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ADVENTURES IN APPLYING ITERATION LEMMAS

Markus Johannes Pfeiffer

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD

at the

University of St Andrews

2013

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Research@StAndrews:FullText

at:

http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/

Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item:

http://hdl.handle.net/10023/3671

This item is protected by original copyright

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Adventures in Applying Iteration

Lemmas

Markus Johannes Pfeiffer

T    D  PD  M

U  S A

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Declarations

Candidate’s Declarations

I, Markus Pfeiffer, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately35, 000

words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried

out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for

a higher degree.

I was admitted as a research student and as a candidate for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in September 2008; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between2008and

2012.

I received assistance in the writing of this thesis in respect of language and

syntax, which was provided by Tara Brough.

Date: Signature of candidate:

Supervisors’ Declarations

I, Nik Ruškuc, hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions

of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified

to submit this thesis in application for that degree.

Date: Signature of supervisor:

I, Max Neunhöffer, hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the

condi-tions of the Resolution and Regulacondi-tions appropriate for the degree of Doctor

of Philosophy in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is

qual-ified to submit this thesis in application for that degree.

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Permission for Electronic Publication

In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I

am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the

regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any

copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that

the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be

made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis

will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by

award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to

migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued

access to the thesis. I have obtained any third-party copyright permissions

that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have

requested the appropriate embargo below.

The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the

electronic publication of this thesis:

Access to printed copy and electronic publication of thesis through the

Uni-versity of St Andrews.

Date: Signature of supervisor:

Date: Signature of supervisor:

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Abstract

The word problem of a finitely generated group is commonly defined to be a

formal language over a finite generating set.

The class of finite groups has been characterised as the class of finitely

generated groups that have word problem decidable by a finite state

automa-ton.

We give a natural generalisation of the notion of word problem from finitely

generated groups to finitely generated semigroups by considering relations of

strings. We characterise the class of finite semigroups by the class of finitely

generated semigroups whose word problem is decidable by finite state

au-tomata.

We then examine the class of semigroups with word problem decidable

by asynchronous two tape finite state automata. Algebraic properties of

semi-groups in this class are considered, towards an algebraic characterisation.

We take the next natural step to further extend the classes of semigroups

under consideration to semigroups that have word problem decidable by a

finite collection of asynchronous automata working independently.

A central tool used in the derivation of structural results are so-Called

iteration lemmas.

We define a hierarchy of the considered classes of semigroups and connect

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Contents

Prologue vii

Overview . . . vii

Acknowledgements . . . xii

 Concepts

. Sets . . . 

. Natural Numbers . . . 

. Maps . . . 

. Relations . . . 

. Equivalence Relations . . . 

. Linear Orders . . . 

. Strings . . . 

. Specification . . . 

 Semigroups 

. Semigroups, Monoids and Groups . . . 

. Elements . . . 

. Subsets . . . 

. Subsemigroups . . . 

. Properties . . . 

. Congruences and Quotients . . . 

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. Free Semigroups and Presentations . . . 

. Transformation Representations . . . 

. Green’s Relations . . . 

. Product Constructions . . . 

 Subsets of Semigroups 

. The Syntactic Congruence . . . 

. Recognisable Subsets . . . 

. Rational Subsets . . . 

. Kleene’s Theorem . . . 

. Extended Rational Subsets . . . 

. Recognisable Relations . . . 

. Rational Relations . . . 

. Polyrational Relations . . . 

 Computation 

. Automata . . . 

. Polyrational Relations . . . 

. Machines . . . 

. Decidability and Complexity . . . 

 Examples 

. Transformation Semigroups . . . 

. Free Commutative Semigroups . . . 

. The Bicyclic Monoid . . . 

. The Integers . . . 

. The Semigroups E(i, k)and F(i, k) . . . 

. Finitely Generated, Infinitely Presented Semigroups . . . 

. An Extension of Finite Green Index and Infinite Rees Index . . 

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 Word Problems and Coword Problems 

. Dehn’s Identitätsproblem . . . 

. The Identitätsproblem for Semigroups . . . 

. The Word Problem for Relations . . . 

. Encodings . . . 

 Recognisable Word Problem 

. Anisimov’s Theorem . . . 

. An Analogue of Anisimov’s Theorem for Semigroups . . . 

. Changing the Encoding . . . 

 Rational Word Problem 

. Rational Relations and Change of Generators . . . 

. Examples . . . 

. Elements . . . 

. Rational Subsets and Kleene’s Theorem . . . 

. Subsemigroups . . . 

. Products . . . 

. Green’s Relations . . . 

. Decidability . . . 

. Complexity . . . 

. Further Questions . . . 

 Polyrational Word Problem 

. Generators . . . 

. The Polyrational Hierarchy . . . 

. Counterexamples . . . 

. Direct Products . . . 

. Rational Subsets and Kleene’s Theorem . . . 

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 The (Co)Word Problem Hierarchy 

. Recognisable (Co)Word Problem . . . 

. Rational, Polyrational and Extended Rational (Co)Word Problem

. Rational Monoids . . . 

. Linear Word Problem . . . 

. One-Counter Semigroups . . . 

. Small Overlap Monoids . . . 

. Word Hyperbolic Monoids . . . 

. Asynchronously Automatic Semigroups . . . 

 Conclusions 

A Open Questions 

B Automata 

Index 

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List of Figures

. Automaton forιS(A)whereS=sg

a | a4=a9⟩ . . .  . Automaton forιE(4,5)({a, b}) . . . 

. Automaton that decidesιP({a, b}) . . .  . AutomatonAi. . . 

. The (Co)Word Problem Hierarchy . . . 

B. Automaton forιS(A)whereS=sg

a | a4=a9⟩(no colours) . .  B. Automaton forιE(4,5)({a, b})(no colours) . . . 

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Prologue

“Bouncy trouncy flouncy pouncy, fun fun fun fun fun.

The most wonderful thing about tiggers is I’m the only one!” —Tigger (unique up to isomorphism)

Overview

At its core, this thesis is concerned with two disciplines within mathematics,

the theory ofsemigroups and the theory offormal languages and computation. Only briefly we touch the topic of formal logic. Both disciplines are

compar-atively young, with both semigroups and computation attracting attention

only in the early20th century. They are also both naturally intertwined on many levels.

The main topic of this thesis are finitely generated semigroups that admit

a low complexity algorithm to solve the word problem. Low complexity in

our case means that there exists a finite state computation that determines

equality of elements represented by potentially different strings.

