BANGSA MELAYU : CONCEPTS OF DEMOCRACY AND COMMUNITY
AMONG THE MALAYS, 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 5 0
By
A r if f in b in S.M. O m ar
A t h e s i s s u b m i tt e d f o r t h e d e g r e e o f
D o cto r o f P h ilo s o p h y
a t t h e A u s tr a l ia n N a tio n a l U n iv e r s ity
Except where otherwise indicated
this thesis is my own work.
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
R e s e a r c h on M a l a y s o c i e t y h a s mor e o f t e n t h a n n o t r e p r e s e n t e d a b r o a d and s w e e p i n g v i e w o f t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a nd s o c i a l v a l u e s w i t h i n M a l a y s o c i e t y . L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a i d t o w h a t M a l a y s t h e m s e l v e s w r o t e and s a i d d u r i n g r e c e n t m a j o r u p h e a v a l s . As s u c h , t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s g ap i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e M a l a y c o m m u n i t y as i t r e a c t e d t o c r i s e s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m .
I am c o n v i n c e d t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e x a m i n e a r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w p e r i o d i n d e t a i l i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s t h a t M a l a y s o c i e t y e x p e r i e n c e d a t t h a t v i t a l p o i n t i n t i m e and w h i c h h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o u r s e o f M a l a y p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . The t w o i m p o r t a n t e p i s o d e s i n M a l a y h i s t o r y t h a t I c h o s e t o s t u d y a r e t h e M a l a y a n U n i o n c r i s i s i n M a l a y a and t h e p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l s e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e M a l a y s i n t h e E a s t C o a s t o f S u m a t r a i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e w a r .
One f e a t u r e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t h e r e l a t i v e l y d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a r e s t r i c t e d c o rp u s o f s o u r c e s and a c l o s e r e a d i n g o f t h e t e x t s . I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e e n c y c l o p e d i c c o v e r a g e o f a r c h i v a l d a t a d i s p l a y e d i n many a u t h o r i t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l v o l u m e s h a s been s u j e c t e d t o an i n c r e a s i n g a m o u n t
o f c r i t i c i s m .
A growing number of historians have become sensitive to the complex literary and ideological significances present in many written sources. Reports, letters, speeches and articles which were once viewed as relatively straightforward sources of data, able to be tapped with ease by the empirical researcher, are now viewed as problematic.
The historian now asks questions about authorship, language, style and discourse which were once the provenance of the literary critic or the philologist. Malay studies have already been influenced by this historiographical development.
Particularly at Cornell University and the Australian National University, a number of historical studies have been written which explore and attempt to explicate texts in traditional Malay literature. I have been influenced by this historiographical approach; however, my focus is not on
the Hikayats and other pre-colonial materials but rather on
modern newspaper materials. I have based my research on the
Majlis and the Warta Negara which reflected conservative
Malay political ideas and the Utusan Melayu which upheld the views of the Malay radicals. For East Sumatra, I relied on
tne Soeloeh Merdeka which was an important source of
o f t h e w r i t i n g and l a n g u a g e o f t h e s e n e w s p a p e r s f a c i l i t a t e d my r e s e a r c h . The mo d er n and t h u s f a m i l i a r s t y l e o f t h i s w r i t i n g h a s l e d some r e s e a r c h e r s t o assume t h a t t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n p r o b l e m a t i c i n c h a r a c t e r . A l s o p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e m e r e v o l u m e o f t h i s p r i n t e d m a t t e r t h e h i s t o r i a n s e l d o m p a u s e s t o a n a l y s e i n d e p t h t h e c o n t e n t and s t y l e o f
i n d i v i d u a l a r t i c l e s .
I n t h i s s e n s e my r e a s o n s f o r f o c u s s i n g on a r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f p e r i o d o f M a l a y h i s t o r y a r e i n p a r t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l . My a p p r o a c h a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a t I i n s i s t on t h e t e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d . The c l o s e r e a d i n g o f t e x t s i s e v e n mo re o p en e n d e d t h a n t h e g ood c o n v e n t i o n a l h i s t o r y w r i t i n g o f t h e p a s t . I t i s o f t e n mo re s u c c e s s f u l i n r a i s i n g t h a n i n a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . I t i n v i t e s t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f s p e c i a l i s t s i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s s u c h as l i t e r a t u r e , p h i l o s o p h y and a n t h r o p o l o g y . My h ope i s t h a t t h i s t h e s i s w i l l be p i o n e e r i n g i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c e r t a i n d o c u m e n t s and i s s u e s w h i c h h a v e l o n g been s u b m e r g e d b e n e a t h t h e n a r r a t i v e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s .
I n u n d e r t a k i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h on M a l a y s o c i e t y i n t r a n s i t i o n a f t e r t h e Se c on d W o r l d Wa r, I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s M a l a y s i a f o r a w a r d i n g me a r e s e a r c h s c h o l a r s h i p u n d e r t h e A c a d e m i c S t a f f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n Scheme
I am a l s o g r a t e f u l t o t h e N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f A u s t r a l i a f o r a c c e p t i n g me as a r e s e a r c h s c h o l a r f o r 4 y e a r s . I am m o s t t h a n k f u l t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y ’ s D e p a r t m e n t o f P a c i f i c a nd S o u t h e a s t A s i a n H i s t o r y w h i c h p r o v i d e d me w i t h t h e f a c i l i t i e s t o u n d e r t a k e my r e s e a r c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r I owe my s u c c e s s t o t h e i n v a l u a b l e g u i d a n c e o f my s u p e r v i s o r s , D r . A n t h o n y J . S . R e i d , D r . A n t h o n y C. M i l n e r and D r . D a v i d M a r r . D r . R e i d and D r . M i l n e r had been v e r y c o n s c i e n t i o u s and i m m e n s e l y h e l p f u l a t e v e r y s t a g e o f my w o r k .
F o r my f i e l d w o r k i n I n d o n e s i a , I am g r a t e f u l t o L I P P I f o r p r o c e s s i n g a nd a p p r o v i n g my a p p l i c a t i o n f o r f i e l d w o r k s p e e d i l y and I am i n d e b t e d t o T e n g k u D r . Ami n R i d u a n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t a s S u m a t e r a U t a r a f o r s p o n s o r i n g me i n my f i e l d w o r k
i n J a k a r t a and S u m a t e r a U t a r a .
I n my w o r k I was a s s i s t e d and a i d e d by D r . V i r g i n i a M a t h e s o n , D r . M i c h a e l v a n L a n g e n b e r g , D r . Raden F e r n a n d o , P r o f e s s o r A . H . J o h n s , W i l l i a m O ’ M a l l e y , C h r i s P e n d e r s , D r . C h a n d r a M u z a f f a r , D r . Wong Soak K o o n , D r . Tan L i o k Ee, M r . M a s a s h i H i r o s u e , Twang Peck Yang and R i c h a r d Mason.
