Family environment: Seen through the eyes of adolescents labeled as emotionally disturbed

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8-3-1997

Family environment: Seen through the eyes of

adolescents labeled as emotionally disturbed

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Rochester, New York

Family Environment: Seen Through the Eyes

of Adolescents Labeled as Emotionally Disturbed

Master's Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty

Of the School Psychology Program

College of Liberal Arts

ROCHESTER INSTITUTE of TECHNOLOGY

By

Jon F. Koeng

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

August 3, 1997

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Abstract

Emotionallydisturbed adolescent's perceptions oftheir_familyenvironments were assessed_using

the_FamilyEnvironmentScale_(FES)(Moos, 1994). The sampleconsisted of27 students

classified as_emotionallydisturbed _according totheNew York State Part 200guidelinesfor

special_{education, ranging in} agefrom fourteento _eighteen, and_fallinginto five _familytypes:

two-parentintact_{families, stepfamilies,} extended_families, singleparent_families, and other. Results

indicatethatsubjectsdiffer significantly fromtheFES normative sample on six often variables

includingCohesion, Expression, Conflict, Achievement-Orientation, Intellectual-Cultural

Orientation, andMoral-Religious Orientation. Findingssuggestthat_family relationships and

FamilyEnvironment: Seen Through the Eyes

ofAdolescents Labeled as_EmotionallyDisturbed

Howdo adolescents and childrenlearnto copewithproblems? Isit upto thechild _alone, to facethe _day-to-daystressesthat _accompanylife? Isitthe_{responsibility}ofparentsto model

appropriate_copingstrategies andteach theirchildrento dealwith stressfullife situations? Is itthe

responsibilityofthe schoolto seethatit's studentsbecome psychologicallyand_emotionally stable? Thesequestionsaredifficulttoanswer. Theratesofsubstance_abuse,juveniledelinquent

crimes, school _drop-out, and suicide_amongadolescents remain _staggering,inspite of social service_support, teenoutreach_programs, andpsychologicalprograms_focusingon child

psychotherapy.

Psychologists inthepublic schoolshave few alternativesforthe treatmentof emotional

problems experienced_bystudents: _they canbereferred outto alocal _agency, oriftheproblems are associated with_school,whichinmost cases_{theyare, the} studentcan be labeledas _Seriously EmotionallyDisturbed _(SED)undertheguidelines oftheIndividualswithDisabilities Act(PL

101-476, IDEA). The Federalguidelinesforprovision ofservicesunderthe SED classification

are not specific with regardto particular _diagnoses,but describe symptomsthat leaveroomfor

interpretation (Stein&Merrell, 1992). Intermsof more specific_diagnoses, thesesymptoms

could stemfrom disorders ranging from anxiety and mooddisordersto conduct and_personality

disorders.

Studentswith emotionalandbehavioral problems who areidentified and receive special

education services undertheclassification ofSED are_typicallyprovidedbothchildfocused

encompass a_varietyofindividual and _grouptechniques designedto _helpadolescents overcome

some personal_{deficiency(Kazdin,} 1987). Kazdin₍₁₉₈₇₎ identifies severalformsof_therapyused

inthe treatmentof children who exhibit antisocialbehavior. One technique isindividual

psychotherapy, throughwhich acounselor _mayprovideanadolescentwith corrective emotional

experiences andinsight into his/her behavior. _{Group psychotherapy}follows asimilar_approach,

butincludesapeer_groupthroughwhichto processtheseexperiences. Behavior_therapyinvolves

retraining, modeling, andtheuse of_{reinforcement,} designed to_modifytheadolescent's behavior

and/or methods of_dealingwith situations. Social-skills_trainingis anotheralternativethat

involves_teachingand_{practicing step-by-step} approachesto a_varietyofinterpersonalsituations.

Allofthese approachescenter on_changingtheadolescents'

ways of_{thinking about,} and_reacting

to, themselves andtheir environments.