At face value we take a very theoretical point of view with no obvious

direct applications. It should be noted that, quite to the contrary, almost all

concepts are at least implementable as computer algorithms and therefore

available for applications in computational algebra.

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viii Prologue

For every lemma or theorem we give a proof if this is doable within the

bounds of this document, even if the result is well-known. Some proofs had

to be omitted since they would have taken up too much space or would have

required to divert too far to provide a full proof. Wherever proofs have been

omitted, a reference is given. Giving a proof is not equivalent to claiming

originality of the result, even if we give a proof and no reference, and most

well-known results should be considered folklore then.

As it is common for a document concerned with mathematics, we give

the very foundational definitions and conventions in Chapter . We will be

concerned with classical mathematics and only assume familiarity with the

notions ofsetandmap. We note that it is maybe of interest to find equivalent constructions in intuitionistic and constructive mathematics, and will further

hint at such possibilities in Chapter . One notion worth mentioning here is

the notion of specification which will be briefly touched in Section .. The

means of specification is usually not consciously noticed in mathematics, but

it has particular importance in computation: How is the input for an

algo-rithm specified, how is the output specified?

In the same way Chapter  goes on to define semigroups, monoids and

groups and gives a few theorems that are either referenced in later chapters or

give important insights into semigroup theory. Most of this sections contents

are standard in semigroup theory, and more detailed treatise of the material

can for example be found in [How].

The following Chapter  is solely concerned with subsets of semigroups

and introduces the notions of recognisable, rational, polyrational and extended

rational subsets and lays down the groundwork for everything in Chapters 

to . The notions of recognisable, rational, polyrational and extended

ratio-nal subset all share that they are strong finiteness conditions. On one hand

this leads to very restricted classes of sets, but on the other hand it leads to

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Overview ix

recognisable and rational subsets of semigroups, monoids and groups can be

found in [Ber] and [Eila]. The latter offers some generalisations of the

notion of rational subsets of a given semigroup and the author hints at the

possibility of treating what we call extended rational and polyrational

sub-sets in the preface of [Eila]. One of the most important tools in the context

of examining these finiteness conditions are iteration lemmas, which are

em-ployed to show that a subset cannot fall into one of the mentioned classes.

Unfortunately Eilenberg has never finished Volume C of his book and to

our knowledge there has not been a thorough treatment of these notions. We

therefore define extended rational and polyrational subsets and claim

origi-nality of the surrounding results. Since the notion of extended rational

sub-sets of a semigroup are not central to our work, there is possibility for research

branching from here. The sections on rational, extended rational and

polyra-tional relations touch on methods of formal logic with definitions of syntax

and semantics by induction.

In Chapter  we define what we formally mean by the notion of computa-tion. A computation is always carried out withfinite statebut there might be an infinite set ofconfigurationscaused by the availability of memory or storage. We will mainly be concerned with computation that can be carried out

non-deterministically by devices that only have a finite amount of memory. This

chapter is inspired and influenced by [Eila]. We give the known result that

the notions of rational subset and finite state computability are equivalent for

certain semigroups and monoids. We introduce our notion of a parallel finite

automaton and show that the notions of polyrational subsets and parallel

fi-nite computability are equivalent for certain semigroups and monoids. We

also take the time to introduce Eilenberg’s notion of a machine, mainly with

view on extensions of the presented material.

Chapter  gives specifications of semigroups that serve as examples

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x Prologue

semigroups.

Chapter  gets us to the main topic of this thesis: we give the motivation

for our work with roots in the work of Max Dehn in group theory in the early

20th century. We define what Max Dehn’s definition of the word problem of a group is and give a natural generalisation of the word problem to semigroups

and relations on a semigroup. We also define the notion of coword problem.

In Chapter  we present an equivalent of Anisimov’s theorem for

semi-groups. Anisimov’s theorem first appeared in [Ani] and connects group

theory and formal language theory. Slightly more formally it states that the

word problem of a group is finite state computable if and only if the group is

finite. Anisimov’s theorem is widely considered to be the first of its kind. We

prove that the class of semigroups with finite state computable word problem

of a certain class is exactly the class of finite semigroups, therefore

establish-ing a generalisation of Anisimov’s theorem for the definition of word problem

we gave in . Although the proof of this theorem almost completely relies on

a result by Mezei, it is nonetheless a new result.

Chapter  is arguably the centre of this thesis and consists almost

exclu-sively of original research. We introduce a class of semigroups with finite

state computable word problem which we call semigroups with rational word

problem. The class of semigroups with rational word problem contains all

finite semigroups, and also some infinite semigroups. We find as many

prop-erties as possible for these semigroups, towards a characterisation. Since this

could not be achieved yet, we try bounding the class of semigroups with

ratio-nal word problem using properties of elements, subsets and Green’s relations.

As mentioned earlier, we make heavy use of iteration lemmas.

More specifically, we prove the following main results. Firstly, having

rational word problem does not depend on the choice of a finite generating

set. An infinite semigroup with rational word problem has an element of

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Overview xi

conjecture that the index of such elements is bounded as well. We show that

Kleene’s theorem holds in semigroups of this class, and that as a consequence

all semigroups in the class are residually finite. We also give a proof that any

finitely generated semigroup in which all elements have regular sets of

rep-resentatives are residually finite. We show how having rational word

prob-lem passes through to subsemigroups and oversemigroups of finite Rees and

Green index. A section on product constructions show that the class of

semi-groups with rational word problem is not closed under taking direct products,

the proof of which employs an iteration lemma, but it is closed under

semi-group free products and zero unions. We also show that Green’s relations on

semigroups with rational word problem are polyrational and for semigroups

that are cancellative and have rational word problem we show that the Green’s

relationsR andLare rational. The H-classes of a semigroup with rational

word problem have to be all finite. This is proven by employing an important

result discovered by Schützenberger, and again an iteration lemma. We also

hint at the appeal of semigroups with rational word problem with respect to

decidability of certain properties. Among these properties there is the word

problem, all Green’s relations word problems, triviality and finiteness. It is

also decidable whether a semigroup with rational word problem is a group.

Some results in this chapter can also be found in the paper [NPR] which

has been submitted for peer review and, at the time of this writing, is

await-ing referee’s feedback.