I a l s o w i s h t o show my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o many i n f o r m a n t s who g a v e me i n v a l u a b l e d a t a i n my i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d i n N o r t h S u m a t r a , J a k a r t a , and i n t h e m a j o r t o w n s o f P e n i n s u l a r M a l a y a . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a n k f u l t o T e n g k u Luckman S i n a r who i n t r o d u c e d me t o t h e s u r v i v i n g members o f t h e v a r i o u s
kerajaan
f a m i l i e s in N o r t h S u m a t r a and Nip K a r i m who i n t r o d u c e d me to the v a r i o u spergerakan
a c t i v i s t s . InM a l a y s i a , I am grateful to Y.T.M. T e n g k u Abdul Rahman, Ishak Haji M o h a m m a d , S e n u Abdul R a h m a n and K h i r J o h a r i . My
g r a t i t u d e also e x t e n d s to t h o s e w h o m I h a v e not n a med as m o r e t h a n 50 i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d in the c o u r s e of my
f i e l d w o r k .
I a l s o wi s h to t h a n k the l i b r a r i e s of the A u s t r a l i a n
National U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s M a l a y s i a , A r s i p Nasional in J a k a r t a and the N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s of M a l a y s i a
for g r a n t i n g the f a c i l i t i e s and a s s i s t a n c e n e e d e d for my research. A m o n g the l i b r a r i a n s wh o h e l p e d me w e r e Mr.
G e o r g e M i l l e r of the A.N.U. library, Mrs. C h a n g Siw Lai and Miss W o n g Sook Je a n of the U.S.M. library.
Last but not least, I owe my w i f e and t h r e e c h ildren, Soraya, A d a m and J u l i a n a my h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s for t h eir
f o r b e a r a n c e and s u p p o r t d u r i n g the d i f f i c u l t m o n t h s of research and it is to t h e m that I d e d i c a t e t h i s work.
ABSTRACT
Thib study concentrates on the changes and perceptions of the Malay communities in Malaya and Sumatra concerning
bangsa, kerajaan, democracy, negara and negeri. Like most
societies under western colonial domination, Malay society
had to redefine itself and its relationship to other
communities residing in areas considered to be Malay lands.
The Malays in Malaya chose a path of non-violence in their struggle to redefine themselves. The radical Partai Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya opted for union with Indonesia in a MeJayu Raya which would encompass the various ethnic groups "I a Wider bangsa Melayu. The conservative UMNO redefined the role of the monarchy and upheld an ethnic definition of bangsa Melayu that would exclude the Chinese (and Indians)
:ind preserve Malay political dominance under British
protection. When Melayu Raya was no longer possible, the P.K.M.M. in cooperation with the non-Malays put forward the idea of Melayu as a nationality for all who chose Malaya as Lheir homeland. This idea was not accepted by the Malay majority which wanted bangsa Melayu to remain exclusive. The Federation of Malaya A greement in 1948 maintained bangsa
Melayu as an exclusive ethnic identity. The non-Malays
received citizenship rights but no nationality.
In
East Sumatra,
the various
kerajaans
wanted to
maintain the privileged status of the bangsa Sumatera Timur
even though the territory had become a part of independent
Indonesia.
The
Indonesian
Republican upheld
bangsa
Indonesia
as a nationality which gave all
Indonesians
equality
before the
law.
Peoples’
sovereignty was an
important feature of their beliefs.
The 'social revolution’
of March 1946 saw the destruction of the Malay kerajaans
as
they were unable to change and conform to the wishes of the
majority who accepted bangsa Indonesia
and democracy with
all its political and social implications.
When the Dutch used force to reassert their presence in
East Sumatra in July 1947,
they helped to set up the Negara
Sumatera
Timur.
The N.S.T.
was supposed to safeguard the
interests of the
bangsa Sumatera
Timur.
It was not
successful because the N.S.T. depended on Dutch support.
It
failed also because bangsa Indonesia
was widely accepted and
the calls for kedaulatan rakyat,
freedom and equality were
too powerful to be ignored.
When the N.S.T.
was dissolved
in
1950,
the only bangsa
that triumphed was the bangsa
Indonesia.
ABBREVIATIONS
A.P.I... .... Angkatan Pemuda Insaf
A.W.A.S... Angkatan Wanita Sedar (Movement of
Conscious Women)
B.P.I... Badan Pemuda Indonesia (Indonesian Youth
Body)
B.P.K.I...Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan
Kemerdekaan Indonesia
D.K.A...
for a Malay of Arab descent)
D.K.K... .
for a Malay of Indian descent)
K.M.M...
Youth)
K.N.I... ... Komite Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian
National Committee)
K.R.I.S.... ... Kesatuan Rakyat Indonesia Semenanjung
(Union of Indonesian Citizens of the
[Malay] Peninsula)
M.I.T...
M.P.A.J.A... Malayan Peoples’
Anti-Japanese Army
M.A.T.A... Majlis Agama Tinggi
N.S.T...
Sumatera)
P.P.K.I.... ... Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia
(Committee for the Preparation of
Indonesian Independence)
P4S...
Sumatera (Leadership Council of the
Association for the Struggle of Sumatra)
P3ST... ... Persatuan Perjuangan Sumatera Timur
(Association for the Struggle of East
Sumatera)
P . A . D . I ... P e r k u m p u l a n An ak D e l i I s l a m ( A s s o c i a t i o n o f I s l a m i c C i t i z e n s o f D e l i ) , P a r t a i Anak D e l i ( D e l i C i t i z e n s P a r t y )
P AR DI S T ...P a r t a i D a e r a h I s t i m e w a S u m a t e r a T i m u r
( P a r t y o f t h e E a s t S u m a t r a S p e c i a l R e g i o n ) PESINDO...Pemuda S o s i a l i s I n d o n e s i a ( I n d o n e s i a n
S o c i a l i s t Y o u t h )
PETA... P e m b e l a T an ah A i r ( D e f e n d e r o f t h e M o t h e r l a n d )
P . K . I ...P a r t a i K o m u n i s I n d o n e s i a ( I n d o n e s i a n C o m m u n i s t P a r t y )
P . K . M . M ... P a r t a i K e b a n g s a a n M e l a y u M a l a y a
P . M . C . J . A ... Pan M a l a y a n C o u n c i l F o r J o i n t A c t i o n P . N . S . T ... P a r t a i N a s i o n a l S u m a t e r a T i m u r
( N a s i o n a l i s t P a r t y o f E a s t S u m a t e r a ) P . S . T ... P e r s a t u a n S u m a t e r a T i m u r ( E a s t S u m a t r a n
A s s o c i a t i o n )
PUTERA...P u s a t T e n a g a R a k y a t
R e c o m b a ... R e g e e r i ngscommi s a r i s v o o r
B e s t u u r a a n g e l e g e n h e d e n ( N e t h e r l a n d s I n d i e s G o v e r n m e n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) S e k a t a ... S e r i k a t Kaum T a n i ( F e d e r a t i o n o f F a r m e r s ) T . N . I ... T e n t e r a N a s i o n a l I n d o n e s i a ( I n d o n e s i a n
N a t i o n a l A r m y )
