↑→•≈ ↑°↵←•↵× …≈°≈″…≈″≈ •″ ≠≈±⌠→≈≡≈→≈″≈… …↵←↵ ↵→≈ ♥•…≈↑°→≈↵… ↵→±↑↑ ≥↵″♣ …•↑•°×•″≈↑ •″×↔…•″≠ ←÷≈ ≈″♠•→±″≥≈″←↵× ↑•≈″≈↑∫ ±↑← ±≡ ←÷≈↑≈ ↵°°×•↵←•±″↑ ↵↑⌠ ↑↔≥≈ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ …↵←↵ ≡±××±♥ ↵ ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ¬±♥≈♠≈→ •″ ≥↵″♣ ±≡ ←÷≈≥ ←÷≈ ″±→≥↵ו←♣ ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ ↵″… ≈♠≈″ ↵ ≥±→≈ ≠≈″≈→↵× ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ ±≡ ↑♣≥≥≈←→♣ ↵→≈ ″±← ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈∫ ⋅″ ″±″⌠↑°↵←•↵× ↵°°×•↵←•±″↑ ♥÷≈→≈ ←÷≈ …↵←↵ ↵→≈ ↔″•⌠≥±…↵× ↵″… °±↑•←•♠≈×♣ ↑∝≈♥≈… ←÷≈ ⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ÷↵↑ ≈♦≈××≈…∫ ⊂÷•↑ °↵°≈→ °→±°±↑≈↑ ↵ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±≠⌠ו″≈↵→ ≥±…≈× ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ±…≈× °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ↵→≈

estimated using the maximum likelihood method. Local influe″≈ …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵→≈ …≈→•♠≈… ←± ↵↑↑≈↑↑ ←÷≈ ↑≈″⌠ ↑•←•♠•←♣ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ←± °≈→←↔→↵←•±″↑ •″ ←÷≈ →≈↑°±″↑≈ ♠↵→•↵×≈∫ ⇓↑ •××↔↑←→↵←•±″ ←÷≈ °→±°±↑≈… ≥±…≈× ↵″… •←↑ …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵→≈ ↔↑≈… ←± ↵″↵×♣↑≈ ↵ →≈↵×⌠♥±→×… ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× …↵←↵ ↑≈← ♥÷≈→≈ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ♠↵→•↵•ו←♣ ±≡ °÷±↑°÷±→↔↑

½±²½»²¬®¿¬·±² ·² ¬¸» ­±·´ ·­ ½±²­·¼»®»¼‰©¸·½¸ ·­ »¨¬®»³»´§ ·³°±®¬¿²¬ º±® ¿¹®·½«´¬«®¿´ ³¿²¿¹»³»²¬ò

∏≈♣♥±→…↑ ↵↑♣≥≥≈←→• …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ local influence ↵←λ≈→″ ≥±…≈× ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≥≈←÷±…↑ ±″←≈ ⇑↵→×± ↑•≥↔×↵←•±″ ″±″⌠″±→≥↵ו←♣ ∈ ↑±≡←♥↵→≈ ↑°↵←•↵× …↵←↵ ↵″↵×♣↑•↑

 ⋅″←→±…↔←•±″

⊆°↵←•↵× ↑←↵←•↑←•↵× ≥±…≈×↑ ←↵∝≈ •″←± ↵±↔″← ←÷≈ …≈°≈″…≈″≈ ±≡ ↵ ♠↵→•↵×≈ ±♠≈→ ↑°↵≈ ↔↑•″≠ ≠≈±⌠→≈≡≈→⌠

enced data. These models are essential in many fields; see, fo→ ≈♦↵≥°×≈ ∏→•≠≈  ↵→…•↵ ↵″… ↵→↑÷↵××  ⊃↵××≈→ ↵″… ∧±←♥↵♣ ð ↵″… •ו←•″± ≈← ↵×∫ ðð∫ ∈≈≈″← ↑←↔…•≈↑ •″×↔…≈ ⇒±→↑↑±• ≈← ↵×∫ ð ⊄→•≈⌠∇°↵ƒ± ≈← ↵×∫ ð ↵″… ∧→ƒ≈≠±ƒ≈♥↑∝• ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫ ⇓×× ←÷≈↑≈ °↵°≈→↑ ≥↵∝≈ ←÷≈ ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ ←÷↵← ↵ ″±→≥↵× ±→ ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •↑ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ ≡±→ ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ♠↵→•↵•ו←♣∫ ¬±♥≈♠≈→ ↑↔÷ ↵″ ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ •↑ ″±← ↵×♥↵♣↑ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈∑ ↑≈≈ ⇐↵♠•↑  ↵″… ↵″≠≈ ≈← ↵×∫ ∫ ∇″≈ ↵°°→±↵÷ ←± …≈↵× ♥•←÷ ″±″⌠″±→≥↵ו←♣ •↑ ←± ←→↵″↑≡±→≥ ←÷≈ …↵←↵ ←± ↵÷•≈♠≈ ↵← ×≈↵↑← ↵°°→±♦•≥↵←≈ ″±→≥↵ו←♣∫ ≈♠≈→←÷≈×≈↑↑ ♥÷≈″ ♥±→∝•″≠ ♥•←÷ …↵←↵ ←→↵″↑≡±→≥↵←•±″↑ °→±×≈≥↑ ↑↔÷ ↵↑ ←÷≈ …•fficulty of interpreting the results from the ↵″↵×♣↑•↑ ±″ ←÷≈ ±→•≠•″↵× ↑↵×≈ ↵″ ≈ •″←→±…↔≈… •″←± ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×ו″≠∑ ↑≈≈ ⇓ƒƒ↵ו″• ↵″… ⇑↵°•←↵″•± ∫ ⊃÷≈″ ←÷≈ ″±→≥↵ו←♣ ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ •↑ ″±← ♠↵ו… ↵″ ↵×←≈→″↵←•♠≈ ↵°°→±↵÷ •↑ ←± ↵→→♣ ±↔← ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ♥•←÷

­±³» ²±²ó²±®³¿´ ¼·­¬®·¾«¬·±² ¬± ¾» ­«·¬¿¾´» º±® ¬¸» ¼¿¬¿ «²¼»® ¿²¿´§­·­ò Ú±® »¨¿³°´»ô ß­­«³°½hˆ¿± »¬ ¿´ò

ð ð ±″…↔←≈… ↵ ≠≈±⌠↑←↵←•↑←•↵× ↑←↔…♣ ↔↑•″≠ ←÷≈ ⊆←↔…≈″←⌠← …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥÷•÷ ÷↵↑ ÷≈↵♠•≈→ ←↵•×↑ ←÷↵″ ←÷≈ ″±→≥↵× …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ⇐≈ ⇒↵↑←•↵″• ≈← ↵×∫ ð ↑←↔…•≈… ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ≡↵≥•×♣ ±≡ ≈×ו°←• ↑♣≥≥≈←→• …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ ♥÷•÷ ÷↵↑ ↵↑ ≥≈≥≈→↑ ←÷≈ ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ ↵″… ⊆←↔…≈″←⌠← ↵↑≈↑∫ ⊃•←÷ ↵×× ±≡ ←÷•↑ ↑↵•… ≈×ו°←• ≥±…≈×↑ ↵→≈ ↑←•×× ″±← ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ •≡ ←÷≈ …↵←↵ ≡±××±♥ ↵ ↑∝≈♥ …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫

∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• •≠↔≈× ⇓″≠≈× ⊄→•≈⌠∇°↵ƒ±

∠±↑←≠→↵…↔↵←≈ ∠→±≠→↵≥ •″ ⇓≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ⇔″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ ⊄″•♠≈→↑•…↵…≈ ⇔↑←↵…↔↵× …± ∇≈↑←≈ …± ∠↵→↵″λ↵ ⇑↵↑↵♠≈×⌠∠∈ ⇒→↵ƒ•×∫ ⇔⌠≥↵•× ≡≠↵→•↵⌠ °↵°↵″•◊≠≥↵•×∫±≥ ⇔⌠≥↵•× ≥±°↵ƒ±◊↔″•±≈↑←≈∫→

⊇•←±→ ≈•♠↵

Ú¿½«´¬§ ±º Û²¹·²»»®·²¹ ¿²¼ ͽ·»²½»­ô ˲·ª»®­·¼¿¼ ß¼±´º± ×¾l¿ˆ²»¦ô Ê·ˆ²¿ ¼»´ Ó¿®ô ݸ·´»ò Û󳿷´æ ª·½¬±®´»·ª¿­¿²½¸»¦à¹³¿·´ò½±³

∈±≈→← ∧ ⇓♣∝→±♣…

(3)

 ∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• ≈← ↵×∫

⊂÷≈→≈ ÷↵↑ ≈≈″ ו←←×≈ ♥±→∝ •″ ←÷≈ ו←≈→↵←↔→≈ ←÷↵← •″♠≈↑←•≠↵←≈↑ ←÷≈ ↔↑≈ ±≡ ↵↑♣≥≥≈←→• …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ ←± ↵″↵×♣↑≈ ↑°↵←•↵× …↵←↵∫ ¬±♥≈♠≈→ •″ ″±″⌠↑°↵←•↵× ↑•←↔↵←•±″↑ ≥↵″♣ …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ ÷↵♠≈ ≈≈″ °→±°±↑≈… ←± ≥±…≈× °÷≈″±≥⌠ ≈″↵ ←÷↵← ≠•♠≈ →•↑≈ ←± ↑∝≈♥ …↵←↵ ↑↔÷ ↵↑ ←÷≈ ⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ⇒⊆ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ≠↵≥≥↵ ×±≠⌠″±→≥↵× ↵″… ⊃≈•↔×× …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑∑ ↑≈≈ √±÷″↑±″ ≈← ↵×∫  ∫ ⋅″ °↵→←•↔×↵→ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥↵↑ °→±°±↑≈… ≡±→ ≥±…≈×ו″≠ →↵″…±≥ ♠↵→•↵×≈↑ …≈↑→••″≠ °→±≈↑↑≈↑ ±≡ ≡↵←•≠↔≈ ♣ ⇒•→″↵↔≥ ↵″… ⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ∫ ⇓°°×•↵⌠ ←•±″↑ •″ ≈↵→←÷ ↑•≈″≈↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ÷↵♠≈ ≈≈″ ±″↑•…≈→≈… ♣ ≡±→ ≈♦↵≥°×≈ ≈•♠↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð ðð ð↵ ∠±…×↵↑∝• ðð ⊇•×↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð ↵→÷↵″← ≈← ↵×∫ ð ↵″… ⊆↵↔×± ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫ ⊃÷↵← ≥↵∝≈↑ ←÷•↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵←←→↵←•♠≈ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ↵″↵×♣↑•↑ ±≡ ↑∝≈♥ …↵←↵ ↵→≈ •←↑ °→±°≈→←•≈↑ ↵″… •←↑ →≈×↵←•±″↑÷•° ♥•←÷ ←÷≈ ″±→≥↵× …•↑⌠ ←→•↔←•±″∑ ↑≈≈ √±÷″↑±″ ≈← ↵×∫  °°∫ ⌠∫ ⋅″ ±″←→↵↑← ←± •←↑ ±→•≠•″↵× ↵°°×•↵←•±″ ←± ≡↵←•≠↔≈ °→±≈↑↑≈↑

Leiva et al. (2015c) justified why the BS distribution is suit↵×≈ ≡±→ ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ≈↵→←÷ ↵″… ≈″♠•→±″≥≈″←↵× …↵←↵ ↔↑•″≠ ←÷≈±→≈←•↵× ↵→≠↔≥≈″←↑ ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ×↵♥ ±≡ °→±°±→←•±″↵te effects. Rieck and Nedelman (1991) defined ↵ →≈×↵←•±″↑÷•° ≈←♥≈≈″ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵″… •←↑ ×±≠↵→•←÷≥• ♠≈→↑•±″ ″↵≥≈… ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ⊂÷≈♣

used this relationship to propose a BS fixed effect model; whe→≈↵↑ ⊇•××≈≠↵↑ ≈← ↵×∫ ð ±″↑•…≈→≈… ↵ ⇒⊆

mixed effect model. A multivariate extension to the BS fixed e≡≡≈← ≥±…≈× ♥↵↑ ↑←↔…•≈… ♣ ↵→÷↵″← ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫⇓″ ↵°°→±↵÷ ←± ⇒⊆ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ♥↵↑ °→±♠•…≈… ♣ ∪•↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ð ♥÷± °→≈↑≈″←≈… ↵ ≥≈←÷±…±×⌠ ±≠♣ ↵↑≈… ±″ ↑≈≥•⌠↵→∝±♠ °→±≈↑↑ ←± °→±…↔≈ ↵ ↑°↵←•±⌠←≈≥°±→↵× ≥±…≈× ≡±→ ←÷≈ ≥±♠≈≥≈″← ±≡ ←±↔→•↑←↑∫ ⊂÷≈ ↵↔←÷±→↑ ±″↑•…≈→≈… ↑≈♠≈→↵× …•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ •″×↔…•″≠ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ ≥±…≈×∫ ⊂± …↵←≈ ÷±♥≈♠≈→ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×↑ ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ÷↵♠≈ ″±← ≈≈″ ↑←↔…•≈… •″ °→↵←•↵× ≈♦↵≥°×≈↑∫

The identification of cases that can produce substantial cha″≠≈↑ •″ ←÷≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←≈… °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ •↑ ↵″ •≥⌠ °±→←↵″← ↑←≈° •″ ↵″♣ ↑←↵←•↑←•↵× •″♠≈↑←•≠↵←•±″∫ ⊂÷≈ ←↵↑∝ ±≡ …≈←≈←•″≠ °±↑↑•×≈ ↵←♣°•↵× ↵↑≈↑ ↵″ ≈ ↵……→≈↑↑≈…

¾§ »´·³·²¿¬·²¹ ½¿­»­ ±²»ó¾§ó±²» º®±³ ¬¸» ¼¿¬¿ ­»¬ ¿²¼ ³»¿­«®·²¹ ¬¸» »ºº»½¬­ ±² »­¬·³¿¬»¼ °¿®¿³»¬»®­ Ь¸·­ is known as global influence; see Cook (1987). Another method≡±→ …≈←≈←•″≠ ↵↑≈↑ ←÷↵← ±↔×… °±←≈″←•↵××♣

be influential was proposed by Cook (1987), which is known as local influence. This method studies the

≈≡≡≈← ±≡ ↑≥↵×× °≈→←↔→↵←•±″↑ •″←→±…↔≈… •″←± ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×↑ ↵″…〉±→ ←÷≈ …↵←↵ ±″ ←÷≈ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ו∝≈ו÷±±…  ≈↑←•≥↵←≈↑∫ ⇐•≡≡≈→≈″← °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ↑÷≈≥≈↑ ↵→≈ ±≡←≈″ ±″↑•…≈→≈… ←± ≈♠↵×↔↵←≈ ←÷≈ ↑≈″↑•←•♠•←♣ ±≡  ≈↑←•≥↵←≈↑

of the model parameters to such perturbations. The local infl↔≈″≈ ≥≈←÷±… ÷↵↑ ↵← ×≈↵↑← ←♥± ↵…♠↵″←↵≠≈↑ ±♠≈→

the global influence method: it has a lower computational cos← ≈↑°≈•↵××♣ ♥÷≈″ ←÷≈ ″↔≥≈→ ±≡ ↵↑≈↑ •↑ ×↵→≠≈

and it allows us to detect groups of data exerting a joint influ≈″≈∫ ∅÷↔ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð °→±°±↑≈… ↵ ≥≈←÷±…±×±≠♣ ≡±→ ÷±±↑•″≠ ↵ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ↑÷≈≥≈ ←÷↵← •↑ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ ≡±→ ←÷≈ °↵→←•↔×↵→ ≥±…≈× ≈•″≠ ±″↑•…≈→≈…∫ ∧•≥≈″≈ƒ ↵″… ∧↵×≈↵ ð ↵°°×•≈… ←÷≈ ≥≈←÷±… °→±°±↑≈… ♣ ∅÷↔ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð ←± ÷≈←≈→±↑≈…↵↑←• ≥±…≈×↑ ♥•←÷ ≡↔″⌠ ←•±″↵× ≥≈↵↑↔→≈≥≈″← ≈→→±→↑∫ ∧↵×≈↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð ↵°°×•≈… ←÷≈ ×ocal influence method in the BS fixed effect ≥±…≈× ♥÷≈→≈↵↑ ≈•♠↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ð ð ↵″… •↔ ≈← ↵×∫ ð …≈→•♠≈… …•↵≠″±↑←• ←±±×↑ •″ ↵≈×≈→↵←≈… ו≡≈

models, in fixed effect models with stochastic restrictions↵″… •″ ←÷≈ °±↑↑•×♣ ÷≈←≈→±↑∝≈…↵↑←• ו″≈↵→ ≥±…≈× ♥•←÷ ≈♦↵← →≈↑←→•←•±″↑∫ ⋅″ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ …•↵≠″±↑←• ←≈÷″•↓↔≈↑ ÷↵♠≈ ≈≈″ …•↑↔↑↑≈… ≡±→ ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ ≥±…≈×↑

¾§ Ó·´·¬·²± »¬ ¿´ò øîððê÷ ¿²¼ Ë®·¾»óѰ¿¦± »¬ ¿´ò øîðïî÷ô º±® ͬ«¼»²¬ó¬ ³±¼»´­ ¾§ ß­­«³°½hˆ¿± »¬ ¿´ò øîðïì÷ô

↵″… ≡±→ ≈×ו°←• ≥±…≈×↑ ♣ ⇐≈ ⇒↵↑←•↵″• ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫

⊂÷≈ ≥↵•″ ±∂≈←•♠≈ ±≡ ←÷•↑ °↵°≈→ •↑ ←± …≈♠≈×±° ↵ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±≠⌠ו″≈↵→ ≥±…≈× ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵″… ←± …≈→•♠≈ •←↑ ±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ …•↵≠″±↑←•↑∫ ⊂÷•↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵″ ≈ ≥±→≈ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ ←÷↵″ ←÷≈ ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •″ ←÷≈ ↵″↵×♣↑•↑ ±≡ ↑°↵←•↵× …↵←↵ ♥•←÷ °±↑•←•♠≈ ↵↑♣≥≥≈←→• ≈÷↵♠•±↔→∫  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×

(4)

⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵°°×•≈… ←± ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ≈″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ …↵←↵ 