Since in particular the results about direct products in Chapter  are not

quite satisfactory we realise a slightly larger class of semigroups in

Chap-ter , the class of semigroups with polyrational word problem. This class is

shown to share many of the important properties of the class of semigroups

with rational word problem with the additional property that it is closed

un-der taking finite direct products. We show that there is an infinite hierarchy

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xii Prologue

probably much like Eilenberg envisioned in [Eila]. To establish this infinite

hierarchy we again use an iteration lemma type argument. The results from

this chapter will appear in publication in the near future in cooperation with

Tara Brough and Nik Ruškuc.

In Chapter  we establish how our research and the classes of semigroups

found in the previous chapters fit into the known landscape of word problem

complexities. We refer to many surrounding results, proposing to establish a

fine-grained hierarchy of word problem complexities and filling white spots.

The closing chapter will then hint at the open questions asked throughout

this thesis and possible directions for future research.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people and institutions for their support

in undertaking this project. Without them I would not have been able to

com-plete it.

I thank my parents, Ortrud and Wilhelm Pfeiffer who have always

encour-aged me to pursue my aims and without whom I would not be the person that

I am today. Also I thank my brother Martin Pfeiffer and my sister Anne

Müh-lenberg who supported me during the hard time that was the beginning of

my time in Saint Andrews.

Also I thank my partner, office mate and fellow mathematician, Jennifer

Awang for being who she is and introducing me to Doctor Who and the work

of Alan Alexander Milne.

I am very grateful to Nik Ruškuc, who helped me with my application

for funding, my admission to Saint Andrews and accommodation for the first

months of my studies. He also was one of my supervisors and suggested

the topic for the presented research project. His contributions not only to

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Acknowledgements xiii

much more substantial: He taught me how to ask interesting questions, a

valuable skill for a mathematician to have, and how to phrase theorems. He

also made me think about how important it is to be careful with arguments,

in particular in semigroup theory, to which I was introduced by him. His

cheerful personality also added to the fact that the School of Mathematics and

Statistics in Saint Andrews is such a wonderful place. I hope his influence will

stay with me and I will be able to pass the knowledge on to students of my

own one day.

No less important was my second supervisor, Max Neunhöffer, whom I

had already met in Aachen and who was virtually always available for

discus-sion of my ideas. He made me explain my mathematics in detail and therefore

made me recognise important details. Discussions with him showed me how

essential precise communication and changes of one’s point of view are. Also,

he read parts of the manuscript very carefully, suggested improvements and

found mistakes.

In the final few months of my research work Tara Brough has been a great

help in many productive discussions about the topic. She also read the

manu-script and suggested a number of improvements. She particularly helped with

extending what is now Theorem .. and with Theorem ...

I thank Gerhard Hiss for encouraging me to apply to Saint Andrews, and

I thank Erich Grädel for providing a reference.

I would like to thank my former office mates Andreas Distler and Victor

Maltcev and my fellow student Simon Craik for their ideas and willingness

to listen to my sometimes vague ones. The treatment of Green index and

Green’s relations in Chapter  owes a lot to the discussions with Simon Craik

in particular.

I also thank John Howie, Samuel Eilenberg and Marcel Schützenberger for

providing such excellent monographs on the topics relevant to my research. I

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xiv Prologue

techniques to presentation.

Also, I thank my fellow students Claire Pollard, Samuel Baynes, Anna

Schroeder, Nina Menezes, James Hyde and Arthur Geddes who have

pro-vided me with fun chat and cake. In addition, I would also like to thank all

the people at the Mathematical Institute who have provided me with such

a stimulating environment. This especially includes all the supporting staff

such as secretaries, computing officers and estates staff.

A very special thank you goes to Jon Cohen and Megan Stahl who have

made the year2011one of the most memorable ones of my life.

I would like to thank the University of Saint Andrews and the town of

Saint Andrews for providing such a pleasant and quiet, yet stimulating

re-search environment.

The research for this thesis was carried out over the course of the years

2008to2012at the University of Saint Andrews, with financial support pro-vided by the EPSRC doctoral training grant and the School of Mathematics

and Statistics, without which I would not have been able to work as

produc-tively and independently.

In closing, it is of great personal importance to me to thank the European

Union for making it possible for me and all Europeans to live, travel and work

in freedom. I would like to encourage the people of Europe to further pursue

the idea of a united Europe, even in the face of the current problems. I also

would like to encourage every European citizen to actively work towards the

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◦ ◦ ◦

·

Concepts

In this chapter we fix notation and conventions for the basic mathematical

notions that are used. The most important beingsets, with thenatural numbers

being explicitly defined,mapsandrelations.

. Sets

We base our work on the system ZF, the Zermelo-Fränkel system of axioms for set theory. In places we might need the axiom of choice or equally

pow-erful axioms, but these should be sparse and arguments should in general be

constructive.

Defining sets is the central topic ofZFand we refer the reader to a book

on the topic for further reference. One of the axioms ofZFensures the exis-tence of thepowerset, the set of all subsets, of any given setX. We denote the powerset of a setXbyXˆ.

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Concepts

.

Natural Numbers

The natural numbers capture the abstract concepts of quantity and of discrete

linear orders.

There is always discord about whether zero is a natural number or not. We

will make the following choices. We inductively define the setNof natural

numbers as follows

• {}N, and

• FornN, the setn{n}N.

We can give a decimal representation of every natural number by defining the

decimal representation of{}to be0and the decimal representation ofn{n}

to ben+1. Therefore the natural numbers contain0. Since we regularly refer toN\ {0}, we denote this subset ofNbyN>0.

.

Maps

Amap from a set X to a setY assigns to every element of X precisely one element ofY. We use the following conventions.

LetXandYbe two sets. We denote a mapffromXtoYby

X−−−−f→Y.

We denote the element ofYwhich is assigned toxXby the mapfbyxf,

and we say thatfisappliedto theargumentx.

IfY−−−−g→Zis another map then thecompositionoffandgis denoted by

fgor

X−−−−f→Y −−−−g→Z.

For any given setXtheidentity mapX−−−−ιX→Xis defined by

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.. Relations

and thefull transformation monoidTXis the set of all mapsX f

−−−−→X.

A mapX−−−−f→Y isinjectiveif for all mapsZ−−−−g1→XandZ−−−−g2→Xthe equalityg1f=g2fimpliesg1=g2, it issurjectiveif for all mapsY

g1

−−−−→Zand

Y−−−−g2→Zthe equalityfg1 =fg2impliesg1 =g2and it isbijectiveif there is a

mapY−−−−f→Xsuch thatff =ιXandff=ιY.