T . R . I ...T e n t e r a R e p u b l i k I n d o n e s i a ( I n d o n e s i a n R e p u b l i c a n A r m y )
U . M . N . O ... U n i t e d M a l a y s N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
T i t l e P age i
D e c l a r a t i o n i i
P r e f a c e a n d A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s i i i
A b s t r a c t v i i i
L i s t o f A b b r e v i a t i o n s x T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s x i i
Map 1: M a l a y a 1945 x i i i
Map 2 : N a t i v e S t a t e s i n E a s t S u m a t r a 19 45 x i v
CHAPTER 1: I n t r o d u c t i o n 1
CHAPTER 2 : M a l a y a n U n i o n : T h e C r i s i s o f I d e n t i t y 50 CHAPTER 3 : K e b a n g s a a n o r N a s i o n a l 101 CHAPTER 4 : P e r s e k u t u a n T a n a h M e l a y u o r F e d e r a t i o n
o f M a l a y a 159
CHAPTER 5 : N e g a r a S u m a t e r a T i m u r 22 4
CHAPTER 6 : D e m o c r a c y 299
CHAPTER 7 : C o m m u n i t y 346
CHAPTER 8 : C o n c l u s i o n 39 3
G l o s s a r y 40 2
A p p e n d i x e s 4 0 5
B i b 1 i o g r a p h y 4 0 8
B i o g r a p h i c a l A p p e n d i x 4 26
MAP 1: MALAYA 1945
. — ' P E R U S /s v .. V o \ . - '
Kangar.-T I T H A I L A N D( S I A M )
Jum pat
Alor Star !OKota Bharu
K E D A H
K. Krai / O
'• Kroh PENANG,
Georgetow ' S o y
Temengor z*’ 'Bt. M ertajam
, , 5 X * ‘ ° ■< P. W ELLESLEY I l j /S e la m a <$
Kuala Trengganu
K E L A N T A N
Kuala Kangsar*. Cameron Inn h o Highlands Taiping
TRENGGANU
P E R A K
Tapah Road
Kuala Lipis
Jerantut
Kuantan o Fraser's Hill
Pekan S E L A N G O R ( Mentakab
q Batang B erjuntaio
Kuala Lumpur
Port Swettennham
N E G R I \ S E M B IL A N Seremban
• Gemas .Endau O Port Dickson' Tampin s * —
M A L A C C A -’
Mersing
M alacca’
Batu Pah at
Johor Lama International Boundary
State Boundary
R ailw ays
Railways removed during the occupation
River
Johor Bahru]
M AP 2 : "NATIVE STATES” IN EAST SUMATRA 1945
MALAY KARO SIMALUNGUN
q. Hamperan Perak (Deli) m. Kutabuluh r. Dolok Si lau
b. Sunggal (Deli) n. Sarinembah s. Silimakuta
c. Sukapiring ( Deli) o. Lingga t. Purba
d. Senembah ( Deli) p. Suka v . Raya
e. Percut (Deli) q. Barusjahe w. Pane
f. Begadai(Deli) x. Sian tar
g. Padang(Deli) y. Tanah Jawa
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This study rests on the assumption that Malay society
has manifested changing value systems at different points in
time as a result of challenges faced by the Malay community
concerning
its
identity,
political
culture and
ethnic
solidarity.
Such challenges have resulted
in the Malay
community searching for new ideas, beliefs and attitudes.
The first chapter deals with the changes undergone by
the
Malay community
in the Malay states of the Peninsula and
East Sumatra as a result of the impact of colonialism.
In an innovative work on Malay society in East Sumatra
and the Malay states of the peninsula, A.C. Milner suggested
significant
elements of similarities
in the political
culture of Malaya and Sumatra’s East Coast.'
It was noted
that
in both regions,
the Malays perceived their political
condition in terms of the kerajaan.
That is to say,
they
considered themselves to be living in a community oriented
around a
raja who was not only the focus of what we call
today political life but possessed a critical religious and
psychological
significance.
In particular,
according to
Milner, traditional Malay writings from East Sumatra and the
Malay peninsula suggest that the Malay sense of identity
of name,
of reputation,
of position, sometimes referred to
as nama - was defined in terms of the kerajaan.
The Malays had settled on the banks of rivers which cut
through the hills of the Malay peninsula and the highlands
of East Sumatra or were coastal dwellers whose settlements
dotted the estuaries of the Malay archipelago.
Rivers and
seas played an important role as highways and were also the
channels of political control.
The economy of the Malay peasantry was basically one of
subsistence with a small volume of barter trade.
Trade on a
larger scale was normally in the hands of the local nobility
or foreigners such as Indians, Arabs and Chinese.
The
largest territorial
unit was the negeri
or
settlement which was headed by the sultan who was supported
by territorial chiefs who controlled important areas of the
negeri.
A negeri is sometimes translated as
"state"
but
A.H.
Hill,
the editor of the Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai has
provided a more specific definition which
is,
negeri
p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r i t o r y . " 2 T h e s e i n t u r n h a v e m i n o r c h i e f s and v i l l a g e headmen u n d e r t h e m who w e r e i m p o r t a n t a g e n t s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and c o l l e c t o r s o f r e v e n u e and who r a i s e d t h e n e c e s s a r y manpower f o r w a r o r o t h e r p r o j e c t s . The h e ad o f t h e k e r a j a a n was t h e s u l t a n who was p r o t e c t e d by h i s d a u l at , a s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e c o n f e r r e d u pon h i m by h i s k i n g s h i p . T h i s d a u l a t g a v e h i m an a u r a o f s a n c t i t y and s a c r e d n e s s as w e l l a s s u p r e m e t e m p o r a l a u t h o r ! t y .
The o r i g i n s o f d a u l a t c a n be t r a c e d t o t h e i d e a o f d i v i n e k i n g s h i p . I n d e e d " t h e d i v i n i t y o f K i n g s was c o n c e i v e d i n v a r i o u s w ays a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g r e l i g i o n . Where H i n d u i s m p r e v a i l e d t h e K i n g was c o n s i d e r e d t o be e i t h e r an i n c a r n a t i o n o f a god o r a d e s c e n d e n t f r o m a god o r b o t h . M o s t l y , i t was S i v a who was t h o u g h t t o i n c a r n a t e h i m s e l f i n K i n g s t o e n g e n d e r d y n a s t i e s . " 3 Th o ug h s i n c e t h e M a l a c c a S u l t a n a t e t h e M a l a y k e r a j a a n s w e r e M u s l i m , " t h e y s t i l l embody t h e a n c i e n t H i n d u c o n c e p t i o n o f a k i n g d o m as an i ma ge o f t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d o f s t a r s and g o d s , a
2 See A . H . H i l l , H i k a v a t R a . i a - R a . i a P a s a i . JMBRAS, X X X I I I , 2 , 1 9 6 0 , p . 1 7 3 , n . 2 . V i r g i n i a M a t h e s o n h a s a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e r e was t h e a b s e n c e o f " e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s t a t e as a c o n c e p t " i n t h e T u h f a t a l - N a f i s as was shown i n " C o n c e p t s o f S t a t e i n t h e T u f h a t a l - N a f i s " , i n A. R e i d and L. C a s t l e s ( e d s . ) , P r e - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s y s t e m s i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a . K u a l a L u m p u r , 1 9 7 5 , p . 2 1 .