 ⇒↵∝≠→±↔″…

∫ ⊂÷≈ ⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″

⋅≡ ↵ →↵″…±≥ ♠↵→•↵×≈⊂ ≡±××±♥↑ ↵ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥•←÷ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ↵″… ↑↵×≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→  ♥≈ ↔↑≈ ←÷≈ ″±←↵←•±″⊂ ⇒⊆ . The distribution can be defined by its cumulative distribut•±″ ≡↔″←•±″ ⇑⇐∨ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

∨⊂←∑    ° ° ∑ ← ð ð ð∑ 

♥÷≈→≈  •↑ ←÷≈ ⇑⇐∨ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑←↵″…↵→… ″±→≥↵× …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈ °→±↵•ו←♣ …≈″↑•←♣ ≡↔″←•±″ ∠⇐∨ ±≡

⊂ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  •↑ ≈♦°→≈↑↑≈… ↵↑

≡⊂←∑    

°

 ⌡

 

° °

∑ ← ð ð ð∑ 

♥÷≈→≈  •↑ ←÷≈ ↑←↵″…↵→… ″±→≥↵× ∠⇐∨∫ ⊂÷↔↑ •″ ←↔→″ ←÷≈ ∠⇐∨ •″  ↵″ ≈ →≈⌠♥→•←←≈″ ↵↑

≡⊂←∑  ≈♦°

 ° ≈♦°   

← ⌡

← ←

←⌡ ∑ ← ð ð ð  ⇓×↑± •← ≥↵♣ ≈ ↑↵•… ←÷↵← ↵ ±″←•″↔±↔↑ →↵″…±≥ ♠↵→•↵×≈⊂ ÷↵↑ ↵ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥•←÷ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ð↵″…

ð •≡ ↵″… ±″×♣ •≡∅    ° ° ð∑∫ ⊆±≥≈ °→±°≈→←•≈↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵→≈ °→≈↑≈″←≈… ↵↑ ≡±××±♥↑∫ ⋅≡⊂ ⇒⊆  ←÷≈″ • ⇔⊂   ⌡ ↵″… ⊇↵→⊂    ⌡ ∑ ••

•≡ ð ←÷≈″⊂ ⇒⊆  ♥÷•÷ ≥≈↵″↑ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •↑ ×±↑≈… ↔″…≈→ ↑↵×↵→ ≥↔×←•°×•↵←•±″∑ •••⊂ ⇒⊆   ♥÷•÷ ≥≈↵″↑ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •↑ ×±↑≈… ↔″…≈→ →≈•°→±•←♣∑ •♠ ←÷≈ ≥≈…•↵″ ±≡ ←÷≈ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ±≡⊂ •↑  ♥÷•÷ ↵″ ≈ …•→≈←×♣ ±←↵•″≈… ♥÷≈″↓ ð≡→±≥ •←↑ ↓↔↵″←•×≈ ≡↔″←•±″ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

←↓∑  ∨↓∑    ↓ ⌡° ↓⌡   ≡±→ð ↓  ♥÷≈→≈ƒ↓•↑ ←÷≈ ↑←↵″…↵→…

″±→≥↵× ↓↔↵″←•×≈ ≡↔″←•±″∑ ↵″… ♠ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •↑ °±↑•←•♠≈×♣ ↑∝≈♥≈… ↵↑ •″→≈↵↑≈↑ ↵″… ↵°°→±♦•≥↵←≈×♣ ↑♣≥≥≈←→•↵× ↵→±↔″… ↵↑ ≠±≈↑ ←± ƒ≈→±∑ ↑≈≈ ∨•≠∫ ×≈≡←∫

∫ ⊂÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ …•↑←→•↔←•±″

⇓ ±″←•″↔±↔↑ →↵″…±≥ ♠↵→•↵×≈∩ ÷↵↑ ↵ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥•←÷ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ð↵″… ×±↵←•±″ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ∈ ♥÷•÷ •↑ …≈″±←≈… ♣ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆  •≡ ↵″… ±″×♣ •≡∅  ↑•″÷∩  ð∑∫ ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈ ⇑⇐∨ ±≡∩ •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

∨∩♣∑   ↑•″÷ ♣

 ∑ ⌡ ð 

⇑±″↑≈↓↔≈″←×♣ ≡→±≥  ←÷≈ ∠⇐∨ ±≡∩ •↑ ±←↵•″≈… ↵↑

≡∩♣∑   °  ±↑÷

 ≈♦°

↑•″÷

 ♣

 ∑ ⌡ ð 

⊆±≥≈ °→±°≈→←•≈↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ↵→≈ °→≈↑≈″←≈… ↵↑ ≡±××±♥↑∫ ⋅≡∩ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆  ←÷≈″ •⊂  ≈♦°∩ ⇒⊆  ♥÷•÷ ≥≈↵″↑ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ ∠⇐∨ ≠•♠≈″ •″  ↵″ ≈ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ↑←↵″…↵→…

normal PDF or from the BS PDF defined in (3); (ii) E∩  ∑ ••• ←÷≈→≈ •↑ ″± ×±↑≈… ≡±→≥ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ♠↵→•↵″≈ ±≡∩ ↔← ↵↑≈… ↔°±″ ↵″ ↵↑♣≥°←±←• ↵°°→±♦•≥↵←•±″ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ≥±≥≈″← ≠≈″≈→↵←•″≠ ≡↔″←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •← ≡±××±♥↑ ←÷↵← •≡ ÿð ←÷≈″ ⊇↵→⊂    ↵″… •≡ ÿ  ←÷≈″ ⊇↵→⊂ 

×±≠°  ⌡   ×±≠° ∑ •♠ •≡∪ ∩ ⌡… ←÷≈″∪ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ ⌡…∑ ↵″… ♠ ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ •↑ ↑♣≥≥≈←→• ↵→±↔″…  ↔″•≥±…↵× ≡±→ ↵″… •≥±…↵× ≡±→ ∑ ↑≈≈ ∨•≠∫ →•≠÷←∫

⋅≡ ↵ →↵″…±≥ ♠≈←±→∩  ∩∑    ∑ ∩″ ≡±××±♥↑ ↵″ ″⌠♠↵→•↵←≈ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ←÷≈ ″±←↵←•±″∩

×±≠⌠⇒⊆ ∑ ∑ •↑ ↔↑≈…∫ ¬≈→≈ ←÷≈ ♠≈←±→ ±≡ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ •↑    ″ ♥•←÷ • ð ←÷≈

♠≈←±→ ±≡ ×±↵←•±″ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ •↑    ″ ♥•←÷ •⌡ ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″ ↵″… •↑ ↵″ ″ ″positive definite (non-singular) matrix of scale parameter↑∫ ⊂÷≈ ⇑⇐∨ ±≡∩ can be defined from (5) as

∨∩♣∑ ∑ ∑   ″ 

↑•″÷ ♣ 

 ∑    ∑ 

↑•″÷ ♣″ ″

 ∑ ∑ ♣∈

(5)

 ∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• ≈← ↵×∫

ð    

↵ ð∫

↵ ∫ð

↵ ∫ð

↵ ∫ð

⌠ ⌠ ⌠ ð   

↵ ð∫

↵ ∫ð

↵ ∫ð

↵ ∫ð

∨•≠∫ ∠⇐∨ ±≡ ×≈≡← ⇒⊆ ↵″… →•≠÷← ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ ð…•↑←→•↔←•±″↑ ≡±→ ←÷≈ •″…•↵←≈… ♠↵×↔≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ∫

♥÷≈→≈ ″ ∑ •↑ ←÷≈ ⇑⇐∨ ±≡ ←÷≈″⌠♠↵→•↵←≈ ″±→≥↵× …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥•←÷ ≥≈↵″ ♠≈←±→ ≈↓↔↵× ←± ƒ≈→± ↵″… ♠↵→•↵″≈⌠ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ∫ ⊂÷≈→≈≡±→≈ ←÷≈ ∠⇐∨ ±≡∩ ↵″ ≈ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  ↵↑

≡∩♣∑ ∑ ∑   ″ 

↑•″÷

♣ 

 ∑    ∑ 

″↑•″÷

♣″ ″

 ∑

•

•±↑÷

♣• •

 ∑

 ≡±→♣  ∈″ ♥÷≈→≈ ″ ∑ •↑ ←÷≈ ″⌠♠↵→•↵←≈ ″±→≥↵× ∠⇐∨ ♥•←÷ ≥≈↵″ ♠≈←±→ ≈↓↔↵× ←± ƒ≈→± ↵″… ♠↵→•↵″≈⌠ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ∫

∫ ⊆°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×↑

⇑±″↑•…≈→ ↵ ↑←±÷↵↑←• °→±≈↑↑∩↑∑ ↑⇐≠, which is defined over a region⇐ ♥•←÷⇐ ∈ …≈↑→•≈… ♣ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ×•″≈↵→ ≥±…≈×

∩↑  ↑ ⌡↑∑ ↑⇐∑ 

♥÷≈→≈  •↑ ↵ ≥≈↵″ ≡↔″←•±″ ↵″… •↑ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× ≈→→±→∫ ⊂÷≈↑≈ ≈→→±→↑ ÷↵♠≈ ≥≈↵″ ƒ≈→± ↵″… ±≥≥±″ ♠↵→•↵″≈