. Relations

We adopt the definition of relations as used by Eilenberg in [Eila]. Relations

are a generalisation of a maps, since a relation between a set X and a setY

relates any element ofxwith a subset ofY.

Definition ..

Let X and Y be sets. A relation ρ from X to Y, denoted X−−−−ρ→Y is a map

ˆ

X−−−−ˆρ→Yˆsuch that for any family(Xi)iIof subsets ofX

(∪

iI Xi

)

ˆ

ρ=∪ iI

(Xiρ)ˆ .

It follows that a relationX−−−−ρ→Yis defined by the images ofρˆon singleton

subsets ofX. We will identify elementsxXwith the singleton subset{x}

X, and therefore can also view a relationX−−−−ρ→Yas a mapX−−−−ρ→Yˆ. Note also that for any mapX−−−−f→Ywe can define a relationX−−−−f→Yby

ˆ

f:Xˆ −−−−→ Y,ˆ {x} 7→ {xf},

which justifies using the same notation for maps and relations and

interpret-ing maps as relations without explicitly statinterpret-ing this. For relations X−−−−ρ→Y

andX−−−−σ→Ywe writeσρif forxXthe imagexσis a subset ofxρ. For two relationsX−−−−ρ→Y andY −−−−σ→Ztheir compositionX−−−−ρσ→Z

can be straightforwardly defined by composition of the underlying maps:

ˆ

ρσ=ρˆσˆ.

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Concepts

Lemma ..

LetX−−−−ρ→YandY −−−−σ→Zbe two relations. Thenz xρσif and only if there existsysuch thatz.

For a given relationX−−−−ρ→Ythedomaindom ρofρis the set dom ρ={xX | xρ̸=},

theimageim ρofρis the set

im ρ={yY | xXwithyxρ}.

Thereverseρrofρis defined by

yρr ={xX | yxρ},

and is itself a relation. ThegraphGρofρis the set of pairs

Gρ={(x, y)X×Y | xX, yxρ}.

It is more common to define relations by their graphs.

For any setXwe denote byRXthe set of all relationsX ρ

−−−−→Xand call it thefull relation monoidonX.

LetXbe a set and fix a subsetAX. Define thediagonal relation∩Aby

ˆ

A:Xˆ −−−−→ X, Yˆ 7→ YA.

Note that the graph ofAis exactly the diagonal set{(a, a) | aA}.

Theuniversal relationX−−−−µX→Xis defined by

ˆ

µX:Xˆ −−−−→ X, Yˆ 7→ X.

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.. Equivalence Relations

Lemma ..

LetX,Y1,Y2be sets andX ρ

−−−−→Y1×Y2andX ρi

−−−−→Yifori{1, 2}be relations

such that

xρ= (xρ1)×(xρ2)

forxX. LetZXand letY1 σ

−−−−→Y2be defined by the composition Y1

ρr 1

−−−−→X−−−−∩Z→X−−−−ρ2→Y2.

ThenGσ =Zρ.

Proof. LetY = Y1 ×Y2 andY πi

−−−−→Yi fori {1, 2}be projections onto the

factors. Nowρi=ρπiand we can writeσas

Y1 πr

1

−−−−→Y ρ

r

−−−−→X−−−−∩Z→X−−−−ρ→Y −−−−π2→Y2

which is equal to

Y1 πr1

−−−−→Y −−−−∩B→Y −−−−π2→Y2.

whereB=Zρand the graph of the above composition isB.

We also define theintersectionof a finite family of relations as we will need this notion later. We note that the intersection of relations is in fact a relation.

Definition ..

LetXandY be sets,k Nand letX−−−−ρi→Y fori kbe relations. We define the

intersection∩

1ik ρias

1ik

ρi:X −−−−→ Y, x 7

1ik xρi.

. Equivalence Relations

Equivalence relations are an abstraction of equality. A relationX−−−−ρ→Xis

anequivalence relation, orequivalencefor short, if

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Concepts

Writingx∼ρyinstead ofxyρwe get the familiar axioms for an

equiv-alence relation. For anyx Xthe equivalence class ofx with respect to the equivalence relationρis now the image of{x}under the mapρ. The equiva-lence classes partition the setX.

Across section ofρis a subsetDofXsuch that|Dxρ|=1for allxX, in other wordsDcontains exactly one representative for each equivalence class.

We write X/ρ to denote the set of all equivalence classes ofρ. Note that associated with every equivalence relation on a setXthere is a natural map

πρ:X −−−−→ X/ρ, x 7→ xρ.

Conversely we note that any mapX−−−−f →Ydefines the equivalence relation

ker fonXasx∼kerfyif and only ifxf=yf. Furthermorefuniquely factorises

into

X−−−−πker→f X/ker f −−−−ι →Y,

whereιis injective. This fact is the base of all isomorphism theorems in

alge-bra, and we will state it as a theorem explicitly as follows.

Theorem ..

LetX−−−−f→Y be a map. Then there is a surjective mapX−−−−π→X/ker f and an injective map X/kerf−−−−ι→Y such thatf=πι, or equivalently, the following dia-gram commutes.

.. ..

X . Y..

. X/ker.. f .

f

.

π . ι

.

Linear Orders

Atotal linear orderon a setXis a relationX−−−−λ→Xsuch that for allx, y, zX

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.. Strings

• yxλandxyλimpliesx=y

• yxλandzyλimplieszxλ.

We writexyforyxλfor clarity.

We refer to the finite total linear order of size n byn. One convenient

model ofnis({1, . . . , n},)whereis the restriction of the orderon the natural numbers, which in terms of the definition given in Section . is the

subset relation.

. Strings

We take the opportunity here to introduce the notion ofstringsover an alpha-bet. We will use this notion in Chapter  as well as Chapter . Strings are

a central tool in the theory of computation, one of their main uses being

en-coding objects. Strings will also be used to demonstrate that computation is a

natural domain of the theory of semigroups. On one hand Turing machines,

one of the most general models of computation, use strings to encode input,

output and intermediate state, on the other hand the set of all strings forms

a very natural semigroup. To form strings we first need the basic building

blocks, which we call symbols. We choose a collection of symbols and call it

analphabet. We allow for infinite alphabets for generality, but most commonly alphabets will be finite.

Definition ..