c o n c e p t i o n c u r r e n t i n F ou nan and b o r r o w e d p r o b a b l y f r o m F ou nan by S r i V i j a y a . " 4 T h i s c o n c e p t i o n was s t i l l a c c e p t e d . The m o n a r c h was a c c o r d i n g l y r e g a r d e d as " ' t h e L o r d o v e r t h e W h o l e W o r l d ’ , he was a ' S u l t a n ’ a nd t h e ' S h a d o w o f God Upon t h e E a r t h ’ " . 5 I t was t h i s ' l i n k ’ w i t h t h e O m n i p o t e n t t h a t p r o v i d e d an a u r a o f d i v i n i t y t o t h e s u l t a n ' s p o s i t i o n . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s u l t a n s w e r e M u s l i m s , t h e o l d i d e a o f d i v i n i t y was r e t a i n e d and p e r p e t u a t e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s . 8
A c c o r d i n g t o C h a n d r a s e k a r a n Pi 1 l a y " s i n c e r u l e r s w e r e p e r c e i v e d as d i v i n e , u n q u e s t i o n i n g l o y a l t y was a c c o r d e d t he m by t h e i r s u b j e c t s . T h e i r p o w e r was s u p p o s e d t o be r o o t e d i n t h e v e r y i d e a o f t h e O m n i p o t e n t an d f o r t h a t r e a s o n d e f y i n g t h e i r w i s h e s w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f D i v i n e a u t h o r i t y . T h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l q u a l i t y a b o u t t h e m - t h e i r d a u l a t - was w h a t o r d i n a r y m o r t a l s had t o f e a r . " 7
4 R i c h a r d W i n s t e d t , M a i a v a and I t s H i s t o r y . H u t c h i n s o n ' s U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1 9 5 3 , p . 3 3 .
5 P a p e r s on M a l a y S u b j e c t s . R . J . W i l k i n s o n ( e d . ) s e l e c t e d and i n t r o d u c e d by P . L . B u r n s , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , K u a l a L u m p u r , 1 9 7 1 , p . 3 7 0 .
6 I t was n o t e d t h a t i n t h e v a r i o u s c e r e m o n i e s p r a c t i s e d i n t h e M a l a y s t a t e s w h e r e t h i s i d e a o f d i v i n i t y was e m p h a s i s e d , c e r t a i n M u s l i m f e a t u r e s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e i n N e g r i S e m b i l a n , a c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l n o t e d t h a t , " T h e l o c a l K a t h i r e c i t e s a p r a y e r i n M a l a y s e e k i n g A l l a h ’ s g u i d a n c e f o r t h e new K h a l i f a h He h a s r a i s e d t o t h e t h r o n e , t h e a s s i s t a n c e He g a v e t o t h e P r o p h e t S o l o m o n . " See R .O . W i n s t e d t ,
" K i n g s h i p and E n t h r o n e m e n t i n M a l a y a , " JMBRAS, V o l . X X , J u n e 1 9 4 7 , p . 1 3 7 .
M a l a y l e g e n d s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t l o y a l t y t o t h e r u l e r i s e m p h a s i s e d a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f M a l a y h i s t o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e S e j a r a h M e l a y u , a R a j a S r i T r i B u a n a , t h e f i r s t r o y a l r u l e r o f t h e M a l a y s who d e s c e n d e d f r o m I s k a n d a r D z u l k a r n a i n ( A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t ) a g r e e d t o h a v e a c o v e n a n t w i t h o ne Demang L e b a r Dau n, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s s u b j e c t s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o v e n a n t , Demang L e b a r Daun was s u p p o s e d t o h a v e s t a t e d t h a t :
Y o u r H i g h n e s s , t h e d e s c e n d e n t s o f y o u r h u m b l e s e r v a n t s h a l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f y o u r M a j e s t y ' s t h r o n e , b u t t h e y m u s t be w e l l t r e a t e d by y o u r d e s c e n d e n t s . I f t h e y o f f e n d , t h e y s h a l l n o t h o w e v e r g r a v e be t h e i r o f f e n c e , be d i s g r a c e d o r r e v i l e d w i t h e v i l w o r d s ; i f t h e i r o f f e n c e i s g r a v e , l e t t h e m be p u t t o d e a t h , i f t h a t i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h Muhammadan Law.
And t h e K i n g r e p l i e d , " I a g r e e t o g i v e t h e u n d e r t a k i n g f o r w h i c h y o u a s k e d : b u t I i n my t u r n r e q u i r e an u n d e r t a k i n g f r o m y o u , S i r . " And when Demang L e b a r Daun a s k e d w h a t t h e u n d e r t a k i n g w a s , t h e K i n g a n s w e r e d , " t h a t y o u r d e s c e n d e n t s s h a l l n e v e r f o r t h e r e s t o f t i m e be d i s l o y a l t o my d e s c e n d e n t s , e v e n i f my d e s c e n d e n t s o p p r e s s t h e m and b e h a v e e v i l l y . " And Demang L e b a r Daun s a i d , " v e r y w e l l , y o u r H i g h n e s s . B u t i f y o u r d e s c e n d e n t s d e p a r t f r o m t h e t e r m s o f t h e p a c t , t h e n s o w i l l m i n e . " And S r i T r i B ua na r e p l i e d , " v e r y w e l l , I a g r e e , I a g r e e t o t h e c o v e n a n t " : w h e r e u p o n b o t h o f t h e m t o o k a s o l e m n o a t h t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t w h o e v e r d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e t e r m s o f t h e p a c t , l e t h i s h o u s e be o v e r t u r n e d by A l m i g h t y God s o t h a t i t s r o o f l a n d on t h e g r o u n d and i t s p i l l a r s be i n v e r t e d . And t h a t i s why i t h a s been g r a n t e d by A l m i g h t y God t o M a l a y r u l e r s t h a t t h e y s h a l l n e v e r p u t t h e i r s u b j e c t s t o s hame, and t h a t t h o s e s u b j e c t s h o w e v e r g r a v e l y t h e y o f f e n d s h a l l n e v e r be b ou nd o r h a n g e d o r d i s g r a c e d w i t h e v i l w o r d s . I f a n y r u l e r p u t s a s i n g l e o ne o f h i s s u b j e c t s t o shame t h a t s h a l l be a s i g n t h a t h i s k i n g d o m w i l l be d e s t r o y e d by A l m i g h t y God. S i m i l a r l y i t h a s b een g r a n t e d by A l m i g h t y God t o M a l a y s u b j e c t s t h a t t h e y s h a l l n e v e r be d i s l o y a l o r t r e a c h e r o u s t o t h e i r r u l e r s , e v e n i f t h e i r r u l e r s b e h a v e e v i l l y o r i n f l i c t i n j u r i e s u pon t h e m . 8
This covenant showed that the ruler was directly
responsible only to God and indirectly to his subjects.
The
subjects had to serve with complete and unquestioning
loyalty.
