A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS
by
KIYOMI IKETANI
A sub-thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
Degree of Master of Arts, (Asian Studies)
at the
Australian National University
Except where otherwise in d ica te d th is th e s is is my own work.
a
KEY TO GRAMMATICAL ABBREVIATIONS vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi i i
INTRODUCTION
0. General Considerations 1
1. Some Definitions in Dictionaries 1.0 A General Account
1.1 Takahashi's Romanized English - Japanese/ Japanese-English Dictionary
1.2 Kenkyuusha's New Japanese-English 4
Dictionary
1.3 Dictionary of Basic Japanese Usage for 6 Foreigners
1.4 Nippon Kokugo Daijiten 7
1.5 Summary 7
2. An Overview of the Thesis 8
CHAPTER I: EXPLANATION AND PRESENTATION IN JAPANESE LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS
0. A General Account 11
1. Textbooks for Beginners 11
2. Textbooks for Advanced Learners 12
3. Presentation in the Advanced Textbooks 13
3.1 Japanese Language Patterns 14
3.1.1 TSUMARI and SUNAWACHI 14
3.1.2 KEKKYOKU 16
3.2 Nippongo II 17
3.2.1 KEKKYOKU 17
3.2.2 SUNAWACHI 18
3.3 Integrated Spoken Japanese I 19
3.4 Learn Japanese: College Text 19
3.4.1 KEKKYOKU 20
3.4.2 TSUMARI 20
3.5 I.C.U. 20
3.5.1 TSUMARI 21
3.5.2 SUNAWACHI 21
3.5.3 KEKKYOKU 21
3.5.4 Y00SURUNI 22
3.6 Nihongo Hyoogen Bunkei 23
3.6.1 TSUMARI 23
3.6.2 KEKKYOKU 23
3.6.3 Y00SURUNI 24
4. Summary 25
CM
CM
C
0. Introduction 27
1. Conjunctions 28
2. Sentence Adverbials 32
3. Summary 35
CHAPTER III: SYNTACTIC CONSTRAINTS ON THE WORDS
0. Introduction 37
1. Occurrence in Questions 37
1.1 Speaker's Modality and Addressee's 40
Modality
1.2 Consideration of these Four Words in 41
the Light of Speaker/Addressee Orientation
2. Occurrence with Imperatives 44
2.0 A General Account 44
2.1 The Distinction between Imperatives 45
2.2 Imperatives in relation with Illocutionary 47 Forces
3. Occurrence in the NO DA Construction 54
3.0 A General Account 54
3.1 A Brief Survey of the Function of the 57 NO DA Construction
3.2 The Relation of these Words with NO DA 62
4. Movability of the Four Words 65
4.0 A General Account 65
4.1 Movability in Simple Sentences 66
4.2 Compound and Complex Sentences 70
4.2.1 KEKKY0KU 76
4.2.2 TSUMARI, YOOSURUNI and SUNAWACHI 78
4.3 Summary 82
5. Occurrence in Negative Sentences 83
CHAPTER IV: THE SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF THE WORDS
0. Introduction 88
1. KEKKYOKU 88
1.0 A General Account 88
1.1 "Proposition-oriented" Use 90
1.2 "Discourse-oriented" Use 93
1.3 Summary 97
2. TSUMARI 98
2.0 A General Account 98
2.1 Paraphrasing 99
2.1.1 NP1 TSUMARI NP2 99
2.1.2 SI. TSUMARI S2. 101
2.1.3 Semantic Components for "Paraphrasing" 103
2.2 Explaining 103
2.2.1 Analysis 103
2.2.2 Semantic Components for "Explaining" 107
2.3 Concluding 107
2.3.1 Summarizing 108
2.3.1.1 NP1 TSUMARI NP2 108
2.3.1.2 SI. TSUMARI S2. 108
2.3.2 Concluding 109
2.3.3 Semantic Components for "Concluding" 112
3. Y00SURUNI 113
3.0 A General Account 113
3.1 A Y00SURUNI B 113
3.2 A. Y00SURUNI B. 116
3.3 A Topic Marker Y00SURUNI B. 118
4. SUNAWACHI 121
4.0 A General Account 121
4.1 A SUNAWACHI B 121
4.2 A. SUNAWACHI B. 127
4.3 A. B[...SUNAWACHI...]. 128
4.4 A Topic Marker SUNAWACHI B. 130
4.5 A Conditional, SUNAWACHI B. 131
CONCLUSION 133