LetAbe an alphabet. Astringof lengthmoverAis a mapm−−−−s→A.

A convenient and consistent notation for all strings of length m over an al-phabetAis nowAm. We denote the set of all strings of any length overAby

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Concepts

Given any stringsA, we denote by|s|thenNsuch thatsAnand givenaAandsAwe denote by|s|athe cardinality of the setas−1, or in

other words the number of occurrences of the letterain the strings.

Given two stringsm−−−−s→Aandn−−−−t→Awe define theconcatenationst

ofsandtby the juxtaposition ofsandt. More formally letm−−−−i →m+nand

n−−−−j →m+nbe the embeddings ofmandnintom+nsuch thatki < lj

holds for allkmandln.

The concatenation ofsandtis now the map

st:m+n −−−−→ A, k 7→     

ki−1s kmi

kj−1t knj .

If we want to give a string explicitly we use the model({1, . . . , n},)ofn

and the notations= [a. . .an]for a stringswithis=aifori{1, . . . , n}.

LetsAbe a string. We say thatvAis aprefix ofsif there is a string

xAsuch thats=vx, we say thatvis asuffix ofsif there isxAsuch that

s=xv. We sayvis aninfix ofsif there are stringsxAandzAsuch that

s=xvz.

Asubstringvofs is the restriction ofsto an arbitrary suborder ofn. For any subword ofswe denote by suppsvthe subset ofnthat we restrict to.

.

Specification

For every mathematical object there are natural ways ofspecifying, or describ-ing, the object in a formal way. There are a number of ways to specify

semi-groups, the central object of this work. We choose to use the termspecification

to avoid confusion, since terms like definition, presentation and

representa-tion are already widely used for related concepts that do not quite capture the

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.. Specification

There are many typesof specifications for semigroups, for example pre-sentations or transformation reprepre-sentations. We call a typeT of specification

universalif for any semigroupSthere exists a specification of typeT.

We will introducepresentationsin Section . andtransformation represen-tationsin Section . of Chapter . Most importantly we will show how semi-groups can be specified by computational devices, in particular finite state

automata in Chapter . While the first two types are universal, the latter is

not. There are many more types of specification for semigroups, for example

matrices over Sumerian’s, rings or fields or rewriting systems.

Different types of specification have different strengths and weaknesses.

While transformation representations are very suitable for specifying finite

semigroups and efficiently doing computations on a computer, presentations

are more suited to specify infinite semigroups and make some computations

tractable. A particularly important property for computational algebra is that

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◦ ◦ •

Semigroups

We introduce the notions of semigroup theory needed in later chapters. We

start with the definitions of semigroups, monoids and groups and the

corre-sponding morphisms in Section ..

Sections . and . give further basic definitions connected with

semi-groups. We will expand on subsets of semigroups in Chapter .

In Section . we define cancellativity, local finiteness and residual

finite-ness.

The following Section . treats Green’s relations which is ubiquitous in

the theory of semigroups and Section . gives the basic notions of

congru-ences and quotient structures of semigroups. Congrucongru-ences describe the

ker-nels of semigroup morphisms and the possible quotients of a given

semi-group.

Free semigroups and presentations are the topic of Section ., and

pro-vide a universal type of specification for semigroups: we encode elements of

semigroups as strings over a generating set. Multiplication in the semigroup

is then done by concatenating representing strings. A very important task

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 Semigroups

will be determining equality of elements represented by strings over a

gener-ating set. Encoding elements of semigroups as strings over an alphabet will

also be a key tool for computatioval considerations.

. Semigroups, Monoids and Groups

We define the notions of semigroup and semigroup morphism and extend to

monoids and groups.

Definition ..

Asemigroupis an algebraic structure⟨S,·⟩whereSis a set andS×S−−−−·→Sis a binary function such that

(a, b, cS) (a·b)·c=a·(b·c)

holds.

The property that the operation of a semigroup has is calledassociativity, which is one of the properties of the composition of maps. For simplicity we

usually denote a semigroupS,·⟩byS, and omit the explicit notation for the binary function, unless we want to emphasise its importance.

The binary function·is often called multiplication or concatenation. We

choose infix notation for·because it allows for clean notation. In some cases

where multiplication is understood we even leave·out completely and use

juxtaposition of elements.

Two special families of semigroups are the family of monoids and the

fam-ily of groups. Monoids possess a special element, theidentity element.

Definition ..

Amonoid monM,·⟩is a semigroup such that

(eM) (mM) (e·m=m)∧(m·e=m)

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.. Semigroups, Monoids and Groups 

Groups are a family of monoids. They have the global property that every

element has a uniquely defined inverse element.

Definition ..

AgroupG,·⟩is a monoid such that

(mM)(m M) (m·m =e)∧(m′·m=e)

holds.

LetXbe a set. The setTXof all mapsX f

−−−−→Xforms a monoid with mul-tiplication being composition of maps, called the full transformation monoid. The identity element is the identity map onX.

The setRXof all relationsX ρ

−−−−→Xforms a monoid with multiplication being composition of relations, called the full relation monoid. The identity element is the identity relation onX.

The subset of bijective maps inRXis thesymmetric grouponX.

With every algebraic structure comes the notion of morphisms as the

al-gebraic tool to compare structures. Semigroup morphisms are defined as

fol-lows.

Definition ..

Let⟨S,◦⟩and⟨T,∗⟩be semigroups. A mapS−−−−φ→Tis asemigroup morphismif

(

s, s′∈S) (ss)φ= (sφ)(sφ).

A semigroup morphism S−−−−φ→T is a monomorphism, if fφ = gφ im-pliesf = gfor all semigroup morphismsU−−−−f→SandU−−−−g→S. A

semi-group morphism S−−−−φ→T is anepimorphismifφf = φg impliesf = gfor all semigroup morphismsT−−−−f→UandT−−−−g→U. A semigroup morphism

S−−−−φ→T is anisomorphismif there exists a semigroup morphismT φ

−1 −−−−→S

such thatφφ−1=ιSandφ−1φ=ιT.

IfMandNare monoids, a semigroup morphismM−−−−φ→Nis a monoid morphism if

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 Semigroups

whereeMis the identity element ofMandeNis the identity element ofN. If

MandNare groups thenφis also a group morphism.

.

Elements

In this section we introduce properties semigroup elements. Let in the

fol-lowingS,·⟩be a semigroup. An elementzSis aleft zeroif

(sS) (zs=z),

andzis aright zeroif

(sS) (sz=z).