Loyalty meant submission and an acceptance of a
hierarchical social system which placed the common Malays on
the
lowest rung of the social scale.
During the colonial
period officials serving
in the Malay states noted the
abundance of Malay sayings which testified to the acceptance
of such a hierarchy.
For instance W.E. Maxwell interpreted
the
saying
"whoever may be raja,
my hand goes up to my
forehead all the same" to mean "ruler may succeed ruler,
or
other
important changes in the government of a country may
take place,
but the condition of the lower classes will
remain the same."9
Maxwell noted the acceptance of the
Malays that "the small are at the mercy of the great" in the
proverb which says that "Small fish become the food for big
fish."10 R.J. Wilkinson has also compiled a wealth of Malay
sayings
and proverbs which
reveal
some acceptance of
tyrannical behaviour on the part of the Malay rulers by the
people.n
9
See W.E.
Maxwell,
"Malay Proverbs Part II", JSBRAS.
December 1878, pp.143-144.
10 Ibid., p .
27 .
H o w e v e r c e r t a i n s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s m o d i f i e d t h i s a p p a r e n t s u b m i s s i v e n e s s . M a l a y p e a s a n t s w o u l d r e s i s t o p p r e s s i o n i f t h e y had no o t h e r o p t i o n , b u t t h e y c o u l d a l s o c h o o s e t o e m i g r a t e t o some o t h e r n e g e r i i n o r d e r t o e s c a p e t y r a n n y . S i n c e as M i l n e r h a s p o i n t e d , t h e p r e s t i g e and p o w e r o f a M a l a y r a j a c a n be s e e n i n t h e " d e s i r e t o a c q u i r e and r e t a i n s u b j e c t s " 12 i t w o u l d be f o o l h a r d y t o d r i v e t h e m a wa y . I t w o u l d be a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e M a l a y s u l t a n s i f t h e y w e r e t o d e a l t o o h a r s h l y w i t h t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
I n d e e d , t h e o p p r e s s i v e n e s s o f t h e M a l a y r u l e r s h as p r o b a b l y been e x a g g e r a t e d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f some s t r i k i n g i n d i v i d u a l a c t s o f e x t r e m e c r u e l t y . B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and h i s t o r i a n s w e r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r p e t u a t i n g t h i s u n f a i r i ma ge o f t h e M a l a y r u l e r s and t h e i r o f f i c i a l s . Hugh C l i f f o r d w r o t e t h a t , " T h e o l d n a t i v e r u l e r s had been o p p r e s s i v e , w i t h h e a r t s l i k e f l i n t and h a n d s o f c r u s h i n g w e i g h t , b u t t h e y a l w a y s had a p e r s o n a l m o t i v e f o r t h e i r a c t s , a m o t i v e w h i c h t h e i r p e o p l e r e c o g n i s e d and u n d e r s t o o d . " ' 3 C l i f f o r d g i v e s n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s o f
12 A . C . M i l n e r , K e r a . i a a n : M a l a y P ol i t i c a l Cu 1 t u r e on t h e Eve o f C o l o n i a l R u l e . The U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a P r e s s , T u c s o n , A r i z o n a , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 8 .
oppression.'4
Swettenham also gives examples of oppression
in his writings.'5
It must be
remembered,
however,
that
these British writers chose to highlight acts of cruelty and
injustice
in order to justify British intervention in the
Malay states.
Whatever their motives,
the British were conscious of
the pivotal role of the kerajaan in Malay political culture.
Thus
it was necessary to use the Malay monarchies in order
to control
the Malay masses.
The British
in all
their
treaties
with
the
rulers accepted
the
rulers
as
representatives of their various negeri (settlements) not as
heads of state.
The concept "state" was not yet familiar in
Malay political
culture.
Kerajaan is best defined as
connoting "being in the condition of having a Raja."'6
Thus
in dealing with the kerajaans,
the British and the Dutch
were dealing with the raja who was the embodiment of the
political culture.
'4
See Hugh Clifford,
Studies in Brown Humanitv:
Being
scrawls and smudges in sepia.
white and yellow.
London,
1893,
and his In Court And Kamoong:
Being tales and
sketches of native life in the Malay Peninsula,
London,
1897,
Stories By Sir Hugh Clifford selected and introduced
by William R.
Roff,
Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur,
1964.
'5
Frank A. Swettenham,
The Real Malay.
London, 1922.
See
also his Footprints In Maiava.
Hutchinson and Company, 1941,
Stories And Sketches Bv Sir Frank Swettenham.
selected and
introduced by William R.
Roff,
Oxford University Press,
Kuala Lumpur, 1966.
The Malay
negeri
became definable as a state in themodern context only after British colonial domination when
there was the need to define boundaries, collect revenues
and establish a modern administrative machinery that could
only function if a modern state came into existence.'7
However though for administrative purposes the British saw
the Malay
negeri
as states they were aware that to the mindsof most Malays, it was the concept of the
kerajaan
thatmattered.
As late as 1927 the British recognised the importance
of the
kerajaan
as can be seen in Hugh Clifford’s speech tothe Federal Council which was as follows:
These States were, when the British Government was
invited by their Rulers and Chiefs to set their
troubled houses in order, Muhammadan monarchies. Such
they are today, and such they must continue to be. No
mandate has ever been extended to us by
Rajas
, Chiefs,or people to vary the system of government which has
existed in these territories from time immemorial...'8
Such a view was also held by the British Government as
could be seen in a report submitted by Sir Samuel Wilson on
his visit to Malaya in which it was clearly stated that:
17 Only in modern times has the term
negara
come to expressthe western idea of 'state’, J. G o n d a .Sanscrit in Indonesia.
New De lh i, 1973, p.629.
It seems clear that the maintenance of the
position, authority and prestige of the Malay Rulers
must always be a cardinal point in British policy: and
the encouragement of indirect rule will probably prove
the greatest safeguard against the political submersion
of the Malays which would result from the development
of popular government on western lines, or in such a
government the Malays would be hopelessly outnumbered
by the other races owing to the great influx of
immigrants that has taken place into Malaya during the
last few years.19
W.G.A. Ormsby-Gore had earlier stated that:
The Malay Sultans are the heads of the national
religion in each State, and the traditional protectors of
Malay customs which is so dearly cherished in the manners
and life in all classes of Malays. The Courts of the
Sultans and Rajahs maintain a measure of dignity and colour loved by the masses...I will not labour the point but to me
the maintenance of the position, authority and prestige of
the Malay rulers is a cardinal point in our policy.20
Such statements are an explicit admission on the part
of the British authorities of the importance and role of the
kerajaan
which they had to maintain in order to furthertheir own aims.
However, despite the belief that the Malay political
system would remain unchanged under British 'protection’
19 Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Wilson, Visit to M a i a y a .
1932. Cmd.4276, 1933, p.12.
20 Report by G.W.A. Ormsby-Gore on His Visit to M a i a v a .
C e v 1 on and J a v a . 1928. Cmd.3235, 1928-1929, p.18. After
his return Ormsby-Gore had minuted on 14/8/28 his views on
the Sultans in the following terms: "Politically they (Malay
Sultans) are a real and to my mind essential asset. But for
subtle changes were indeed taking place.