 ♥÷•÷ ≥≈↵″↑ ←÷↵← ⇔∩↑  ↑↵″… ⊇↵→∩↑  ≡±→ ↵××

⋅≡ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× °→±≈↑↑∩↑∑ ↑  ⇐≠•↑ ↵↑↑↔≥≈… ←± ≈ ↑←↵←•±″↵→♣ ←÷≈″ •←↑ ≥≈↵″ ≡↔″←•±″ •↑ ±″↑←↵″← ←÷↵← •↑ ↑   ≡±→ ↵××↑⇐∫ ⋅≡ •← •↑ ≡↔→←÷≈→ ↵↑↑↔≥≈… ←± ≈ •↑±←→±°• ←÷≈″ •←↑ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≡↔″←•±″ ±″×♣ …≈°≈″…↑ ±″ ←÷≈ …•↑←↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±↵←•±″↑ ←÷↵← •↑

⇑±♠∩↑•∑ ∩↑∂ ⇑↑•∑ ↑∂ ⇑÷•∂∑ ↑•∑ ↑∂⇐∑  ♥÷≈→≈÷•∂ ∝↑• ↑∂∝•↑ ←÷≈ ⇔↔ו…≈↵″ …•↑←↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″↑•↵″…↑∂∫

∫ ⇑±♠↵→•↵″≈ ↵″… ♠↵→•±≠→↵≥ ≥±…≈×↑

±♥ ↑↔°°±↑≈ ←÷↵←″≥≈↵↑↔→≈≥≈″←↑ ↵→≈ ±××≈←≈… ↵← ↵ ↑≈← ±≡ ∝″±♥″ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±↵←•±″↑↑≡↑∑    ∑ ↑″≠

°→±♠•…•″≠ ←÷≈″⌠♠↵→•↵←≈ →↵″…±≥ ♠≈←±→∩  ∩∑    ∑ ∩″ ♥÷≈→≈ ∩•  ∩↑• ≡±→•  ∑    ∑ ″∫ ⊂÷≈

±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″ ↵×× °↵•→↑ ±≡ →↵″…±≥ ♠↵→•↵×≈↑∩•∑ ∩∂•↑ …≈←≈→≥•″≈… ♣ ↵″″ ″↑↵×≈ ≥↵←→•♦  ⊕ •∂℘

which must be symmetric and positive-definite, where •∂  ⇑÷•∂ ♥•←÷ ⇑  ≠•♠≈″ •″ ∫ ⊂÷≈″ defines the spatial dependence structure for stationary and•↑±←→±°• °→±≈↑↑≈↑ ♣ ↵ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ♠≈←±→ ∑ ∑  ♥÷≈→≈ ð∑  ð↵→≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ∝″±♥″ ↵↑ ″↔≠≠≈← ≈≡≡≈← ↵″… °↵→←•↵× ↑•×× →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣

♥÷≈→≈↵↑ ð•↑ ↵ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ →≈×↵←≈… ←± ←÷≈≈≡≡≈←•♠≈ →↵″≠≈ ±→ ↑°↵←•↵× …≈°≈″…≈″≈ →↵…•↔↑↵ ≠∑ ↑≈≈

↵→…•↵ ↵″… ↵→↑÷↵××  ↵″… ⊄→•≈⌠∇°↵ƒ± ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫⊂÷≈ ″↔≠≠≈← ≈≡≡≈← •↑ →≈×↵←≈… ←± ↵″ ↵″↵×♣←•↵× ≈→→±→ •″…•↵←•″≠ ↵″ ↔″≈♦°×↵•″≈… ♠↵→•↵•ו←♣ ≡→±≥ ±″≈ °±•″← ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑↵≥°×•″≠ ≠→•… ←± ↵″±←÷≈→∫ ⊂÷•↑ ♠↵→•↵•ו←♣ ≥↵♣ ≈ ↵←←→•↔←≈… ←± ≥≈↵↑↔→≈≥≈″← ≈→→±→↑ ±→ ←± ↵ ♠↵→•↵•ו←♣ ″±← ↵°←↔→≈… …↔≈ ←± ←÷≈ ↑↵≥°×•″≠ …•↑←↵″≈ ↔↑≈…∑ ↑≈≈ ≡±→ ≈♦↵≥°×≈ ⇑↵≥↵→…≈××↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ∫ ⊂÷≈ ″↔≠≠≈← ≈≡≡≈← ↵″ ↵×↑± ↵← ↵↑ ↵ →≈≠↔×↵←±→♣ ←±±× •″ ↑°↵←•↵×

design for random fields making many designs feasible; see M¨uller and Stehl´ık (2009, 2010)∫ ⊃≈ ↵↑↑↔≥≈ ↵ °↵→←•↔×↵→ °↵→↵≥≈←→• ≡±→≥ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ↑↵×≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

(6)

⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵°°×•≈… ←± ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ≈″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ …↵←↵ 

♥÷≈→≈⋅″•↑ ←÷≈″ ″•…≈″←•←♣ ≥↵←→•♦ ↵″…∈ ⊕→•∂℘•↑ ↵″″ ″↑♣≥≥≈←→• ≥↵←→•♦ ♥•←÷ …•↵≠±″↵× ≈×≈≥≈″←↑ →••   ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″. Specific forms for→•∂ ≠•♠≈″ ♣→•∂  •∂ ♥•←÷•∂↵″… ð, define the

≥±…≈× ↔↑≈… ←± ≈♦°×↵•″ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× …≈°≈″…≈″≈ ♥•←÷ ←÷≈ ≥±↑← ±≥≥±″ ≡±→≥↑ ≈•″≠ ←÷±↑≈ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ↵″… °±♥≈→ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ≡↵≥•ו≈↑∑ ↑≈≈ ⋅↑↵↵∝↑ ↵″… ⊆→•♠↵↑←↵♠↵  ↵″… ⇐•≠≠×≈ ↵″… ∈•≈•→± ðð∫ ⋅″ ←÷≈ ≡↵≥•×♣ ±≡ ↵←λ≈→″ ≥±…≈×↑ ♥≈ ÷↵♠≈

→•∂

  

∑ •∂∑

   

÷•∂

 ∏

÷•∂

 ∑ •∂∑



♥÷≈→≈ •↑ ↵ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→  •↑ ←÷≈ ↔↑↔↵× ≠↵≥≥↵ ≡↔″←•±″ ↵″…∏  is the modified Bessel function

±≡ ←÷•→… ∝•″… ±≡ ±→…≈→ ∫ ∨→±≥  ♥≈ ≠≈←

•∂

  

⌡∑ •∂∑



   

÷•∂

 ∏

÷•∂

 ∑ •∂



⋅″ ←÷≈ ≡↵≥•×♣ ±≡ °±♥≈→ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ≥±…≈×↑ ≡±→•∂ ♥≈ ÷↵♠≈→•∂  ≈♦° ÷•∂° ♥÷≈→≈ð ° 

•↑ ↵ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ♥÷•÷ •≥°×•≈↑

•∂

  

⌡∑ •∂∑

≈♦° ÷•∂

°

∑ •∂ 

Although the models in (12) and (13) have no finite range,←÷≈ ≈≡≡≈←•♠≈→↵″≠≈↵can be defined as the smallest

…•↑←↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″ ←♥± ×±↵←•±″↑ ↑↔÷ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ÷↵↑ …→±°°≈… ←±  ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ±♠↵→•↵″≈

⇑ð∫ ⊂÷≈ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ↵″… ∧↵↔↑↑•↵″ ≥±…≈×↑ ↵→≈ ≥≈≥≈→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ °±♥≈→ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ≡↵≥•×♣ ♥÷≈″° ↵″…

°  →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣ ↵″… ↵×↑± ±≡ ←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ≡↵≥•×♣ ♥÷≈″  ð↵″… ÿ  →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣∫ ⋅″ ↑←↵←•±″↵→♣ °→±≈↑↑≈↑ ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≡↔″←•±″ ≠•♠≈″ •″  •← •↑ °ossible to define the variogram function by

÷ ⇑ð ⇑÷∑ ÷ ð∑ 

♥÷≈→≈⇑ð ⌡↵″…⇑÷is specified from C÷•∂  •∂ ≡±→÷÷•∂ ♥•←÷ ↵ ↑↔•←↵×≈ ≥≈≥≈→ ±≡

←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ±→ °±♥≈→ ≈♦°±″≈″←•↵× ≡↵≥•ו≈↑ ≠•♠≈″ •″  ↵″…  →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣∫ ⊂÷≈ °×±← ±≡ °±•″←↑ ÷

±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ♠↵→•±≠→↵≥ ≡↔″←•±″ ≠•♠≈″ •″  •↑ ↵ ↔↑≈≡↔× ←±±× •″ ↑°↵←•↵× ↑←↵←•↑←•↑∫

∫ ∏→•≠•″≠ •″←≈→°±×↵←•±″

⋅″ ≠≈±⌠↑←↵←•↑←•↵× ↵″↵×♣↑≈↑ ↵ ±≥≥±″×♣ ↔↑≈… ≥≈←÷±… ≡±→ •″←≈→°±×↵←•±″ •↑ ∏→•≠•″≠∑ ↑≈≈ ∏→•≠≈ ∫ ⊂÷≈ ∏→•≠•″≠ °→≈…•←•±″ •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣ ↵ ו″≈↵→ ±≥•″↵←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ±↑≈→♠≈… …↵←↵♣ ♣∑    ∑ ♣″defined as

♣↑ð 

•

•♣•∑ 

♥÷≈→≈♣↑ ð•↑ ←÷≈ °→≈…•←≈… ♠↵×↔≈ ↵← ↵ ″≈♥ ×±↵←•±″↑ð↵″…  ″ are weights chosen to define the