Kazdin ₍₁₉₈₇₎ identifiesdirect _{familytherapy}as_{typicallyfocusing} on_{the communication,}

relationships, and structurewithinthefamily. For_example, parent management _trainingisa

familyfocused_therapythat teachesparentsto _developprosocialbehaviors intheirchildren

through social_learningtechniques. Itis importanttonotethatwhentheseapproachesare _used, it

is _typicallywithfamilies of adolescentslabeledwithdisruptivebehaviordisorders. _However,

familytherapyisnot_frequentlycitedas aformoftreatmentforadolescent_{internalizing}disorders

(Kazdin, 1991).

Numerousstudies haveevaluated theeffectivenessof_{psychotherapy}with children and

adolescents. In ameta-analysis, _Casey andBerman₍₁₉₈₅₎foundsignificant outcome effectsfor

fourtherapeutic treatmentsused with problems such as_{hyperactivity/impulsivity, phobias,} and

problem_{in SED. They}alsofoundthatbehavioralbasedtreatmentshad higheroutcomeeffects

thannon-behavioraltreatments. Whenthefocusof_therapywas social _adjustment, asinthecase

of_SED, outcome effectswere_{extremely limited}whentheoutcome measures wereinareas of self

concept and achievement.

Hazelrigg, Cooper, andBorduin ₍₁₉₈₇₎conductedareviewofstudies ontheeffectiveness

of_{familytherapy} withadolescentswithbehaviorproblems. _Theyconcludedthat outcomes

following familytherapywere_{consistently better}than alternative_treatments, andthanno

treatment. Thereisaneedfor furtherresearch ontheeffectiveness of_{familytherapy}with children

and youthlabeledas SED.

Typically, adolescentslabeled_SED, demonstrate an_inabilitytoreact_{appropriately}to

various stressful lifesituations, probably becausetheypossessinadequateorinefficientschemas

for_dealingwiththe consequences of_{dailyexperiences, (copingstrategies)} developed_duringtheir

earlylife. Therefore, a_primarygoal ofinterventionistobuildthese _coping strategies. Child

focused psychotherapy has beenshowntobe inadequate for_dealingwiththeseissues _(Casey&

Berman, 1985);thus_familybased interventionneedstobe implementedandevaluated. _By

changingthefocus oftreatmentfromchildrentothe_family,the_parents,who havemore control

overthe child's_environment, arethusbetterableto effect real change, andbecomenot_onlythe

focus of_treatment, but alsotheinstrumentsofchange.

The Problem

InaBiennial Evaluation Reporton Chapter 315: Programs for Childrenwith Serious

EmotionalDisturbance(CFDA_84.237) for 1993 and _1994, the_following statistics were

Disturbed studentsleave schoolwithout_graduating, withmost_droppingout_bytenthgrade. SED

students werefoundto havelowergradesthan_any other_groupof_students, andto failmore

courses andminimum_competencyexaminationsthan_{does any}other_group ofdisabled students.

Twentypercent of_EmotionallyDisturbedstudentswerefoundtobearrestedatleastoncebefore

theyleave school, and35%were arrestedwithinafewyears ofleaving school. Thesenumbers

indicatethat thecurrent strategiesused inspecial educationsettingsforthe treatmentofSerious

Emotional_Disturbance,which are_{predominantly}child-focused _{(Kazdin, 1987),} are not_nearlyas

effective as_theycouldbe.

FamilyEffects onEmotional Development

Developmentof_{self-confidence,} an_{easy-goingdisposition,}andthedisinclinationto use

avoidant_{coping strategies,} areallimportanttothepsychological developmentofthe child

(Holahan &_{Moos, 1986)} andit is _primarilythrough the_familythat theseare learned.

Characteristicsofthe_familyenvironment _playa major partinthe_{understanding}of_anyindividuals

emotional well-being. _{Asarnow, Carlson,} and _{Guthrie, (1987)} suggestthat _familyenvironment

hasasignificantinfluence ona child's social and emotional development becausechildren

interpretandcope with stimuliinwaysthathavebeenmodeled_{by family}members. Thewaysin

which each member ofa_familyreactsto aninfinite numberof_situations, shapes and moldsthe

mindofa child.