Any understanding
of the changes in certain political
values,
concepts and
ideas
in Malay society in both Peninsular Malaya and the
East
Coast of Sumatra must begin with the onset of
colonialism and its consequences in both these territories.
The Treaty of 1824 placed the Malay states
in Peninsular
Malaya under the British sphere of
influence while the
Treaty of
1871
placed Sumatra under the Dutch sphere of
influence.21
While the Malay states on both sides of the
Malacca Straits fell
under colonial
domination,
their
experience and treatment under different colonial
masters
led to different end results.
Beginning with the Malay Peninsula,
we noted that in
the 19th century, the British concluded a series of treaties
with the Malay sultans
in which British authority was
exercised through a Resident or Adviser in the case of
Johor.22 By the first decade of the 20th century, the Malay
states had emerged as British Malaya with clearly defined
boundaries dividing
it from Siam in the north to the
Netherlands East Indies in the south and west.
21 See W.G.
Maxwell and W.S.
Gibson (eds.),
Treaties and
Engagements Affecting the Malay States and Borneo.
London,
1924 for the details of these two treaties.
22 The first such treaty was the Pangkor Engagement signed
by the Chiefs of Perak and the Governor of the Straits
Settlements on 20 January, 1874.
For this and subsequent
treaties, see C.D. Cowan, Nineteenth-Centurv Malaya, London,
I n t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , t h e B r i t i s h w e r e i n t h e M a l a y S t a t e s a t t h e i n v i t a t i o n o f t h e M a l a y r u l e r s . 23 T h o u gh t h e B r i t i s h R e s i d e n t s w e r e t o a d v i s e t h e r u l e r on g o v e r n i n g h i s s t a t e , t h i s g o v e r n m e n t by a d v i c e was p u r e l y i n name. B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a s s e r t e d d i r e c t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s M a l a y s t a t e s b u t a g r e e d t o r e s p e c t M a l a y c u s t o m and r e l i g i o n , t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e r u l e r s and t h e a u t o n o m y o f t h e v a r i o u s M a l a y s t a t e s . 24 T h i s was s o e v e n a f t e r t h e f o u r M a l a y S t a t e s o f P e r a k , S e l a n g o r , N e g r i S e m b i l a n and Pa han g w e r e f e d e r a t e d i n 1 8 96 . T h u s t h e M a l a y s t a t e s w e r e s e e n n o t a s c o l o n i e s b u t as P r o t e c t o r a t e s .
By t h i s m e t h o d , t h e r e a l n a t u r e o f B r i t i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n was c l e v e r l y c a m o u f l a g e d . I n p l a c e o f o u t r i g h t a n n e x a t i o n , t h e B r i t i s h d e c i d e d t o k e e p t h e s u l t a n a s h ead o f h i s p o l i t i c a l u n i t w h i l e t h e y a s su med an a d v i s o r y r o l e . The
i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n as f a r a s t h e M a l a y s w e r e c o n c e r n e d was t h a t t h e s u l t a n was s t i l l t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r and t h e
23 W h a t e v e r t h e p r a c t i c a l r e a l i t i e s w e r e , t h e t r e a t i e s and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e B r i t i s h and t h e M a l a y r u l e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e s y m b o l i c t r u t h t h a t i t was t h e M a l a y r u l e r s who r e q u e s t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f B r i t i s h r e s i d e n t s t o a d v i s e t h e m i n t h e a r t o f g o v e r n m e n t .
s u l t a n a t e s t i l l an i n d e p e n d e n t e n t i t y . 25
Where M a l a y s o c i e t y was c o n c e r n e d , i t s i n t e r a c t i o n was w i t h t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s , i . e . t h e r a j a and h i s c h i e f s . The p e o p l e ’ s l i n k s w i t h t h e c o l o n i a l p o w e r s w e r e m i n i m a l . B r i t i s h r u l e t o o k t h e f o r m o f t w o s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p a t t e r n s i n t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a . The M a l a y S t a t e s o f P e r a k , S e l a n g o r , N e g r i S e m b i l a n and Pahang w e r e known a s t h e F e d e r a t e d M a l a y S t a t e s w i t h i n t e n s i v e B r i t i s h i n v o l v e m e n t i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n J o h o r , K e d a h , P e r l i s , K e l a n t a n and T r e n g g a n u , c o l o n i a l c o n t r o l was l e s s d i r e c t . T h e s e s t a t e s w e r e known as t h e U n f e d e r a t e d M a l a y S t a t e s and t h e y r e t a i n e d mor e o f t h e i r M a l a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I n t h e E a s t C o a s t o f S u m a t r a , i t i s o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e t h e D u t c h made no p r e t e n c e a b o u t p r e s e r v i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e M a l a y r u l e r s o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e M a l a y s t a t e s o f D e l i , S e r d a n g , L a n g k a t and A s a h a n . From t h e t i m e o f v a n H e u t z i t was made c l e a r t o t h e r a j a s t h a t t h e i r s t a t e s w e r e p a r t o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s E a s t I n d i e s and t h a t t h e s u l t a n and h i s s u c c e s s o r s m u s t s w e a r a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l and c a r r y o u t w h a t e v e r i n s t r u c t i o n s i s s u e d by t h e D u t c h c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s m e a n t t h a t t h e M a l a y
25 T h i s i s m e n t i o n e d i n R u p e r t E m e r s o n , M a i a y s i a : A S t u d y
S t a t e s c e a s e d t o be s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s ( w h i l e i n M a l a y a , t h e M a l a y s t a t e s r e t a i n e d t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y ) .
D u t c h c o n t r o l o f t h e M a l a y s t a t e s i n S u m a t r a ’ s E a s t C o a s t b e g an t h r o u g h a t r e a t y w i t h S i a k S e r i I n d r a p u r a w h i c h c l a i m e d s u z e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e s e M a l a y s t a t e s . By s i g n i n g a t r e a t y w i t h t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 5 8 , S i a k and i t s d e p e n d e n c i e s became a p a r t o f t h e D u t c h c o l o n i a l e m p i r e . 26
I n b o t h M a l a y a and t h e E a s t C o a s t o f S u m a t r a , i t c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t t h e m a i n a i m o f t h e c o l o n i a l p o w e r s was t o r e a p e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s t h r o u g h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p l a n t a t i o n c r o p s w h i c h s o o n became i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f r e v e n u e . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l demand f o r p r o d u c t s s u c h as t i n , p e p p e r , g a m b i e r , r u b b e r , t o b a c c o and p a l m o i l , w e s t e r n e n t r e p r i s e r e c r u i t e d a c h e a p l a b o u r f o r c e f r o m C h i n a and I n d i a f o r t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , w h i l e t h e D u t c h b r o u g h t C h i n e s e and l a t e r J a v a n e s e i n t o t h e E a s t C o a s t o f S u m a t r a . 27
The e m e r g e n c e o f a c o l o n i a l e c ono my b r o u g h t a l o n g w i t h i t f a r r e a c h i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s i n M a l a y s o c i e t y . The 1921
26 See A n t h o n y R e i d , The C o n t e s t F o r N o r t h S u m a t r a : A t i e h . t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and B r i t a i n . 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 9 9 . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s / U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a y a P r e s s , K u a l a L u m p u r , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 2 5 - SI , T e n g k u Luckman S i n a r , S a r i S e d . i a r a h S e r d a n g , n . p . , 1 9 71 , p p . 6 4 - 8 4 .