A B L a b l a t i v e c a s e (kara) A C C a c c u s a t i v e c a s e (o) A L L a l l a t i v e c a s e (e) C A U S c a u s a t i v e a f f i x ( s ase) C O M c o m i t a t i v e c a s e (to)
C O M P s e n t e n t i a l c o m p l e m e n t i z e r (no, koto , t o k o r o ) C O M P L c o m p l e t i o n (-te s h i m a u )
C O N D c o n d i t i o n a l a f f i x (-ba, - t a r a , - t o, - n a r a ) C O N J c o n j e c t u r a l f o r m ( d a r o o )
C OP c o p u l a (da, de aru) D A T d a t i v e c a s e (ni)
D E S d e s i d e r a t i v e a f f i x ( - ta i ) GEN g e n i t i v e c a s e (no)
G E R g e r u n d a f f i x (-te)
H ON h o n o r i f i c m o r p h e m e (go, o - V ni n a r u ) H O R ( H O R T ) h o r t a t i v e a f f i x ( - yo o )
IMP i m p e r a t i v e f o r m INF i n f i n i t i v e f o r m
P O L p o l i t e a f f i x (- m a s u )
P O T p o t e n t i a l a f f i x ( r ar e, re) P R O p r o v e r b (s ur u)
P R O G p r o g r e s s i v e a f f i x ( t e - i r u ) Q q u e s t i o n p a r t i c l e (ka) Q U O T q u o t a t i v e m a r k e r (to) R E P r e p o r t a t i v e p a r t i c l e (soo) R E S r e s u l t a t i v e a f f i x ( t e - a r u )
S F P s e n t e n t i a l final p a r t i c l e ( y o , z o , n e , n a ) S P O N s p o n t a n e o u s a f f i x (r ar e)
S T A T s t a t i v e a f f i x ( t e - i r u ) T E M P t e m p o r a l l o c a t i v e (ni) T O P t o p i c m a r k e r (wa)
* X X is u n g r a m m a t i c a l
Anthony Alfonso fo r his guidance during the w ritin g of th is th esis, and to Dr Anna Wierzbicka fo r the valuable suggestions and p atient guidance she showed as supervisor.
I am also very gratefu l to Mr Nicholas Reid who has been very helpful in proofreading my thesis and in giving me a number of comments and suggestions.
I t would be impossible to mention the large number of people who contributed support to me while w ritin g th is th e s is , but I must mention Wai Ling Lam, Timothy Strong, Akiko Ohnishi, Hiroaki Oasa
and Catherine Challenor.
This th e s is is an attem pt to analyze the meaning o f fo u r Japanese words which are g e n e ra lly used fo r summarizing, paraphrasing or c la r if y in g what has been p re v io u s ly sta te d . The fu n c tio n o f these fo u r words is to re la te sentences in a discourse. Therefore, the meaning o f the words cannot be discovered by considering a sentence in is o la tio n - they must be considered in the context o f a discourse. This is one o f the reasons why these words are d i f f i c u l t fo r students when they are le a rn in g Japanese. N a tu ra lly th is problem does not concern beginners so much as advanced le a rn e rs , because beginners are more engaged in fundamental sentence pa tterns than in competent discourse.
One o f these words is g e n e ra lly c la s s ifie d as a con juntio n in tr a d itio n a l Japanese grammar, and the o th e r three are g e n e ra lly c la s s ifie d as adverbs. However, i t is s t i l l c o n tro v e rs ia l as to which grammatical category these words should belong to . This p o in t w ill be discussed in Chapter I I . The words to be considered in th is th e sis are as fo llo w s :
KEKKYOKU TSUMARI Y00SURUNI SUNAWACHI
difficult to encode the semantic differences between the resulting sentences in any English translation of them.