An elementz S is azero ifz is a left and a right zero. We denote a zero element byzand note that if a semigroupScontains a zero element then it is unique.

An elementeSis aleft identityif

(sS) (es=s),

andeis aright identityif

(sS) (se=s).

An elemente Sis anidentityifeis a left and a right identity. We note that ifScontains an identity it is uniquely defined and we sometimes denote the

identity bye.

Although a semigroup Sneed not contain a zero or an identity, we can

simply add elements toSand extend the operation accordingly. Note that we can add a new zero or an identity to a semigroup that already contains a zero

or an identity respectively.

We denote bySzthe semigroupS{z},·zwherez·zs=s·zz=zfor all

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.. Subsets 

We denote bySethe semigroupS{e},·ewheree·es=s·ee= sfor all

sSeands·et=s·tfor allsandtinS.

An elementfof Sis calledidempotentifff = f. Certainly identities and zeros are idempotent. If s is an element of a semigroup S then either the

subset {si|iN>0

}

is infinite or there exist minimali N>0 andk N>0

such that si+k = si. In the first case we say that s hasinfinite order in the second case we say thatshasindexiandperiodk.

If for any two elementsxandyofSthe equation xy = yxholds we say

thatxandycommute.

. Subsets

LetXandYbe subsets of a semigroupS. We define theproductXYofXandY

as

XY ={xy|xX, yY}S,

which is a subset ofSagain. It follows that for any semigroupSthe power set

ˆ

Sis a semigroup with respect to the operation defined above. This semigroup is called thepower semigroup ofS.

In accordance with our convention, in the case ofXorY being singletons we also writexYorXyinstead of{x}YorX{y}.

For a fixed elementxfromSwe define the mapS−−−−ρx→Sby

ρx :S −−−−→ S, s 7→ sx

and the mapS−−−−λx

Sby

λx :S −−−−→ S, s 7→ xs.

By extending ρx andλx to subsetsX S we get relations S ρX

−−−−→SX and

S−−−−λX→S. The relationsρrXandλrXassign to any elementsSthe setY S

of elementsySsuch that there is anxXwiths = yxors =xy. We can

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 Semigroups

For a monoidMand a subsetXMwe inductively define for allnN

the subsets

• X0 ={e}

• Xn+1 =XXn

ofM, and denote the union of the previously defined subsets ofMas

X =∪ nN

Xn.

The setXis sometimes called theKleene star ofX.

IfSis a semigroup without an identity element, we can apply the above

definition to subsets ofSeand the set

X+=∪ nN>0

Xn,

is then a subset ofS.

.

Subsemigroups

For a given semigroupS, any subsetTofSwhich is itself a semigroup is called

asubsemigroup.

Definition ..

LetSbe a semigroup. A non-empty subsetT Sis asubsemigroup ofS, denoted

T SifTT T.

In group theory the notion ofindexis used to measure the relative size of a subgroup inside a group. The index of a subgroupHof a groupGis the

number ofcosetsofH, the size of the set{gH|gG}. In particular ifH={e}

then the index ofHinGis the size ofG.

In semigroup theory the definition of index as a measure of relative size

of a subsemigroup inside a semigroup is not as clear cut: While cosets

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.. Subsemigroups 

a consequence there have been multiple attempts at defining an index of a

subsemigroup inside a semigroup. The most straightforward notion of index

is theRees index. For a semigroupSand a subsemigroupT the Rees index of

T inSis defined to be|S\T|.

Given a semigroup propertyP, a semigroupSand a subsemigroupT of finite index, there are two natural questions to ask.

• IfT has the propertyP, doesShave the propertyP?

• ifShas the propertyP, doesT have the propertyP?

As an example, the following theorem from [Cam+] shows that both

questions can be answered in the positive for finite generation.

Theorem ..

LetSbe a semigroup and letT Sbe a subsemigroup ofSof finite Rees index. Then

Sis finitely generated if and only ifT is finitely generated.

Proof. IfSis generated by some finite setAandT is a finite Rees index sub-semigroup then the set

C={xaz | x, zSe\T, aA, xa, xazT}

is finite and generatesT.

IfT is generated by some finite setBthen certainlyB(S\T)is finite and

generatesS.

We will define a further notion of index in a later section, the notion of

Green index, which has the property that it generalises the group index. Some of the concepts of semigroup theory originate in ring theory. This

is because the reduct of a ring to multiplication forms a semigroup. One such

concept is that of anideal. Unlike ideals in rings, ideals in semigroups do not play the role of kernels of morphisms: With any idealIofSwe can associate a semigroup morphism and therefore a congruence onS, but not every

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 Semigroups

Definition ..

LetSbe a semigroup. A non-empty subsetISofSis aleft idealifSII, it is a

right idealifISS. The subsetIis anidealif it is both a left and a right ideal.

If a semigroupSdoes not have any idealISwithI̸= S, thenSissimple. If the only two ideals ofSare{z}andSitself, thenSis called0-simple.

IfSis a monoid, then there is a special subsemigroup, the group of units, denotedU(S). It is the largest subsemigroup ofSthat contains the identity

element ofSand is a group.

.

Properties

In this section we define properties of semigroups that are more global in

nature, namelycancellativityandresidual finiteness.

If a semigroup is cancellative, we can cancel common factors in a product.

This is made precise in the following definition.

Definition ..

A semigroupSisright-cancellativeif

(x, y, aS) xa=ya⇒x=y,

it isleft-cancellativeif

(x, y, aS) ax=ay⇒x=y,

and it iscancellativeif it is right- and left-cancellative

One can also define cancellativity in terms ofρxandλx; a semigroup is

right-cancellative if and only ifρx is injective for allxand it is left-cancellative if

and only ifλx is injective for allx. All groups are cancellative, and all finite

cancellative semigroups are groups. There are also infinite cancellative

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.. Congruences and Quotients 

set. It is well-known that in a cancellative monoid the complement of the

group of units is an ideal.

Lemma ..

LetMbe a cancellative monoid and letU(M)be its unit group. ThenM\ U(M)is an ideal ofM.

Proof. LetxM\ U(M)andm M. For a contradiction assume thatxm

U(M). This means that there isu U(M) such that(xm)u = e, which im-pliesx(mu) = e. Now(mu)x(mu) = (mu)e, which implies(mu)x(mu) =

e(mu) and since M is assumed to be cancellative, (mu)x = e. Therefore

mu is a multiplicative inverse for xin contradiction to the assumption that

xM\ U(M).