c e n s u s r e p o r t r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e p e n i n s u l a r M a l a y s and o t h e r s o f M a i a y - I n d o n e s i a n s t o c k w e r e n u m b e r e d a t 1 , 6 2 3 , 0 1 4 o r 48% o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 , 2 6 2 , 6 9 5 w h i l e t h e C h i n e s e w e r e e n u m e r a t e d a t 1 , 1 7 1 , 7 4 0 o r 3 5 .2 % and I n d i a n s 4 7 1 , 5 1 4 o r 1 4 . 2 %. The B r i t i s h i n i t i a l l y saw t h e C h i n e s e and I n d i a n s as t r a n s i e n t s who w o u l d n o r m a l l y be r e p a t r i a t e d b a c k t o t h e i r h o m e l a n d s a f t e r h a v i n g s e r v e d an e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e . By t h e t i m e t h e 1931 c e n s u s was t a k e n , h o w e v e r , c l o s e t o one t h i r d o f t h e C h i n e s e and o ne f o u r t h o f t h e I n d i a n s w e r e l o c a l l y b o r n and t h e t r e n d t o w a r d s s e t t l i n g i n t h e M a l a y s t a t e s was e s t a b l i s h e d . 28 W h i l e t h e p a r a m o u n t B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t was t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o l o n i a l e c o n o m y , B r i t i s h A d v i s e r s w e r e w o n t t o l o o k u pon p r o t e c t i o n as t h e r e t e n t i o n o f t h e M a l a y c h a r a c t e r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s a b u l w a r k a g a i n s t t h e i n t r u s i o n o f n o n - M a l a y i m m i g r a n t s .
E c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n b o t h t e r r i t o r i e s a c c e l e r a t e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o d e c a d e s o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . I n t h e wave o f p r o s p e r i t y , t h e r e w e r e f e w p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s t h a t d i s t r a c t e d b o t h t h e c o l o n i a l p o w e r s and t h e n a t i v e a r i s t o c r a c y t o a r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t i e s s i g n e d e a r l i e r . B u t p e r c e p t i v e M a l a y r a j a s w e r e q u e s t i o n i n g t h e b a s i s o f c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n and e v e n i t s i n t e n t i o n . I n 1 9 0 3 , S u l t a n I d r i s o f P e r a k e x p r e s s e d t h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e M a l a y r u l i n g e l i t e as a w h o l e w i t h t h e e f f e c t s u pon t h e r i g h t s o f t h e
s u l t a n s and t h e i r o f f i c i a l s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n o f P e r a k , S e l a n g o r , N e g r i S e m b i l a n and P a h a n g . S u l t a n I d r i s s t a t e d t h a t ,
A M a l a y p r o v e r b s a y s t h a t t h e r e c a n n o t be t w o m a s t e r s i n o ne v e s s e l . N e i t h e r c a n t h e r e be f o u r R u l e r s o v e r o ne c o u n t r y . I t i s my h ope t h a t t h e a f f a i r s o f e a c h s t a t e may be managed by i t s own o f f i c e r s so t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t s may be s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s . 29
I n 1 9 2 4 , S u l t a n I s k a n d a r Shah o f P e r a k made a s t r o n g c a l l f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l p o w e r s o f t h e r u l e r as e n v i s a g e d i n t h e 1874 P a n g k o r T r e a t y . H i s s p e e c h shows t h a t t h e i d e a o f on e M a l a y n a t i o n was s t i l l a n o v e l t y among t h e M a l a y e l i t e . C o m p l a i n t s on t h e p a r t o f t h e M a l a y r u l i n g e l i t e r e f l e c t e d t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f B r i t i s h r u l e u pon t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o w e r s t r u c t u r e . The c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e i r own i n t e r e s t and p r i v i l e g e s i n r e l a t i o n t o B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t y was t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f a g a i n and a g a i n t i l l 1 94 1. Such c o m p l a i n t s f r o m t h e r a j a s i n t h e M a l a y p e n i n s u l a w e r e p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r e a t i e s s i g n e d w i t h t h e B r i t i s h m a i n t a i n e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e M a l a y s t a t e s w e r e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s u n d e r B r i t i s h p r o t e c t i o n .
I n E a s t S u m a t r a , t h e r e w e r e f e w e r c o m p l a i n t s c o n c e r n i n g s o v e r e i g n t y s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e M a l a y r u l e r s knew p e r f e c t l y
25 J a g j i t S i n g h S i d h u , “ The A d m i n i s t r a t i v e D e v e l o p m e n t o f M a l a y a 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 4 1 , " i n Z a i n a l A b i d i n W a h id ( e d . ) , G 1 i m o s e s o f M a l a v s i a n H i s t o r y . Dewan B a h a s a dan P u s t a k a , K u a l a L u m p u r ,
well
where they stood in relation to the Dutch colonial
authorities. While they may not have had formal
sovereignty
the Political
Contracts between the Malay states of Deli,
Serdang,
and Langkat and the Dutch gave the Malay
rajas
"autonomous administrative and juridicial
structures of
completely aristocratic Malay composition with full
nominal
responsibility in a number of areas."30 At least in matters
concerning
land,
the rulers had an important role.
Thus
foreign planters and also the Dutch government found the
Malay
rulers very convenient for their economic purposes.
Bribery and other material benefits to the Malay rulers were
adequate to ensure goodwill
on their part towards the
planters. As a result,
the rulers of Deli,
Serdang
and
especially
Langkat were enormously wealthy and
lived
in
lavish palaces and owned expensive cars.
The Malay and Karo subjects of the rulers were not
altogether
unhappy with the economic benefits of
the
plantation economy.
In the 1920s,
notions of state, nation
and nationality were yet to spoil the tranquility of their
existence though in other areas in the East Indies,
notably
the cities of Java,
the stirrings of nationalism were being
felt.
The
Malays
according to contractual
arrangements
between the rulers and the planters had a comfortable
existence. Malay families living within the area of the land
c o n c e s s i o n s w e r e i n i t i a l l y a l l o c a t e d 4 h e c t a r e s o f p r e p a r e d l a n d ( l a t e r 2 . 8 h e c t a r e s ) on a s h i f t i n g b a s i s f o r t h e i r c r o p s . M o s t M a l a y s who w e r e e n t i t l e d t o t h e s e l o t s e i t h e r u s e d t h e m a s o r c h a r d s o r l e a s e d t h e m t o C h i n e s e o r J a v a n e s e mi g r a n t s .