(1) omae no shusse
your COL success
wa ( SUNAWACHI TOP
KEKKYOKU
<
YOOSURUNI ^ TSUMARI j
watashi no shusse na
my success
no da. COMP COP
(Your success means my success.)
The fact that dictionary definitions of these words tend to be circular is indicative of this difficulty (both in Japanese-Japanese dictionaries and Japanese-English dictionaries). This point will be discussed in the following section.
This thesis has two main objectives. Firstly, it will show that the semantic differences between these four words can be demonstrated by breaking them up into illocutionary components. Secondly, it is an attempt to contribute to the work on illocutionary components in the theory of speech acts, by discussing the problems in applying this approach to the actual data.
This introduction consists of two sections. The first section provides an overview of some definitions of these adverbs in dictionaries. The aim of this section is to show how confusing the dictionary definitions are for Japanese language students. The second section is an overview of the entire thesis.
1_.___ Some Definitions in Dictionaries 1.0 A General Account
words, nor with their comparison with other adverbs or conjunctions.
These issues are addressed in Chapter II.
There are two things to be gained by examining dictionary
definitions of these words here. Firstly, some introduction to the
meanings of the four words will f a c i l i t a t e more detailed analysis of
them in the following chapters. Secondly, such an examination helps to
demonstrate the problem of circular definition.
We will examine four different types of dictionary. Type 1 is a
Japanese-English Dictionary for English-speaking learners of Japanese.
Type 2 is also a Japanese-Engl ish Dictionary, although in this case i t
is designed for Japanese-speaking learners of English. In fact both
these dictionaries tend to be used by English speakers learning
Japanese. Even advanced students tend to use these dictionaries rather
than Japanese-Japanese ones^. Types 3 and 4 are both Japanese-Japanese
dictionaries. Type 3 is designed for learners of Japanese and Type 4
for native Japanese speakers. The names of these dictionaries are:
Type 1. Takahashi's Romanized English-Japanese/
Japanese-English Dictionary.
Type 2. Kenkyuusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary.
Type 3. Dictionary of Basic Japanese Usage for Foreigners.
Type 4. Nippon Kokugo Daijiten.
Each will be surveyed in the following sub-sections.
1.1 Takahashi's Romanized English-Japanese/Japanese-English Dictionary.
According to Tamamura^, this is the dictionary most frequently
used by students of Japanese. Its definitions of the four words are as
TSUMARI
a f t e r a l l ; in the long run; in sho rt ; t h a t is to say
YOOSURUNI
in short (a word); a f t e r a l l ; to sum up; in fine
KEKKYOKU
a f t e r a l l ; f i n a l l y ; in the end (long run)
SUNAWACHI
namely; or; t h a t is (to say); viz ( v i d e l i c e t ) ; j u s t ; ex actly ; nothing but
'Afte r a l l 1 is given for three of these words, and various other
d e fi ni to ns also overlap. The extent of these overlapping d e f i n i ti o n s
can be represented in diagramatic form:
1.2 Kenkyuusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary.
As t h i s dict io nar y i s designed for Japanese people who are
studying English, Japanese words are also l i s t e d . Under the entry word,
"TSUMARI", the other three words, SUNAWACHI, KEKKYOKU and YOOSURUNI are
given. Under the entry word "SUNAWACHI", TSUMARI is given. Under the
word "YOOSURUNI", KEKKYOKU is given. This r e l a t i o n is charted in the
KEKKYOKU
TSUMARI
YOOSURUNI1
The corresponding Engl is h words given are as f o l l o w s :
KEKKYOKU
a f t e r a l l ; f i n a l l y ; u l t i m a t e l y ; e v e n t u a l l y ; i n the end; i n f i n e ; in c o n cl u s i on ; i n t i m e ; i n the e v e n t ; in the long run; in the r e s u l t ; i n t he l a s t ( f i n a l , u l t i m a t e ) a n a l y s i s ; i n t h e l a s t r e s o r t ; when ( a f t e r ) a l l i s s ai d (and done) ; on ( t h e ) b al an c e; s t i 11 and a l l .