≈↑← ו″≈↵→ ↔″•↵↑≈…°→≈…•←±→∫ ⊂÷•↑ ↵″ ≈ ↵÷•≈♠≈… ♣ ≥•″•≥•ƒ•″≠ ←÷≈ ♠↵→•↵″≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≈→→±→ ♥•←÷ →≈↑°≈← ←± ←÷≈ ♥≈•≠÷←↑ ♥÷•×↑← →≈↓↔•→•″≠ ←÷≈°→≈…•←±→←± ≈ ↔″•↵↑≈…∫ ⋅← ≥↵♣ ≈ ↑÷±♥″ ←÷↵← ↔″…≈→ ←÷≈ ↑←↵←•±″↵→•←♣ ↵↑↑↔≥°←•±″ ←÷≈ ♠↵×↔≈↑  ″↵→≈ ≠•♠≈″ ♣ ←÷≈ ↑±×↔←•±″ ←±   ♥÷≈→≈

⇑

ð ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ◊

⇑↑∑ ↑  ⇑↑∑ ↑″ 

∫∫

∫ ∫ ∫∫ ∫∫∫ ∫∫∫

⇑↑″∑ ↑  ⇑↑″∑ ↑″ 

     ð

 ⇑ ⇑ ⇑

⇓∑    ″∑ 

 ↑

∑ ↑ð∑    ∑⇑↑″∑ ↑ð∑∑

(7)

 ∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• ≈← ↵×∫

∫ ⇓↔→↵♣ ≥≈↵↑↔→≈↑

⊂± ↓↔↵″←•≡♣ ←÷≈ ↑•≥•×↵→•←♣ ≈←♥≈≈″ ←♥± ≥↵°↑ ←÷≈ ≠×±↵× ↵↔→↵♣ ∧⇓ ↵″… ∝↵°°↵   •″…≈♦≈↑ ↵″ ≈ ↔↑≈…∫ ⇑±″↑•…≈→ ←♥± ≥↵°↑ ±″≈ ↵××≈… ←÷≈ →≈≡≈→≈″≈ ≥↵° ↵″… ←÷≈ ±←÷≈→ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× ≥↵° ±←÷ …•♠•…≈… •″←± ←÷≈ ↑↵≥≈≥×↵↑↑ …≈″±←≈… ♣• ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ≥∫ ⋅″ ↵……•←•±″ ×≈←•∂ ≡±→•∑ ∂  ∑    ∑ ≥ ≈ ←÷≈ ″↔≥≈→ ±≡

pixels (a pixel is defined as a single point in an image; for exa≥°×≈ •″ ±↔→ ↵°°×•↵←•±″ ±≡ ⊆≈←•±″   °•♦≈× ≥ ≈×±″≠•″≠ ←± ×↵↑↑

•±≡ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× ≥↵° ↵″… ←± ×↵↑↑∂±≡ ←÷≈ →≈≡≈→≈″≈ ≥↵° ↵″…≈ ←÷≈ ←±←↵×

″↔≥≈→ ±≡ °•♦≈×↑ •″ ≈↵÷ ≥↵°∫ ⊂÷≈ ∧⇓ •″…≈♦ •↑ ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷±↑≈ °•♦≈×↑ ←÷↵← ≈×±″≠ ←± ←÷≈ ↑↵≥≈ ×↵↑↑ •″ ±←÷

maps and is defined as GA ∠≥•••∫ ±…≈× ↵″… →≈≡≈→≈″≈ ≥↵°↑ ÷↵♠≈ ↵″ ↵≈°←↵×≈ ↑•≥•×↵→•←♣ •≡

←÷≈ ∧⇓ •″…≈♦ •↑ ≠→≈↵←≈→ ←÷↵″ ð∫∑ ↑≈≈ ⇓″…≈→↑±″ ≈← ↵×∫ ∫ ⊂÷≈ •″…≈♦ •↑ ↵↑≈… ±″ ↵×× ±≡ ←÷≈ °•♦≈×↑

(those belonging to the same class or not) and is defined as  ∠≥••• ∠≥• •• 

∠≥

• ••  ♥÷≈→≈•  ∠≥∂•∂ ↵″… •  ∠≥∂∂•∫ ±…≈× ↵″… →≈≡≈→≈″≈ ≥↵°↑ ÷↵♠≈ ↵ ×±♥

↑•≥•×↵→•←♣ •≡ ð ↵ ≥≈…•↔≥ ↑•≥•×↵→•←♣ •≡ð ðð ↵″… ↵ ÷•≠÷ ↑•≥•×↵→•←♣ •≡ ðð∑ ↑≈≈ ∏→•°°≈″…±→≡≡ ðð∫

 ⊂÷≈ ⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×

∫ ∨±→≥↔×↵←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×

≈←⊂↑∑ ↑  ⇐≠ be a stochastic process defined over a region⇐ ♥•←÷⇐ ∈∫ ⊆↔°°±↑≈ ←÷↵←″

≥≈↵↑↔→≈≥≈″←↑⊂  ⊂∑    ∑ ⊂″ ♥÷≈→≈⊂•  ⊂↑• ≡±→•  ∑    ∑ ″ ↵→≈ ±××≈←≈… ↵← ↵ ↑≈← ±≡ ∝″±♥″

↑°↵←•↵× ×±↵←•±″↑↑≡↑∑    ∑ ↑″≠∫ ⇑±″↑•…≈→ ↵ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈× ±≡ ←÷≈ ≡±→≥

⊂• ≈♦° • •∑ • ∑    ∑ ″ 

⇓↑↑↔≥≈ ↑←↵←•±″↵→•←♣ ↑↔÷ ←÷↵← •  ↑•   ↵″… ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× ≈→→±→ •  ↑• ⇒⊆  ≡±→•  ∑    ∑ ″∫ ⊂÷≈″≈♦° •↑ ←÷≈ ≥≈…•↵″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈×∫ ±←≈ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ •↑ ↵×↑± ↵↑↑↔≥≈… ←± ≈ ±″↑←↵″← ↵→±↑↑ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±↵←•±″↑∑ ↑≈≈ ↵→÷↵″← ≈← ↵×∫ ð∫ ⇓°°×♣•″≠ ↵ ×±≠↵→•←÷≥• ←→↵″↑≡±→≥↵←•±″ ←±  ↵ ⇒⊆ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±≠⌠ו″≈↵→ ≥±…≈× •↑ ±←↵•″≈… ↵↑

∩• ×±≠⊂•  ⌡ ×±≠ •  ⌡•∑ • ∑    ∑ ″∑  ♥÷≈→≈• ×±≠ • ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ ð ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″. Note that the BS spatial log-linear model defined in

 ÷↵↑ ↵ ↑•≥•×↵→ ≡±→≥ ←± ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× ≠•♠≈″ •″ ∫ ∨±→ ≈↵↑≈ ±≡ ″±←↵←•±″ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× •″  ↵″ ≈ ♥→•←←≈″ •″ ≥↵←→•♦ ≡±→≥ ↵↑

∩  ⌡∑ 

♥•←÷∩  ∩∑    ∑ ∩″  ∑    ∑ ↵″…   ∑    ∑ ″ ≈•″≠ ″ ♠≈←±→↑∫ ¬≈→≈•↑ ↵

↑←↵←•±″↵→♣ ↑°↵←•↵× ↑←±÷↵↑←• °→±≈↑↑ ♥•←÷ ≥≈↵″ ♠≈←±→ ⇔ ð∫ ⊆↔°°±↑≈ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ ±♠↵→•↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″ ↵×× °↵•→↑∩•∑ ∩∂•↑ …≈←≈→≥•″≈… ♣ ←÷≈″ ″↑↵×≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ↑↵←•↑≡♣•″≠ ←÷≈ ±″…•←•±″↑ ≠•♠≈″ •″ ð ♥÷≈→≈ ←÷≈ ≈×≈≥≈″←↑ ±≡∈↵″ ≈ ≥±…≈××≈… ♥•←÷ ←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ↑←→↔←↔→≈ ≠•♠≈″ •″ ∫

∫ ∠↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ≈↑←•≥↵←•±″

≈←   ∑ ∑ ≈ ←÷≈ ♠≈←±→ ±≡ ↔″∝″±♥″ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈× ≡±→≥↔×↵←≈… •″

 ←± ≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←≈…∫ ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈ ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ ≡±→  ↵↑≈… ±″ ←÷≈ ±↑≈→♠↵←•±″↑♣ ♣∑    ∑ ♣″±≡

∩ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

   ∑♣   ″ 

∂ ∂  

≈♦° ⊇ ⊇ ″

•

±↑÷ ♣•

 ∑ 

♥÷≈→≈⊇  ⊇∑    ∑ ⊇″•↑ ↵″″ ♠≈←±→ ♥•←÷ ≈×≈≥≈″←↑⊇•↑•″÷♣•  ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″∫ ⊂÷≈

±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ ≡±→ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  •↑ ←÷≈″

ℵ   ″ ×±≠ 

×±≠ ∂ ∂ ″×±≠  

⊇

 

⊇ ⌡ ″

•

×±≠ ±↑÷ ♣•

(8)

⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵°°×•≈… ←± ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ≈″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ …↵←↵ 

The ML method defines the estimator ±≡ ↵↑ ←÷≈ ♠≈←±→ ♥÷•÷ ≥↵♦•≥•↑≈↑  ±→ ≈↓↔•♠↵×≈″←×♣ℵ  ±♠≈→ ←÷≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ↑°↵≈ ±≡ ∫ ⊂÷↔↑