H o w e v e r as i n t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , t h e E a s t C o a s t o f S u m a t r a e x p e r i e n c e d t h e i n f l u x o f i m m i g r a n t s on s u c h a m a s s i v e s c a l e t h a t t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n was r e d u c e d t o a m i n o r i t y w i t h i n a m a r k e d l y p l u r a l s o c i e t y . T h i s p l u r a l s o c i e t y was p e r c e i v e d by some M a l a y s , K a r o s and S i m a l u n g u n a s a t h r e a t t o t h e r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s by f o r e i g n i m m i g r a n t s who c o u l d a t a l a t e r s t a g e t a k e o v e r t h e w h o l e s t a t e . By 1 9 3 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l va n L a n g e n b u r g , " D u t c h c o l o n i a l r u l e had r e d u c e d t h e t h r e e o r a n g a s l i e t h n i c g r o u p s t o m i n o r i t i e s i n a n u m b e r o f t h e n a t i v e s t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g a l l f o u r m a j o r s u l t a n a t e s - L a n g k a t , D e l i S e r d a n g and A s a h a n . " 31 The t o t a l J a v a n e s e p o p u l a t i o n i n E a s t S u m a t r a ’ s E a s t C o a s t r e s i d e n c y was 5 8 9 , 8 3 6 o r 4 0 . 5 1 % o f t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n w h i l e t h e C h i n e s e p o p u l a t i o n was t a b u l a t e d a t 1 9 2 , 8 2 2 . Hen ce mor e t h a n h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f S u m a t e r a T i m u r was made up o f n o n - S u m a t r a i m m i g r a n t s . 32 The
r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a s l i c o m m u n i t i e s t o i n s i g n i f i c a n t
31 M i c h a e l v a n L a n g e n b u r g , " N o r t h S u m a t r a U n d e r D u t c h C o l o n i a l R u l e : A s p e c t s o f S t r u c t u r a l C h a n g e , " P a r t I , i n R . I , M , A . . v o l . I I , n o . 1 , 1 9 7 7 , p . 9 9 .
m i n o r i t i e s w i t h i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y l e d t o i n t e n s e a n t i - f o r e i g n e r s e n t i m e n t s . 33
The i d e o l o g i c a l d e b a t e s i n t h e 1 93 0s i n b o t h a r e a s w e r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t t h o u g h t h e r a j a s w e r e n o t i n v o l v e d , t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w e r e s e r i o u s l y u n d e r m i n e d by t h e g r o w i n g c r i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s . W h i l e t h e M a l a y s d i d n o t p r o f e s s d i s l o y a l t y t o t h e i r r a j a s , t h e s e t t i n g up o f s t a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e now c l a i m i n g t o r e p r e s e n t M a l a y i n t e r e s t s p o s e d c h a l l e n g e s mo re d a n g e r o u s t o t h e m o n a r c h y t h a n e v e n t h e a d v a n c e o f D u t c h and B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l i s m i n t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . The p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e p e r i o d h a v e been e x a m i n e d by s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s , n o t a b l y R o f f , i n t h e c a s e o f M a l a y a b u t w h a t h a s r e c e i v e d f a r l e s s a t t e n t i o n i s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s e e v e n t s on M a l a y p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e .
I n t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , i t was t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y t h a t w i t n e s s e d t h e f i r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a d e v e l o p i n g s e n s e o f n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , as c a n be s e e n i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f A l - I m a m , a m o n t h l y p u b l i s h e d i n S i n g a p o r e b e t w e e n 1 9 0 6 - 1 9 0 8 . R o f f h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t o f t h e m a i n b a c k e r s o f A l - I m a m o n l y " H a j i A b a s , b o r n i n S i n g a p o r e o f S u m a t r a n p a r e n t s , c o u l d i n a n y s e n s e c l a i m t o
be a 'peninsular M a l a y ’."34 Abdullah Haji Jaafar noted that the majority of those involved in Al-Imam were of Arab descent and asked whether they could be considered as
pemimpim Melayu (Malay leaders). Nevertheless Abdullah
accepted that the Al-Imam was the first step of Malay nationalism in the tanah Melayu as well as the official organ of the first nationalist movement.35
Malay criticism of the rajas goes back as far as Munshi Abdullah38 in the first half of the 19th century. For Abdullah, the Malay rajas behaved like beasts of prey and his comments on the decadence and corruption of the Malay ruling class are well documented in the Kesah Pelajaran
Abdullah. However, it is his observations on Malay society
that are important. For him, indolence or negligence were not the causes of Malay backwardness. As long as people could derive benefits from their work as well as satisfaction and profits, they will work. But if the people
34 W.R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism. Penerbit Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1967, p.64.
35 Abdullah bin Haj i Jaafar, A l-Imam, in Lembaran Akhbar M e l a y u . Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1980, p . 31 .
l i v e i n p e r p e t u a l f e a r o f t h e p e r s e c u t i o n and g r e e d o f t h e r u 1 e r and t h e n o b i 1 i t y , t h e s o c i e t y w i l l be p o o r and b a c k w a r d . I f w h a t t h e y e a r n e d was b e i n g s e i z e d by t h e r u l i n g e l i t e , i t was p o i n t l e s s t o be i n d u s t r i o u s f o r t h e y w o u l d n o t e n j o y t h e f r u i t s o f t h e i r l a b o u r .
A b d u l l a h r e p r e s e n t e d a m i n o r i t y M a l a y w r i t i n g c r i t i c a l o f t h e k e r a j a a n s g o i n g b a c k a l o n g w a y , b u t i t was p r e d o m i n a t e among p e r a n a k a n i n t h e c i t i e s o u t s i d e k e r a j a a n
c o n t r o l . O t h e r c r i t i c i s m o f t h e M a l a y r a j a s came f r o m t h e
Kaum Muda who w e r e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e I s l a m i c r e f o r m i s m o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t . The Kaum M u d a 's a t t a c k on t h e M a l a y r o y a l t y was t h r o u g h A l - I m a m w h i c h p u b l i s h e d t h e h i s t o r y o f I s l a m and t h e l i v e s o f u p r i g h t r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s a s a b a s i s o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e bad d e e d s o f t h e M a l a y r u l e r s . T h e i r a r t i c l e s c r i t i c i s e d t h e M a l a y r u l e r s s u b t l y w i t h t h e a i m t o " a p p e a l t o a l l t h e r a j a s and o u r c h i e f s and i m p o r t a n t men t o h o l d f a s t t o an d c a r r y o u t t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e c o m m u n i t y . " 37 When t h e y w e r e i g n o r e d by t h e r u l e r s , t h e Kaum Muda q u e s t i o n e d " w h e t h e r t h e M a l a y r a j a s w e r e a w a r e o f w h a t c r u e l d e e d s w e r e b e i n g d o ne by t h e i r M i n i s t e r s and C h i e f s t o t h e p e o p l e . " 38 The Kaum Muda a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e l i t e k e p t t h e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n i g n o r a n c e c o n c e r n i n g
37 A l - I m a m, 17 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 0 6 , a s q u o t e d by A b d u l l a h b i n H a j i J a a f a r i n L e m b a r a n A k h b a r M e l a v u . P e r s a t u a n S e j a r a h M e l a y u , K u a l a L u m p u r , 1 9 8 0 , p . 1 5 .