Residual finiteness reflects in how far a semigroup can be locally

approx-imated by a finite semigroup. All finite semigroups are residually finite, but

there are also many infinite semigroups that are residually finite.

Definition ..

A semigroupSisresidually finiteif for any two elementsa,binSwitha̸=bthere is a finite semigroupT and a semigroup morphismφ:S→T such that̸=bφ.

. Congruences and Quotients

Congruences on a semigroupSare precisely the equivalence relations on S

such that the set of equivalence classes forms a semigroup. In other words

congruences onSare in one to one correspondence with quotients ofS.

Definition ..

LetSbe a semigroup. An equivalence relationS−−−−ρ→Sis aleft congruenceonS

if

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 Semigroups

aright congruenceonS, if

(s, cS) (sρ)c(sc)ρ,

and acongruenceonSif it is a left and a right congruence.

Two natural examples of congruences are the identity relationS−−−−ιS→S

and the universal congruenceS−−−−µ→Swheresµ=Sfor allsS.

A semigroup iscongruence-freeif there is no congruence onSother thanιS

andµ. In group theory groups that are congruence-free are commonly called

simple groups, and we note that this notion is fundamentally different from the notion of simplicity in semigroup theory. A semigroup can be simple without

being congruence-free: every group is simple as a semigroup, but not every

group is a simple group. Simple groups are congruence-free as semigroups.

We show that the equivalence classes of a congruenceρon a semigroupS

form a semigroup thequotient ofSbyρdenoted S/ρ.

Lemma ..

LetSbe a semigroup and letS−−−−ρ→Sbe a congruence onS. Then S/ρ is a semi-group with multiplication(sρ) (tρ) = (st)ρ.

Proof. Letsρandtρbe elements ofS/ρ and define(sρ) (tρ) = (st)ρ. We have to show that this operation is well-defined: Lets, s,tandt elements ofS

withs sρandt tρ. By the definition of the product of subsets ofSand

becauseS−−−−ρ→Sis a right congruence it holds that

(sρ) (tρ) =∪ x

(sρ)x(st)ρ, (.) and becauseS−−−−ρ→Sis a left congruence it holds that

(sρ)(tρ) =∪ y

y(tρ)(st)ρ. (.) Therefore

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.. Congruences and Quotients 

and in conclusion(st)ρ= (st)ρ.

For any semigroup morphismS−−−−φ→T define the following congruenceS, thekernel ofφ.

Definition ..

LetSandT be semigroups and letS−−−−φ→Tbe a semigroup morphism. Thekernel ker φofφis defined as

ker φ:S −−−−→ S, s 7→ sφφ−1.

In group theory one usually defines the kernel of a group morphism to be just

eφ−1. This is consistent with our definition sincex yφφ−1 if and only if

xφ= yφwhich is the case if and only if(xφ)−1(yφ) =eand thereforex−1y

is ineφ−1. Given a congruenceρon a semigroupSthe canonical map

π:S −−−−→ S/ρ, s 7→ sρ

is a semigroup morphism. The preceding paragraph described what can be

summarised as the well-knownfirst isomorphism theorem for semigroups.

Theorem ..

LetSandTbe semigroups and letS−−−−φ→Tbe a semigroup morphism. There exists a surjective morphismS−−−−π→S/ker φand an injective morphismS/kerφ−−−−ι →T

such thatφ =πι, or equivalently the following diagram commutes.

.. ..

S . T..

. S/ker.. φ .

φ

.

π . ι

Proof. We let

π:S −−−−→ S/ker φ , s 7→ sρ,

soπis a surjective semigroup morphism. We further define

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 Semigroups

We have to show thatιis well-defined and injective. Fors, s′∈Sit holds that

s s(ker φ) if and only ifsφ = sφ soι is well-defined and injective. To show that the diagram commutes letsS, thensπι= (sρ)ι=sφ.

The isomorphism theorem for semigroups is a tool to characterise quotients

of a semigroup by surjective morphisms. Thesecond isomorphism theorem for semigroupshelps comparing quotients of a given semigroup.

Theorem ..

LetS−−−−φ→T be a surjective semigroup morphism andS−−−−ψ→T be a semigroup morphism. Ifker φker ψthen there exists a uniquely defined morphismT−−−−θ→T

such thatψ=φθ, or equivalently the following diagram commutes.

.. ..

S T..

. T.. .

φ

.

ψ . θ

Proof. If we defineT−−−−θ→T by(tφ)θ= tψthenθis well-defined andψ = φθ.

We briefly touch on the notion of congruence generation, the definition of

which is straightforward and standard throughout mathematics.

Definition ..

LetSbe a semigroup. Given a setR S×S of pairs thecongruenceρ(R)on S

generated byRis the smallest congruence onSthat containsR, or more formally

ρ(R) =∩ σ∈C(R)

Rσ σ,

whereC(R)is the family of all congruences onS.

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.. Free Semigroups and Presentations 

. Free Semigroups and Presentations

In this section we introduce the notions of afree semigroup on a setand a semi-group presentation. Free semigroups are in a sense the semigroups with the least structure one can construct from any given set. Semigroup

presenta-tions are, next to transformation representapresenta-tions as shown in Theorem ..,

a universal type of specification for semigroups.

While the transformation representations semigroup puts an emphasis on

transformations of a set and therefore completely describing the behaviour

of an element, semigroup presentations put the emphasis on generators and

relations between elements.

We define the notion of afree semigroup on a setusing the following uni-versal property.

Definition ..

Let Xbe a set. A semigroup Fis free on Xif there is a map X−−−−iX→Fsuch that for any map X−−−−f→Sthere exists a unique semigroup morphism F−−−−φ→Swith

iXφ=f, or equivalently the following diagram commutes.

.. ..

X F..

. S.. .

iX

.

f

. !φ

We make sure that for any given setXthere exists at least one semigroupFX

which is free onX. This semigroup has already been introduced in Section

.; it is the set of all strings over the set Xtogether with the concatenation operation.

Lemma ..

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 Semigroups

Proof. It is clear that concatenation of strings is associative, therefore the set

X+ together with concatenation is a semigroup. TakeX−−−−iX→X+ to be the map that takes any elementx X to the string [x]of length one. For any

X−−−−f→SdefineX+−−−−φ→Sby

[x. . .xn]φ= (x1f)(x2f)· · ·(xnf).