McCubbin andMcCubbin (1988)identified a number of critical characteristicsinwhat

have beentermed "resilientfamilies,"

orfamilieswhotend toberesistantto disruption intheface

ofchange and adaptiveintheface of crisis. _Theypoint outthat all_{families face hardships,}

are definedas resilient. Forexample, those thatcelebrate special events and maintain various

positivetraditionslike_holidays, are moreresilientinthefaceofdisruptionsto the_familylife

cycle. Thosethatemphasize_{communication,} and positiverelationshipsbetweenin-laws,relatives

and friendsare more resilient. _Therefore, parental _modelingofbehaviorsthatencouragepositive

self-image and_behavior, and effective_{coping strategies,} takeon apreventativeroleinchild and

adolescent emotionaldisturbance.

McCubbin, Needle, andWilson _(1985), identified "adaptive

resources,"

ortraits thatare

used_{by familymembers,} the_{familysystem,} andthe_communitytomeet demandsplacedon_them,

suchas_familydefinitionand _meaning, aswell as_coping skills. _Theydefine_familydefinitionand

meaningashow "familiesand adolescents_{cognitively interpret}theirsituation intermsofthe

demands_theyexperiencerelativeto theresources availableto meetthedemand. "(pg. ₅₄₎

"Copingisdefinedasthecognitive andbehavioralresponses oftheindividual_(adolescent) orthe

familyto thedemands experienced."(pg. _{54) Similarly, Olsen, Russell,} andSprenkle₍₁₉₇₉₎ view

themostimportantvariableinthemanagementof_family stress as_familycohesionand

adaptability. _Theyalso _{identify familypride,} parent-adolescent andmarital communication_skills,

andthe_abilityto resolve conflicts ascriticalresourcesforadaption.

It isnot _{only important}thatparentsmodelthese skillsinpositive environments. Parents

must also_help challengethechild to _{developindependence,} and togeneralize skillsto situations

outsidethefamily. Ina_study ofthe developmentof moral_reasoning, Walkerand_Taylor, (cited

in_{Allen, Hauser, Bell,} &_{O'Connor, 1994)}foundthathighlevelsof conflict and of_disparityin

moral development betweenparents andchildrenwerepredictive of greaterdevelopmentalgains

contentionthattheco-occurrence of_challenging and supportivebehaviorsbest predictfuture

development. _Allen, et al. ₍₁₉₉₄₎ have indicatedthat the exhibition of_{autonomy along}with

relatednessin_familyinteractions is _stronglyrelatedtoboth egodevelopment andself-esteemin adolescents. Interms ofparents'

rolesintheirchildren'semotional _development, this suggeststhat adolescentswho havean_opportunityto testtheirindependenceinasafe and supportive

environment are_likelyto havethegreatestsocial and emotionalgains. _Similarly, Perosaand

Perosa₍₁₉₉₃₎found forthedevelopmentofa stable_identityandpositive _copingstrategies_by

young adults, abalance betweenenmeshment and disengagement inthe_familyisnecessary. _They

foundthata_familyenvironmentinwhichmembers are ableto express(and resolve) conflictis

primaryto theseaspectsofdevelopment.

FamilyProblemsRelatedtoEmotional Disturbance

There are a numberof_familycharacteristicsthathave beenassociated withthe

development of emotionalproblemsinchildren and adolescents(Fauber &_Long, 1991). Thefirst isparental conflict or divorce. Inalongitudinal studyoffamiliesofdivorceand_remarriage, Hetherington₍₁₉₈₉₎ delineatedanumber of problems experienced_bychildren and adults_during

thefirsttwoyears _followingadivorce: Childand parent emotional _distress; poor psychological

health andbehavior_problems; disruptions infamily functioning; andproblems _adjustingtonew

roles, relationships, andlifechanges associated withthealtered_familysituation. After_{two years,}

the_majorityof parents and children werefoundtobe_{adaptingreasonably}wellor _showingsigns

after_{two years,} most girlstended tobe_functioningwell and hadpositiverelationshipswiththeir

custodialmother_{(Hetherington,} 1989).

In another_studyofdivorced_{families, Shaw, Emery,} andTuer₍₁₉₉₃₎ foundthat

differencesinchild adjustment were more relatedto thedifferences _{in parenting}stylesbetween

"to-be-divorced"

families and "always-married" families. Familiesthatwere_goingtobe _divorced,

with _sons, showed _{significantly}less concernfor_children, higherlevels of_rejection, economic

stress,and parental conflictpriorto the divorcethanintact families. "Parentalconflictwasthe

onlyconsistent predictor of adjustmentacrosstime and

gender."