↵→≠≥↵♦ℵ  

⊃÷≈″ ←÷≈ ♠↵×↔≈ •″  •↑ ↵↑↑±•↵←≈… ♥•←÷ ↵ ↑←↵←•±″↵→♣ °±•″← •← ↵″ ≈ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ↑±×↔←•±″ ±≡ ↵ ÷±≥±≠≈″≈±↔↑ ↑♣↑←≈≥ ±≡ ≈↓↔↵←•±″↑ →≈↵←≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ↑±→≈ ♠≈←±→ ↵″… ≠•♠≈″ ♣

◊ℵ 

 ð∑◊ℵ   ð∑◊ℵ 

◊ ð∑ 

↑≈≈ …≈←↵•×↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑±→≈ ♠≈←±→ •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦ ⋅∫ ±←≈ ←÷↵← ″± ↵″↵×♣←•↵× ↑±×↔←•±″ ←± ←÷≈ ↑♣↑←≈≥ ±≡ ≈↓↔↵←•±″↑ ≠•♠≈″ •″  ↵″ ≈ ±←↵•″≈…∫ ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→ ≥↔↑← ≈ ±≥°↔←≈… ♥•←÷ ↵″ •←≈→↵←•♠≈ °→±≈…↔→≈ ←± ↑±×♠≈ ←÷≈ ″±″⌠ו″≈↵→ ↑♣↑←≈≥∫ ¬≈→≈ ←÷≈ ⇒→±♣…≈″⌠∨×≈←÷≈→⌠∧±×…≡↵→⌠⊆÷↵″″± ⇒∨∧⊆ ↓↔↵↑•⌠≈♥←±″ °→±≈…↔→≈ ↑≈≈ ±≈…↵× ↵″… ⊃→•≠÷← ∑ ↵″≠≈ ðð ≥↵♣ ≈ ↔↑≈… ←÷→±↔≠÷ ←÷≈ ≡↔″←•±″↑±°←•≥↵″…±°←•≥♦

•≥°×≈≥≈″←≈… •″ ←÷≈ ↑±≡←♥↵→≈∈∑ ↑≈≈♥♥♥∫∈⌠°→±∂≈←∫±→≠↵″… ∈⌠⊂≈↵≥ ð∫⊂÷≈ ↑•≠″↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ …≈←≈→⌠ ≥•″↵″←↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ¬≈↑↑•↵″ ≥↵←→•♦ ↵″… ±≡ •←↑ ≥•″±→↑ ♥≈→≈ ↵×↑± ÷≈∝≈… ←± ≈″↑↔→≈ ←÷↵← ↵ ♠↵ו… ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ÷↵… ≈≈″ ≡±↔″…∫

⊄″…≈→ ←÷≈ ↔↑↔↵× →≈≠↔×↵→•←♣ ±″…•←•±″↑ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→ •↑ ±″↑•↑←≈″← ≡±→ ↵″… ÷↵↑ ↵″ ↵↑♣≥°←±←• ″±→≥↵× …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫ ⊂÷≈″ ↵↑″ÿ 

°

″ ÿ⇐ ð∑√  ∑ 

♥÷≈→≈√   ו≥″ÿ⋅ ″ ♥•←÷⋅ ≈•″≠ ←÷≈ ≈♦°≈←≈… ∨•↑÷≈→ •″≡±→≥↵←•±″ ≥↵←→•♦ ≠•♠≈″ •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦

⋅⋅⋅ ↵″…ÿ⇐ …≈″±←≈↑ ±″♠≈→≠≈″≈ •″ …•↑←→•↔←•±″∫Asymptotic confidence intervals (CIs) of aðð ⊕ ℘ ×≈♠≈× ≡±→  ↵″…• ♥•←÷• ∑∑ ↵″ ≈ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ ↵↑♣≥°←±←• ″±→≥↵ו←♣ °→±°≈→←♣ ≠•♠≈″ •″ 

↵↑

⇑⋅ ⊕ ℘ ðð ÷ ƒ ⊆⇔∑⌡ƒ ⊆⇔•∑

⇑⋅ ⊕ ℘ ðð ÷≈♦°  ƒ ⊆⇔ ∑≈♦°  ⌡ƒ ⊆⇔ ∑

♥÷≈→≈  •↑ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←≈ ±≡  ×±≠ ∑♥•←÷  ±→  • ≡±→• ∑∑ ↵″…⊆⇔•↑ ←÷≈

≈↑←•≥↵←≈… ↵↑♣≥°←±←• ↑←↵″…↵→… ≈→→±→ ⊆⇔ ±≡ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→ ±≡ ∑ ↑≈≈ ≈•♠↵ ≈← ↵×∫ ð…∫

3.3 Local influence

≈←ℵ ≈ ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ♠≈←±→ ±≡ ≥±…≈× °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑   ∑ ∑ 

≠•♠≈″ •″  ♥÷•÷ •↑ →≈≡≈→→≈… ←± ↵↑ ←÷≈ ″±″⌠°≈→←↔→≈… ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±…∫ ⊂÷≈″ ×≈←ÿ  ÿ∑    ∑ ÿ″ 

∈″ ≈ ↵″ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ♠≈←±→ ♥÷≈→≈ •↑ ↵″ ±°≈″ ↑≈← ±≡ →≈×≈♠↵″← °≈→←↔→↵←•±″↑∫ ≈←ℵ ÿ

≈ ←÷≈ ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ °≈→←↔→≈… ♣ÿ ↵××≈… ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→≈… ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ↵″… ÿ ≈ ←÷≈  ≈↑⌠ ←•≥↵←≈ ±≡ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ℵ ∂ÿ∫ ⋅″ ↵……•←•±″ ×≈←ÿð  ≈ ↵″″ ″±″⌠°≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ♠≈←±→ ↑↔÷ ←÷↵←

ℵ ∂ÿð ℵ ∫ ⊆↔°°±↑≈ ←÷↵←ℵ ∂ÿ•↑ ←♥•≈ ±″←•″↔±↔↑×♣ …•≡≡≈→≈″←•↵×≈ •″ ↵ ″≈•≠÷±↔→÷±±… ±≡∑ÿð∫

±♥ ±≥°↵→•″≠ ←÷≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ ≈↑←•≥↵←≈↑ ↵″…ÿusing local influence, we are able to investigate how the •″≡≈→≈″≈ •↑ ↵≡≡≈←≈… ♣ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″∫ ⇑±″↑•…≈→ ←÷≈ ו∝≈ו÷±±… …•↑°×↵≈≥≈″← ⇐ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

⇐ÿ  ℵ ℵÿ∑ 

which is used to assess the influence of the perturbationÿ∫ ↵→≠≈ ♠↵×↔≈↑ ±≡ ⇐ÿ•″  •″…•↵←≈ ←÷↵←  ↵″… ÿ …•≡≡≈→ ±″↑•…≈→↵×♣ →≈×↵←≈… ←± ←÷≈ ±″←±↔→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ″±″⌠°≈→←↔→≈… ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ℵ ∫ ⊂÷≈

method studies the local behaviour of the influence plot↵ÿ  ÿ⇐ÿ↵→±↔″…ÿ

ð∫ ⇑±±∝ 

↑↔≠≠≈↑←≈… •″♠•≠•×↵←•″≠ ←÷≈ …•→≈←•±″ ±≡ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ↔→♠↵←↔→≈⇑≥↵♦ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑↔→≡↵≈↵ÿ∫ ∨±→ ⇐ÿ•″ 

⇑≥↵♦ ≥↵♦∂∂…∂∂⇑… ♥÷≈→≈⇑… ∂…⇒…∂ ♥•←÷⇒≈•″≠ ↵″″ ″≥↵←→•♦ ↵″……↵ ↔″•←⌠×≈″≠←÷ …•→≈←•±″

(9)

 ∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• ≈← ↵×∫

←÷≈ ¬≈↑↑•↵″ ≥↵←→•♦ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  ≈♠↵×↔↵←≈… ↵←  ∑ ↑≈≈ …≈←↵•×↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ¬≈↑↑•↵″ ≥↵←→•♦ •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦ ⋅⋅∫ ¬≈→≈ •↑ ↵ ″≥↵←→•♦ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→≈… ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ ↵″… ≠•♠≈″ ♣

 ◊

ℵ ÿ

◊ ◊ÿ  ð ⇒ ⇒ ◊

◊

ℵ ∂ÿ

ÿ ◊

ℵ ∂ÿ

ÿ ◊

ℵ ∂ÿ

◊ ◊ÿ

 ⇑ ⇑

⇓

ð ◊

 

⇓ 

±←≈ ←÷↵←  ≥↔↑← ≈ ≈♠↵×↔↵←≈… ↵←  ↵″…ÿ ÿð∫ ⊂÷≈″…≥↵♦•↑ ↵ ↔″•←⌠×≈″≠←÷ ≈•≠≈″♠≈←±→ ↵↑↑±•↵←≈…

♥•←÷ ←÷≈ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ↵↑±×↔←≈ ≈•≠≈″♠↵×↔≈⇑≥↵♦±≡⇒∫ ⇓ ×↵→≠≈ ↵↑±×↔←≈ ♠↵×↔≈ ±≡ ↵″♣ ≈×≈≥≈″← ±≡…≥↵♦→≈♠≈↵×↑

that the case is likely to be influential. Other important dir≈←•±″↑ ±→→≈↑°±″… ←± ←÷≈ ↵″±″•↵× ↵↑•↑ ♠≈←±→↑