It follows thatiXφ = ffor allx X, and for any other morphismF ψ

−−−−→S

with this property the equationφ=ψholds.

Applying the universal property used in Definition .., we show that for

any cardinal there is only one free semigroup on sets of that cardinality.

Theorem ..

LetXandY be sets and letFX andFY be free semigroups on XandY respectively.

ThenFX=∼ FYif, and only if, there is a bijective mapX−−−−h→Y.

Proof. IfFX φ

−−−−→FYis an isomorphism thenX φ|X

−−−−→Yis a bijection.

Conversely, letX−−−−h→Y be bijective. Then by Definition .. there are

maps X−−−−iX→FX andY iY

−−−−→FY such that for X hiY

−−−−→FY there is a unique

semigroup morphismFX φ

−−−−→FYwithiXφ=hiYand such that forY h−1i

X −−−−→FX

there is a unique semigroup morphismFY ψ

−−−−→FXwithiYψ=h−1iX.

Sincehis bijectiveiXφ=hiY ⇔h−1iXφ=iY, thereforeh−1iXφψ=h−1iX

and thusiXφψ = iX, thusFX φψ

−−−−→FXis a morphism with the property that

iXφψ = iX. SinceiXιFX = iX and by uniqueness from Definition .., the

equalityφψ = ιFX holds. Similar reasoning givesψφ = ιFY. We conclude

thatφandψare mutually inverse semigroup morphisms.

We denotethefree semigroup on a setXbyX+.

Agenerating setfor a semigroupSis usually defined to be asubsetXofS

such that all elements ofScan be written as a product of elements inX. We

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.. Free Semigroups and Presentations 

Definition ..

A semigroupSis generated by a setXif there is a mapX−−−−p→Ssuch thatX+−−−−πX

S

is surjective.

Note that generating sets are separate from the semigroupS, in particularnot

a subset ofS. This is important when we encode elements of semigroups by strings over a set and we have to make a clear distinction between strings over

a generating set and elements of the semigroup.

Given a semigroupS, a generating set X and X−−−−p→S we encode ele-ments of Sas strings overX, and any string v X+ encodes an element of

S. ApplyingπXto any stringvinX+gives us the element ofSencoded byv.

Sometimes we denote the element ofSencoded by a stringvX+byvif the setXand the mappis understood. If there is more than one generating set

considered we make this explicit if necessary by writingvπX.

We call cross-sections of kerπsets ofnormal formsor sets ofunique repre-sentatives. Given a semigroupSand a generating setX, elements ofScan have infinitely many representatives. In general there does not exist an algorithmic

method to tell whether two elements ofX+represent the same element ofS.

In the theory of computation we say that this problem isundecidable.

For any semigroupS, the set Sitself is a generating set, but generally a much smaller generating set is sufficient. If there is a finite set of generators

for a semigroupS, we callSfinitely generated. If there is a generating set forS

that only contains one element we callSmonogenic.

We now have the necessary tools to definesemigroup presentations.

Definition ..

LetXbe a set and letRX+×X+be a set of pairs of strings overX. Thesemigroup generated byXwith relationsRis the semigroup X+/ρ(R)denoted bysgX | R⟩.

Hereρ(R)is the congruence onX+generated by the images of the elements of

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 Semigroups

ρon X+ such that for(v, w) Rit holds that vπXwπXρ. We usually use v=wto denote pairs(v, w)R

Semigroup presentations allow us to specify a semigroup by choosing a

generating set and relations between elements of the semigroup. Conversely,

any given semigroupShas a presentation consisting of the setSas generat-ing set and the multiplication table ofSas set of relations. In other words,

specification by presentations is universal.

Presentations make it algorithmically trivial to multiply two elements:

Given two stringsvandwover a generating setXforS, a representative for

(vπXwπX)isvw. It was already mentioned earlier that presentations make it

algorithmically very hard in general to tell whether two stringsvandwover

Xrepresent the same element ofS.

We say thatSisfinitely presentedif thereexistsa presentationX, RwithX

andRfinite such thatS=∼ X, R.

We will give examples of finitely generated and finitely presented

semi-groups in Chapter .

Analogously to the above we can definemonoid presentations.

Definition ..

LetXbe a set and letR X∗×X∗be a set of pairs of strings overX. Themonoid generated byXwith relationsRis the monoid X/ρ(R) denoted bymonX | R⟩.

Hereρ(R)is the congruence onXgenerated by the images of the elements of

Runder the morphismπX extended to pairs, that is the smallest congruence ρonXsuch that for(v, w)Rit holds thatvπXwπXρ.

Every monoid now has a semigroup presentation and a semigroup

pre-sentation. Monoid presentations make the identity element implicit by

as-serting that the empty string is the canonical representative for the identity.

Given a monoid presentation monX | Rfor a monoidM, we can give a semigroup presentation forMby adding a generator efor the identity toX

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.. Transformation Representations 

semigroup presentation sgX | Rfor a monoidMwe find a representative

vX+for the identity element ofMand add the relation(v, ε)toRand this yields a monoid presentation. Note however that it might not be constructive

finding a representative for the identity element ofM.

. Transformation Representations

With transformation representations we introduce a second universal means

of specifying semigroups. Cayley’s theorem from group theory demonstrates

how every group can be represented as a group of permutations of a set, and

hence is isomorphic to a subgroup of a symmetric group. There is an

equiv-alent theorem to Cayley’s theorem in semigroup theory.

Theorem ..

LetSbe a semigroup. ThenSis isomorphic to a subsemigroup ofTSe.

Proof. The map

ρx:Se −−−−→ Se, s 7→ sx

is an element ofTSe for allxSand the map

φ:S −−−−→ TSe, x 7→ ρx

is a semigroup morphism. It is injective, since

xφ=yφ⇒ρx=ρy ⇒sρx =sρyfor allsSe (.)

ex=ey⇒x=y (.)

Note that it is essential in the above proof to useTSeand notTSto ensure

injec-tivity ofφifSis not a monoid. Subsemigroups ofTXare calledtransformation

Figure

Figure .: Automaton for ι⟨S(A) where S = sga | a4 = a9⟩
Figure .: Automaton for ιE(4,5)({a, b})
Figure .: Automaton that decides ιP({a, b})
Figure .: Automaton Ai.
+4

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