(pg. _{130) Thus,} divorce seems

tobe _highlyrelatedto thedevelopmentof emotional_problems,butthisis more relatedto the

parental conflictthat leadsto _divorce,ratherthantothedivorce itself.

Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, and _Wierson, (cited in Fauber and_{Long, 1991)} statedthat

"most oftherelationbetweenmarital conflict and_{internalizing}and _{externalizing}problems of

young adolescenceis_primarily explainedthroughperturbations in parenting

practices."

(Pg. ₈₁₆₎

Theynote_particularlyinconsistent_monitoring and discipline ordecreasedparental warmth and

involvement. Fauberand_{Long (1991)}identifiedparental _{psychopathology,} parental_drug and

alcohol _{abuse,familyviolence,} child abuse and_neglect, and poorbehaviormanagement skills as

significant factors inthedevelopment of social and emotional problems. Whenparents_display

these _{problems,they} are not_{only creating}an_{unhealthy environment, they}also are_modeling

inappropriate copingstrategies. _Thus,familystressesleadnot _onlyto emotional problems and

inappropriate coping strategies, butalsoto healthrisk_behaviors,like _smoking, alcohol and_drug

abuse(McCubbin, Needle, &Wilson, 1985). Whenthefamily failsto meettheneeds ofthe

Peers mayplace pressureontheadolescentto participatein inappropriate orhealthriskbehaviors

like _{smoking, drinking,} andtheuse ofdrugs.

Parentsmust not_onlymodel appropriate _skills, butthose skills mustbeapparentto the

child oradolescent. Ina_studyofdepressedand suicidal _{children, Asarnow,Carlson,} andGuthrie

(1987) foundthat:

The strongest predictorsof suicidalbehaviorwerechildren'sperceptions oftheir

familyenvironment. Childrenwhothoughtofandattempted suicidetended to

perceivetheir_familyenvironments as unsupportive and_stressful, withpoor

control, high conflict, and alackofcohesiveness. (pg. ₃₆₅₎

This,when considered with other research on_{familycharacteristics,} suggeststhat thesefactors

identified_byAsarnow, Carlson, and Guthrie ₍₁₉₈₇₎shouldbe viewed as riskfactorsratherthan

causalfactors. It furthersuggeststhat _{earlyintervention, specifically}with_families, hasthehighest

potentialforpreventionoffurthersocial and emotional problemsinchildren and adolescents.

Goals ofthis _Study

Thegoal ofthis _studywasto investigate_familyvariablesinchildren with Serious

Emotional_Disturbance, andto_identifyparticularareas of_{family functioning}thatmight serve as

the_{primary focus}ofintervention. _Finally, it mayprovidedirection for planning_familyoriented

formsoftreatmentandindividual_therapywith_Emotionally Disturbedchildren.

Byeliciting

adolescents'

perspectives ontheir_{familyenvironment,} a more accurate

understanding ofthe_familyfactorsinvolved inemotional disturbance_maybegained. The

perspectiveofthe_parents, and ofprofessionals, maybe significantly different fromthat ofthe

EmotionallyDisturbed adolescents'

views oftheir_familyenvironments areinvestigatedin

thecurrent _{study using}the_FamilyEnvironment Scale_{(FES)(Moos, 1994)}and comparedtoits

normative sample. Thisscale assessesthreeaspects ofthe_family environment: _{Relationships,}

personal _growth, and system maintenance. _{The relationship dimension}assesses how involved

people areinthe_family, how_theyhelpeach_other, andhow_theyexpressfeelingsto eachother.

Thepersonal growthdimensionassessesthewaysinwhichthe_familyencouragesor suppresses

areasof personal growthlike_{independence, intellectuality,} or morality. The system maintenance

dimensionassessessuchthingsas_{organization,} and _clarity of_{expectations,} control and order.

Methods

Subjects

The sample was made_up of23 male students and4female _students,ingrades 9to 12.

Subjects describedthemselvesas_fallinginto one offive_familyenvironmenttypes: two-parent

intactfamily, stepfamily, singleparent_family, extended_family, orother. Figure 1 showsthe

break downof_familyenvironmenttype.