…≈• ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″ ♥÷≈→≈≈••↑ ↵ ♠≈←±→ •″∈″♥•←÷ ↵ ±″≈  •″ •←↑•←÷ °±↑•←•±″ ↵″… ƒ≈→±↑ ð •″ ←÷≈ ±←÷≈→

°±↑•←•±″↑∫ ⋅″ ←÷•↑ ↵↑≈ ←÷≈ ↔→♠↵←↔→≈ •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣⇑• ∂••∂ ♥÷≈→≈•••↑ ←÷≈•∑ •≈×≈≥≈″← ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥↵←→•♦⇒ ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″∫ ⊂÷≈ °×±← ±≡⇑•⇑…•♠≈→↑↔↑ ←÷≈ •″…≈♦•can also be used to identify influential cases. We

↔↑≈ •″…≈♦ °×±←↑ ±≡⇑•↵″……≥↵♦•∂as diagnostic measures of local influence in Section 5.⇓×←÷±↔≠÷ ←÷≈→≈ •↑ ″± consensus about a benchmark to determine an influential case ♥≈ ↔↑≈ ↵ ♠↵×↔≈ ↵″↵×±≠±↔↑ ←± ←÷↵← °→±°±↑≈… ♣ ∅÷↔ ↵″… ≈≈ ðð ♥÷•÷ •″…•↵←≈↑ ←÷≈ ↵↑≈•as influential if⇑•  ⇑⌡ ⊆⇔⇑ ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″

♥÷≈→≈⇑ ↵″… ⊆⇔⇑…≈″±←≈ →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣ ←÷≈ ≥≈↵″ ″±→≥↵× ↔→♠↵←↔→≈ ↵″… ←÷≈ ±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ ↑↵≥°×≈ ⊆⇔∫ ⊆•≥•×↵→×♣ •″ ←÷≈ •″…≈♦ °×±← ±≡…≥↵♦•∂ ←÷≈ ↵↑≈•is indicated as influential if∂…≥↵♦•∂∂…≥↵♦∂⌡ ⊆⇔∂…≥↵♦∂ ≡±→•  ∑    ∑ ″ ♥÷≈→≈∂…≥↵♦∂↵″… ⊆⇔∂…≥↵♦∂…≈″±←≈ →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣ ←÷≈ ≥≈↵″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≈×≈≥≈″←↑ •″ ↵↑±×↔←≈ ♠↵×↔≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ♠≈←±→…≥↵♦↵″… ←÷≈ ±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ ↑↵≥°×≈ ⊆⇔∫ ⊃≈ ↔↑≈ ←÷≈↑≈ ≈″÷≥↵→∝ ♠↵×↔≈↑ •″ ←÷≈ ↑•≥↔×↵←•±″ ↑←↔…♣ ↵″… •″ ←÷≈ ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ↵°°×•↵←•±″ ±″↑•…≈→≈… •″ ⊆≈←•±″↑  ↵″…  →≈↑°≈←•♠≈×♣∫

∫ ⊆≈×≈←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ↑÷≈≥≈

⊆↔°°±↑≈ ←÷↵← ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ →≈↑°±″↑≈ ♠↵→•↵×≈ •↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≡±→≥∩ÿ↑ ∩↑ ⌡⇓ÿ ♥÷≈→≈⇓ •↑ ↵ ↑♣≥≥≈←→• ↵″… ″±″⌠↑•″≠↔×↵→ ≥↵←→•♦∫ ¬≈″≈∩ÿð↑ ∩↑↵″…∩ÿ↑• ∩↑• ⌡↵•ÿ ♥÷≈→≈↵••↑

←÷≈•←÷ →±♥ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥↵←→•♦⇓∫ ⋅″ ←÷•↑ ↵↑≈ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→≈… ×±≠⌠ו∝≈ו÷±±… ≡↔″←•±″ •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

ℵ ∂ÿ  ″ ×±≠ 

×±≠ ∂ ∂ ″×±≠  

⊇ 

ÿ ⊇ÿ⌡

•

×±≠ ±↑÷ ♣•⌡↵•ÿ

 ∑

 ♥÷≈→≈⊇ÿ  ⊇ÿ∑    ∑ ⊇ÿ″

 ♥•←÷⊇ÿ

•  ↑•″÷♣•⌡↵•ÿ  ≡±→•  ∑    ∑ ″∫ ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈ ±→→≈⌠

↑°±″…•″≠ ↑±→≈ ♠≈←±→ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣ ↑≈≈ …≈←↵•×↑ •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦ ⋅⊇

⊄ÿ  ◊ℵ ∂ÿ

◊ÿ 

ÿ⌡

⇓⊇ÿ 

⇑±″↑•…≈→ ←÷≈ ♠↵→•↵″≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↑±→≈ ♠≈←±→ ≠•♠≈″ •″  ↵↑ ↵ ≡↔″←•±″ ±≡ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ♠≈←±→ÿ ←÷↵← •↑

∧ÿ  ⊇↵→⊄ÿ  ⇔ ⊄ÿ⊄ÿ  →≈↵×ו″≠ ←÷↵← ⇔⊄ÿ  ð∫ ∨±→ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ ↑°↵←•↵× ×±≠⌠ו″≈↵→

≥±…≈× ♥≈ ÷↵♠≈ ←÷↵← ↵≠↵•″ ↑≈≈ …≈←↵•×↑ •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦ ⋅⊇

∧ÿ ⇓  

 

⇓ 

⇓±→…•″≠ ←± ∅÷↔ ≈← ↵×∫ ðð ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ÿ•↑ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ •≡ ↵″… ±″×♣ •≡∧ÿð ⋅″ ≡±→ ð

♥•←÷∧ ≠•♠≈″ •″ ∫ ⋅″ ≠≈″≈→↵× ≡±→ ↵″ ↵→•←→↵→♣ ↑♣≥≥≈←→• ↵″… ″±″⌠↑•″≠↔×↵→ ≥↵←→•♦⇓∧ÿ⋅″∫ ⋅″↑←≈↵… ≡±→ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ←± ≈ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈⇓≥↔↑← ≈ ≡±↔″… ↔↑•″≠ ←÷≈ ±″…•←•±″

⇓  

 

⇓⋅″∑ 

≡±→ ↑±≥≈ ♠↵×↔≈ ±≡ ð∫ ∧•♠≈″ ←÷↵←•↑ ″±″⌠″≈≠↵←•♠≈ ±″↑•…≈→•″≠  •≥≥≈…•↵←≈×♣ ↑÷±♥↑ ←÷↵←⇓      

 satisfies the condition given in (29). Thus, for the BS spatia× ×±≠⌠ו″≈↵→ ≥±…≈× ↵″ ↵°°→±°→•↵←≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ↑÷≈≥≈ ≡±→ ←÷≈ →≈↑°±″↑≈ ♠↵→•↵×≈ •↑ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

∩ÿ↑ ∩↑ ⌡

 

 

(10)

⇒•→″↵↔≥⌠⊆↵↔″…≈→↑ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈×ו″≠ ↵″… …•↵≠″±↑←•↑ ↵°°×•≈… ←± ↵≠→•↔×←↔→↵× ≈″≠•″≈≈→•″≠ …↵←↵ 

±♥ ±″↑•…≈→ ←÷≈ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ ≥↵←→•♦ defined in (25), the perturbation given in (30), and

◊ℵ ∂ÿ ◊ÿ 

⊇ 

ÿ ⇓⌡

 ⊇

ÿ ⇓⊇ÿ

    ⋅″ ⇓  ⊂÷≈″ ←÷≈ ≈×≈≥≈″←↑ ±≡ ±←↵•″≈… ≡→±≥  ↵→≈ ≈♦°→≈↑↑≈… ↵↑  ◊

ℵ ÿ

ÿ 

 

 

⋅″ ⇓∑ 

 ◊

ℵ ÿ

ÿ ⇐

    ⋅″ ⇓∑ ⌡⊇ ÿ        ⋅″ ⇓     ⌡    ⇓ ∑  

◊ℵ ÿ

◊◊ÿ 

◊ℵ ÿ

◊◊ÿ∑

◊ℵ ÿ

◊◊ÿ∑

◊ℵ ∂ÿ ◊◊ÿ

∑ 

♥÷≈→≈⇐  …∑    ∑ …″ ♥•←÷ …∂  וÿ ≡±→ •  ∑    ∑ ″ ↵″… ו ≈•″≠ ←÷≈•←÷ →±♥ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ⇓ 

 ⌡  

⇓∫ ⊂÷≈ ≈×≈≥≈″←↑ ±≡ given in (34) are defined as

◊ℵ ÿ

◊•◊ÿ 

    ⋅″ ⇓⌡⊇  ÿ   ◊ ◊•  ⇓ ⌡    ⋅″ ⇓   ◊   ◊•  ⌡  ◊  ◊• ⇓∑

♥÷≈→≈ ≥∑    ∑ ≥″ ♥•←÷≥•וÿ ≡±→• ∑    ∑ ″ ↵″…ו≈•″≠ ←÷≈•←÷ →±♥ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥↵←→•♦