Insert Figure 1 abouthere

All subjects werelabeledas_{Emotionally Disturbed, according}toPart 200 ofthe

RegulationsoftheCommissioner of_Education, Subchapter_P, ofthe State ofNew York(1993).

All subjects wereservedinthe 6: 1:1 (students: teachers: assistant_teachers)program atthe

Monroe Board ofCooperativeEducational Services(BOCES) #1, AlternativeHighSchool. All

home schooldistrict. BOCES facilitiesare supported_{by funding}fromaconsortium of area school_districts, andwere createdto provide special servicesthatindividual schooldistrictscould not provide. TheAlternative High Schoolis asection oftheMonroe BOCES#1 which_primarily serves_EmotionallyDisturbedadolescents.

Instrumentation

The_FamilyEnvironment Scale_(FES)isone often Social Climate Scales developed_by MoosandMoos (1994). The FES ismade_up of_ninetystatements whicharemarkedas either

trueorfalse_bytherespondent. The FES hasthreeforms: arealform(Form_R), anIdeal Form (Form_I), and anExpectations Form (Form E). For_{this study,}Form Rwas usedbecauseit addresses

adolescents'

perceptionsoftheircurrent_familyenvironment. Form RoftheFES has

beenusedbyclinicians, consultants, andprogramevaluatorsto "understand individuals'

perceptions oftheirconjugal and nuclear_families, ...formulateclinical casedescriptions, ...monitor

change, ...describeandcompare familyclimates, ...predictand measurethe outcomeoftreatment,

...focusonhow families adapt, ...andunderstandtheimpact ofthefamilyon children and adolescents"

(Moos, 1994, pg. 2). A copyoftheFES appearsin Appendix I.

The FES assessesthreedimensionsofthe_family environment: the_{Relationship dimension,}

designedto"reflect meaningfuland _conceptuallydistinctaspects of_family

environment."

(Moos,

1994, pg. ₂₅₎ T-scores (Mean=

50, Standard Deviation=

10) are obtainedfor eachfactorofthe

FES, and canbe comparedto thenormative sample. NormativedatafortheFES was obtained

for 1,432 normal and 788distressed _families, fromallareas of_{the country,} andfromvarious

familytypes. ThetenfactorsoftheFES are describedin Table 1.

Insert Table 1 abouthere

The FES has beenshownto havegoodpsychometric properties. Table 2providesthe

reliability data forthe tensubscalesoftheFES. _{Edman, Cole,} andHoward ₍₁₉₉₀₎ found good convergent_{validity between}theFES and _{FamilyAdaptability}and Cohesion Evaluation Scales-third edition_(FACES-III) (Olsen, Portner, &_Lavee, 1985). PerosaandPerosa₍₁₉₉₀₎

similarly foundthat cohesion asmeasured_bythe_FES, was _stronglyrelatedto cohesionas measured_bythe_Family Assessment Device_(FAD) andthe Structural_FamilyInteraction Scale

(SFIS-R).

Insert Table 2abouthere

Procedure

Allsubjects completedthe 90item FES. Eachsubjectwasinstructedto write onthefront

cover oftheirresponsesheetwhattypeof_familytheyconsiderthemselves a part of:two-parent

identifyinginformationwasobtained. SubjectscompletedtheFES in small_group settings_during

freeperiods and elective_{time, during} schoolhours. Structuredclasstimewas notinterrupted.

All subjectswereinformedpriorto _completingthe survey, ofthepurposeofthis_study, ofthe

voluntarynatureof_{participation,} andthatit was_completelyanonymous.

Datawas analyzed_bycomparingthe sample ofthe current_study, as one_group,withthe

normative sample ofthe_{FES, using}confidenceintervalsdeveloped usingthe standarderror ofthe

mean(seenotein Table 3). Samplemeansthathad 95%confidenceintervalsthat didnot contain

thenormative mean of50wereconsideredto_{be statistically different. Data forfamily}type

subgroupswasnot analyzeddueto small sample sizes.

Results

Thecurrentsample of_EmotionallyDisturbed adolescents perceivedtheir_family

environmentsas_{beingsignificantly different from}thenormativesample ofthe_Family

Environment Scaleon severalfactors. Means and standard deviationsofthecurrent sample were

comparedto thoseoftheFES normative sample_using confidenceintervals developed_usingthe

standard error ofthemean. Table 3 provides adetailedlookatthemeansforeachfactor as rated

bythe total sample.

Insert Table 3 abouthere

Allthreefactorsofthe_RelationshipDimensionwere_{significantly different from}the

normative sample. CohesionandExpressionwereboth significantly lowerthan the_norm, while

Intellectual-Cultural_Orientation, andMoral-ReligiousEmphasis, were_{significantly lower}than the

normative_sample, whileIndependence andActive-Recreational Orientationwerenot _{significantly}

different fromthenorm. Inthe System-Maintenance_Dimension, neitherOrganizationnorControl

was _{significantly} differentfromthenormative sample.

Discussion

Relationships

Emotionallydisturbed adolescentsperceivedtheirfamiliesasdifferent fromthenormative

families oftheFES on several dimensions. Someofthese atypical characteristicshave been

identified intheliterature as"risk

factors"

foremotionalproblems. Thisis_particularlytrue of

thosefactorsassessedinthe_RelationshipDimensionofthe_FamilyEnvironment Scale(FES).

Subjectsofthecurrent _study reported_{significantly higher}levels ofconflict intheirfamilies.

Subjectsresponsesdo notindicatea specific areaof_conflict, nordo_theyindicate betweenwhich

familymembers conflicts occur. _{They simply}revealthat thereare often conflictsbetween_family

members. Asshown_bytheresearch of_{Asarnow, Carlson,} and Guthrie _(1987), theperceptionof

highconflict_byteenswas_amongseveral_{strong indicators} ofsuicidalbehavior. _Also, studies of

divorce _{(Hetherington, 1989; Shaw, Emery,} &_{Tuer, 1993)} have shownthat_varyingtypesof

conflict_{among families} oftenleadto emotionalproblems _among children. _{Alternatively,} Perosa

andPerosa₍₁₉₉₃₎indicatedthat a_familyenvironment inwhichmemberscanexpress and resolve

conflict is primaryto thedevelopmentof adequate emotional development.

Olsen, Russell, & Sprenkle ₍₁₉₇₉₎ suggested cohesion and_adaptability arethemost

importantvariablesin_copingwith_familystress. Subjectsresponsesinthe current _studyindicate

conflictisviewed as a_strongpromoter of_{familystress, then these}lowlevelsof cohesionindicate

that theseadolescents areinan environmentthatisnot abletocope wellwith, nor_resolve,

conflict. _Further, thelow levelsof expression perceived_{by subjects,} suggeststhat _theyalso have

limited _abilityor _opportunityto express conflictina_healthyway. Interms ofMcCubbin and

McCubbin's _{(1988)research, these}low levelsof expression suggestthat thesefamiliesdo not

emphasize_{communication,} animportantcharacteristicof"resilient

families."

Overall, theperceptionsofthecurrent sampleof_{emotionally disturbedadolescents,} in

termsofthe_{relationship dimensions}ofthe_FES, suggestthat_theyseethemselvesas_beingin

familyenvironmentswith significantlevels of_conflict, and withlimited abilityto communicate or

resolvetheseconflicts. The elevatedlevelsofconflict, andthelow levels of expressionand

cohesion areconsistent across all_{familytypes, suggesting}thatthese_{may be} animportantaspect

forvarioustreatment approaches.

Personal Growth

Subjects inthecurrent _studyseetheir_familyenvironments as _havinglowachievement

orientation, low intellectual-cultural orientation, and lowmoral-religious emphasis. _Looking

again atthework ofMcCubbinandMcCubbin(1988), parents_modelingbehaviorsthatpromote

positive _self-image, behavior, and effective_coping strategiesisessentialto the _buildingof

"resilientfamilies," andisessentialin preventing emotional problems _amongchildren and

adolescents. Thelowachievement orientationreportedinthe_familyenvironmentsofthecurrent

studyindicatesthatfamilymembersexpectlittle ofthemselves, and/or expectlittleof other

members ofthefamily. _Clearlytheseparentalbehaviorspromote _somethingotherthana positive

The lower intellectual-cultural orientationreported inthesefamiliesindicates limited

interest in_{political, intellectual,} and cultural activities. Thisis consistent withalower

achievement orientation and suggeststhat these_familyenvironments place lessemphasis onthings

like_academics, and education.