⇓  ◊   ◊•   ⌡  ◊  ◊• ⇓ ⇐≈←↵•×≈… ↵×≠≈→↵ ±≡ ←÷≈ ↵±♠≈ ≈♦°→≈↑↑•±″↑ •↑ °→≈↑≈″←≈… •″ ⇓°°≈″…•♦ ⊇∫ ⊆•≥↔×↵←•±″ ↑←↔…♣ ⋅″ ←÷•↑ ↑≈←•±″ ♥≈ ±″…↔← ←♥± ⇑ ↑•≥↔×↵←•±″ ↑←↔…•≈↑ ↵↑≈… ±″″↑↵≥°×•″≠ °±•″←↑♣ ♣∑    ∑ ♣″

≠≈″≈→↵←≈… ≡→±≥ ↵ ×±≠⌠⇒⊆ …•↑←→•↔←•±″ ♥•←÷ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→  ≡ð∑ð≠ ↑↵×≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→  ↵″… ↑°↵←•↵× ↑←→↔←↔→≈ …≈↑→•≈… ♣ ←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ≥±…≈× ♥•←÷  ð  ≡ð∑ð≠  ≡ð∑ð≠↵″…

  ≡ð∑≠∫ ⊃≈ ±″↑•…≈→ ↵ →≈≠↔×↵→ ≠→•… ♥•←÷ ↵ ≥•″•≥↔≥ …•↑←↵″≈ ≈←♥≈≈″ °±•″←↑ ±≡ ±″≈ ↔″•←∫ ⊃≈

≈♠↵×↔↵←≈ ←÷≈ °≈→≡±→≥↵″≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ≥±…≈× °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ≡±→ ↑≥↵×× ↵″… ×↵→≠≈ ↑↵≥°×≈ ↑•ƒ≈↑∫ ⊂÷≈″ ♥≈ ↵↑↑≈↑↑ ←÷≈ °≈→≡±→≥↵″≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ °→±°±↑≈… …•↵≠″±↑←• ≥≈←÷±…ology on the detection of influential cases.

∫⊆←↔…♣ ⋅  ≈↑←•≥↵←•±″

To assess the efficiency of the estimator≈≥°•→•↵××♣ ♥≈ ↔↑≈ ←÷≈ ↵↑±×↔←≈ →≈×↵←•♠≈ •↵↑ ⇓∈⇒ ↵″… ←÷≈

root mean squared error (RMSE) defined as the square root of th≈ ≥≈↵″ ↑↓↔↵→≈… ≈→→±→ ≠•♠≈″ ♣

⇓∈⇒•  • • • ðð∑ ⊆⇔•   ° ° ∪ ∂ •∂ •∑ ♥÷≈→≈ •  °∠°∂•∂ ♥•←÷ •∂ ≈•″≠ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←≈ ±≡ •  ≡ ∑ ∑ ≠≡±→ ←÷≈∂←÷ ⇑ →≈°×•↵←•±″∫ ±←≈ ←÷↵←   ∑∑•↑ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←≈ ±≡   ∑ ∑ ∫ ⊃≈ ±″↑•…≈→

(11)

ð ∨↵•↵″↵ ∧↵→•↵⌠∠↵°↵″• ≈← ↵×∫

•″ °→↵←•↵××♣ ↵×× ↵↑≈↑∫ ∨±→ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ …≈↑→••″≠ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ↑←→↔←↔→≈ ←÷≈ ⇓∈⇒↑ ↵→≈ ≠→≈↵←≈→ ←÷↵″ð•″ ↵ ≡≈♥ ↵↑≈↑ ♥•←÷ ↵ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ±≡∫ ¬±♥≈♠≈→ ≡±→″  ←÷•↑ °•←↔→≈ •↑ ↓↔•←≈ …•≡≡≈→≈″← ≈↵↔↑≈ ±″×♣ ←÷≈ ⇓∈⇒↑ ±≡ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→ ±≡ ←÷≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→ →≈≥↵•″ ×±♥∫ ∨±→ ←÷≈ ±←÷≈→ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ •″ ♠↵→•±↔↑ ↑≈″↵→•±↑ ←÷≈ ⇓∈⇒↑ ↵→≈ ÷•≠÷∫ ⋅″ ≠≈″≈→↵× ←÷≈ ∈⊆⇔↑ ↵→≈ ↑≥↵×× ≡±→ ←÷≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ±≡ ↵″…  ↔← ↵→≈ ≥±…≈→↵←≈ ≡±→ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑∫ ⇓↑ ≈♦°≈←≈… ←÷≈ ♠↵×↔≈↑ •″→≈↵↑≈ ≡±→″ ±≥°↵→≈… ←± ←÷±↑≈ ≡±→″  ðð∫ ⊆↔÷ →≈↑↔×←↑ ↑÷±♥ ←÷≈ ↑≈″↑•←•♠•←♣ ±≡ ←÷≈  ≈↑←•≥↵←±→↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ ⇒⊆ ↑°↵←•↵× ≥±…≈× ←± ↑≥↵×× ↑↵≥°×≈↑∫

∫Study II: influence diagnostics

⊃≈ ≈♠↵×↔↵←≈ ←÷≈ °≈→≡±→≥↵″≈ ±≡ ←÷≈ ±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ …•↵≠″±↑←•c tools in detecting influential cases. In ±→…≈→ ←± ↵→→♣ ±↔← ←÷•↑ ≈♠↵×↔↵←•±″ ♥≈ ≠≈″≈→↵←≈ ←♥± …↵←↵ ↑≈←↑ ↔↑•″≠ ↵ →≈↑°±″↑≈ ♠↵→•↵×≈ ↵↑ ≠•♠≈″ •″  ♥•←÷ ↑↵×≈ ≥↵←→•♦ ↑←→↔←↔→≈ …≈↑→•≈… ♣ ↵←λ≈→″ ≡↵≥•×♣ ≥±…≈× ±″↑•…≈→•″≠ ←÷≈ ↑÷↵°≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→  ≡ð∑ð≠ ↵″…″  ðð∫ ⇓≡←≈→ ≠≈″≈→↵←•″≠ ≈↵÷ …↵←↵ ↑≈←♣  ♣∑    ∑ ♣″ ♥≈ ±″←↵≥•″↵←≈ •←↑ ≥↵♦•≥↔≥ ♠↵×↔≈ ←±

≠≈″≈→↵←≈ ↵″ ±↔←ו≈→∫ ⊂÷•↑ ±″←↵≥•″↵←•±″ •↑ ↑•≥•×↵→ ←± ←÷↵← ↔sed in Ortega et al. (2003) to study the influence ±≡ ↵ °≈→←↔→↵←•±″ •″ ↵″ ≈♦°×↵″↵←±→♣ ♠↵→•↵×≈ ≡±→ ≠≈″≈→↵וƒ≈d log-gamma fixed effect models. Specifically, we ±″↑•…≈→ ←÷≈ ±″←↵≥•″↵←•±″

♣≥↵♦♣≥↵♦⌡ ð °

♣ 

For the first data set (  ð∑ ″ ðð ←÷≈ ±″←↵≥•″↵←≈… ↵↑≈ ↵±→…•″≠ ←±  →≈↑↔×←↑ ←± ≈ ↵↑≈ ∫ ∨•≠∫ ×≈≡← ↑÷±♥↑ ←÷≈ ±♦⌠°×±← ≡±→ ←÷•↑ …↵←↵ ↑≈← ♥÷•÷ •…≈″tifies case #59 as an outlier. Fig. 2(right) displays ←÷≈ ±→→≈↑°±″…•″≠ ≥±…≈× ≥↵° …•♠•…≈… •″←± ↓↔↵→←•×≈↑ ≡→±≥ ♥÷•÷ •← •↑ °±↑↑•×≈ ←± •…≈″←•≡♣ ♥÷≈→≈ ±↔←ו≈→↑ ↵→≈ ×±↵←≈…∫ ⇓≡←≈→ ←÷≈ ±″←↵≥•″↵←•±″ ←÷≈ ≈↑←•≥↵←≈↑ ±≡ ←÷≈ °↵→↵≥≈←≈→↑ ±←↵•″≈… ↔↑•″≠ ←÷≈ ⇒∨∧⊆ ≥≈←÷±… ♥•←÷ ←÷≈•→ ≈↑←•≥↵←≈… ↵↑♣≥°←±←• ⊆⇔↑ •″ °↵→≈″←÷≈↑•↑ ↵→≈  ð  ð ð∑

 ðð ð∑ ðððð ð↵″… ð ð  →≈↑↔×←•″≠ •″ ↵″

≈↑←•≥↵←≈… ↑°↵←•↵× …≈°≈″…≈″≈ →↵…•↔↑↵ ð ð ∫ ∨•≠∫  …•↑°×↵♣↑ ←÷≈ •″…≈♦ °×±← ±≡ •×≈≡←

↵″……≥↵♦∂→•≠÷← ≡±→ ←÷≈ ↑°↵←•↵× ↑←→↔←↔→≈ …≈↑→•≈… ♣ ←÷≈ ↵←λ≈→″ ≡↵≥•×♣ ≥±…≈× ♥•←÷  ð ±″↑•…≈→•″≠ ←÷≈ ±″←↵≥•″↵←≈… ↵↑≈ ↵±→…•″≠ ←± ∫ ⊂÷•↑ ↑←↔…♣ ±≡ ×±↵×influence shows that case #59 is detected as

potential influential∫



    ð

 

 ð



References

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