Thelowermoral-religious emphasis reportedinthesefamiliespresupposesthat_family

members donot place an emphasis onmoral_behavior, orreligion. _However, inmore general

termsit_{may be}viewedasan absenceofthe_modelingof some specific positive_behaviors, and/or

theabsence of possible _coping strategies.

Theindependencefactoronthe_FES, was ratedas consistent withthenormative sample.

This ratingsuggeststhat thisis an area of strengthforthesefamilies. _However, it's"normality"

may in fact be problematic, dueto the absence of othersupportive aspectsofthe_family

environment. _Allen, et al. _(1994), foundthatadolescentswho havethe_opportunitytotest their

independence in a safeand supportive environment will _likelyhavethegreatest socialand

emotional gains. _However, thepoorrelationshipsinthe_family environments of_emotionally

disturbed adolescents, suggestthat_{promoting independence may be}more afunctionof

indifferenceonthepart ofother_{familymembers,}than afunctionofthepromotionof personal

growth.

Theperceptions ofthe _{emotionally disturbed}adolescentsinthe current sampleindicate

that_theyviewtheir_family environments as_placing littleemphasis on personal_growth, and as

beinglessresilientto _{hardships,transitions,} and crisisthanotherfamilies. These adolescentsview

theirfamilies as_{placing little}emphasis on personalachievement and_promotingwhat mightbe

termedan"every-man-for-himself

'

SystemMaintenance

Thefactthatbothfactorsofthesystem maintenancedimensionwereperceived _bysubjects

inthecurrent _studyas_beingconsistent withthenorm sample oftheFES suggeststhat thereis

some _consistencytothe organizationofthese_families, thatexpectations are _clear, andthat there

iscontrol and orderinthe_familyenvironment. _However, thisscaledoes notprovideinformation

ontheorientation, either positive or_negative, of system maintenance. Itispossiblethat thereis

organizationand _control,butifthosefactorsare inflexibleor_unfair, and enforced inan

unsupportive _environment,then_{theymay be creating}more conflictthan stability.

Implications

Theresults ofthe current_study suggestthata_{primary focus}ofinterventionwith SED

studentsshouldbe ontherelationshipswithintheirfamilies. _Reducingconflict and_building

communication inorderto cope withconflictswhen_they do arise could_helpto create a more

supportive environment foradolescents. Activities designedto promote cohesion _amongfamily

members andto promote opportunitiesforexpression_mayhelpto resolveconflicts.

Teaching parentstomodel positive self-image and behavior may bea productive method

ofintervention. Aparent canbecomean instrument of change_{by becoming}a model for hisor her

child, continuingto allowthemto beindependent, but modelingpositive_copingskills and_using

positive relationshipsto supportthemwhen_theymake mistakes. Treatmentprofessionals_may

takeadvantageof current systems of organization and controlto provide_stability, butmusttarget

themeans usedto maintainthis control andorganization_byteaching parentshowto _develop

positive focus intheirhousehold rules.

and not around. _{By helping}thefamiliesof adolescentswith emotional disturbancetofoster

positive relationshipsthatcopewith _conflict, andthatchallengechildren togrowin asupportive

environment, onewill providetheadolescentwithgreater opportunitiesto make changes

themselves,than_bytryingto changethemdirectly.

Limitations

The sampleused inthecurrent _studywas _{small;thus, it is} difficultto makeinferences

regardingthe_familyenvironmentsofthevarious_familytypes, andtheoverall population. The

sampleused wasalso made_{up solely}of_volunteers, and _maynotberepresentative of all

emotionally disturbed adolescents. _Also, thenature ofthe SED _disabilitymakestheresults less

reliable dueto the significant_possibilityofstudent exaggeration: eitherthrough_awfulizing or

normalizing.

No cause and effect relationships_maybeestablishedbased onthecurrent study. That_is,

it isnot clear whethertheperceptions ofthese adolescentswererelatedto _familycharacteristics

thatledto theiremotional _problems, or whethertheadolescents'

emotional problemsledthe

familytohavethereported characteristics. To answer_{this question,} itwould be necessaryto

studyfamilyenvironmentsbeforethestudent developed SEDproblems.

The findings ofthecurrent _studyraise several questions_regardingpossibletreatment

approaches. Futurestudies mightinvestigatethe _efficacyofknown_familyinterventionsand/or

develop familyinterventionsthatcanproveeffectiveinadifficult area. _Familyrelationships and

environments areimportant areasto target _{in treatment; however,} methods mustbe devisedwhich

References

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Table 1.

FamilyEnvironment Scale Factorsand Descriptions

Factor Description

Relationship Dimension

Cohesion

Expressiveness

Conflict

thedegreeof_{commitment, help,} and support_familymembers

provideforone another

theextentto which_familymembers are encouragedto expresstheir

feelingdirectly

the amount of_openlyexpressedanger and conflict_amongfamily

members

Personal Growth Dimension

Independence theextentto which_familymembersare _assertive, are self_sufficient,

and maketheirown decisions

Achievement-Orientation howmuch activities (suchas school or_work) arecastinto an

achievement-oriented orcompetitiveframework

Intellectual-CulturalOr. thelevel ofinterest in_{political, intellectual,} and cultural activities

Active RecreationalOr. the amountof participationinsocial and recreational activities

Moral-ReligiousEmphasis theemphasison ethicaland religiousissues and values

SystemMaintenance Dimension

Organization the degreeofimportanceof clear organization and structurein

Control howmuch set rules and procedures are usedto run_familylife

Note. From_Moos, R. _H., &_Moos, B. S. (1994). _Family environment scale manual:

Table 2.

FamilyEnvironment Scale-FormR: Internal Consistencies. Corrected AverageItem-Subscale

Correlations, and2-Monthand4 Month Test-Retest Reliabilities.

Corrected

Average

Item 2-Month 4-Month

Internal Subscale Test-Retest Test-Retest

Consistency Correlations _{Reliability Reliability}

Subscale n=l,067 n=l,067 n=47 n=35

Cohesion .78 44 .86 .72

Expressiveness .69 .34 .73 .70

Conflict .75 43 .85 .66

Independence .61 .27 .68 .54

Achievement Orientation .64 .32 .74 .66

Intel.-Cult. Orientation .78 44 .82 .86

Active-Rec. Orientation .67 .33 .77 .83

Moral-Rel. Emphasis .78 43 .80 .91

Organization .76 42 .76 .73

Control .67 .34 .77 .78

Note. FromMoos, R. _{H, &Moos,} B. S. (1994). Familvenvironment scale manual:

Table 3.

Mean Sample T-score. StandardDeviations, andConfidence Intervals, for Each factor oftheFES

(n=27)

Factor T-Score SD 95% ConfidenceInterval

Cohesion 37.59 17.95 33.82 <p.<41.36

Expression 45.37 12.1 41.6<|a<_49.14

Conflict 56.7 12.63 52.93 <|i<_60.48

Independence 49.15 12.39 45.38 <|a<_52.92

Achievement Orientation 46.04 10.27 42.27 <_[i<49.81

Intel.-Cult. Orientation 37.93 13.06 34.15<n<41.7

Active-Rec. Orientation 49.81 11.09 46.04<u.< _53.59

Moral-Rel. Emphasis 43.41 10.68 39.64 <|_i<47.18

Organization 47.26 9.70 43.49<_p. <_51.03

Control 49 11.49 45.23 <p< _52.77

Note. _{Confidence intervals determined b y Standard Error}oftheMeansforsample_usin;the

followingformula, appropriateforwhenaisknown : X

-zcv(aJ <\x< X+_zcv(aj where _ax

a//n , a

=

10, and _zcv= 1.96 Confidence intervals_not

encompassingthenullvalue of50

Figure 1. _Family environmenttypesas described_bysubjectsinthecurrent study.

Family

_____T~^x

_aiSK4i;Si

StepJn~2> _m, Two-Parent(n=

8)

Two Parent Intact _Family

Step Family