TSUMARI
KEKKYOKU a f t e r a l l ; e v e n t u a l l y ; in the long run; in the end; in the f i n a l ( l a s t ) a n a l y s i s ; when a l l i s s ai d (and done);
YOOSURUNI in a word; in s h o r t ; i n f i n e ; i n b r i e f ; b r i e f l y ; in sum; t o sum up; t o put i t s h o r t l y ; put si mp l y; in f a c t ; i n e f f e c t ;
SUNAWACHI t h a t i s t o say; t h a t i s ; i n o t h e r words; t o be more p r e c i s e .
YOOSURUNI
i n a (one) word; i n s h o r t ; i n sum; in f i n e ; i n the l a s t a n a l y s i s ; a l l t h i n g s c on si de re d; when a l l i s sai d and done; t o sum up; t o be s h o r t ; the long and s h o r t o f i t i s t h a t . . . ; t o make s h o r t o f a long s t o r y ;
KEKKYOKU a f t e r a l l ; i n c on cl u si o n;
JIJITSUJOO i n e f f e c t .
SUNAWACHI
TSUMARI namely; t o w i t ; v i z . ( v i d e l i c e t ) ; t h a t i s ( t o s a y ) ; i . e . ( i d e s t ) .
MASASHIKU j u s t ; p r e c i s e l y ; e x a c t l y ; TORIMONAOSAZU not hi ng b u t ; n e i t h e r more nor l e s s .
1 . 3 D i c t i o n a r y o f B a s i c J a p a n e s e Usage f o r F o r e i g n e r s .
T h i s d i c t i o n a r y i s d e s i g n e d f o r s t u d e n t s who have s t u d i e d t h e
J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e f o r a b o u t 500 h o u r s , and p r o v i d e s a v o c a b u l a r y o f 4000
words c o n s i d e r e d t o be n e c e s s a r y f o r b e g i n n e r s . I t c o n t a i n s t h r e e o f
t h e f o u r words examined i n t h i s t h e s i s ; TSUMARI, SUNAWACHI, and
KEKKY0KU. In a d d i t i o n t o d e f i n i t i o n s , synonyms, which a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o
be u s e f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e n t r y wor d, a r e l i s t e d b e n e a t h i t . Under
t h e word "TSUMARI", SUNAWACHI and KEKKY0KU a r e g i v e n . Under
"SUNAWACHI", TSUMARI i s g i v e n and u n d e r "KEKKY0KU", TSUMARI. A no t h e r
d i a gr am s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p :
TSUMARI
KEKKY0KU
SUNAWACHI
While synonyms a r e u s e f u l i n comp ar ing t h e s e m a n t i c b o u n d a r i e s o f t h o s e
words t h a t a r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , t h e y can be m i s l e a d i n g where d e f i n i t i o n s
r e s e m b l e e ac h o t h e r . The d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e n a r e a s f o l l o w s :
TSUMARI, a d v e r b
k a n t a n ni i e b a ( s i m p l y s p e a k i n g ) , kekkyoku no t o k o r o ( a f t e r a l l ) , hoka no ko toba de i e b a ( s a y i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t wor ds)
SUNAWACHI, c o n j u n c t i o n
1. mae no kotoba o t su yo me ru t o k i ni t s u k a u k ot oba ( t h e word t o be used f o r e m p h a s i z i n g t h e p r e c e d i n g wor ds)
KEKKYOKU, adverb
1. i r o i r o na koto ga a t t a ga s o rera no saigo ni ( i n the end, a f t e r v ario u s h a ppenings).
2. i r o i r o no koto ga kangaerareru ga saigo ni doo naru ka kantan ni iu to (a lth o u g h v a rio u s t h in g s are t h i n k a b l e , s im p ly speaking about th e r e s u l t )
E v i d e n t l y t h e r e is some o v e r la p in these d e f i n i t i o n s . The expression
'hoka no kotoba de ie b a ' - 's a y in g w it h d i f f e r e n t words' i s given f o r
both TSUMARI and SUNAWACHI. The d e f i n i t i o n given f o r KEKKYOKU i s more
p r e c is e than th e d e f i n i t i o n s g iven f o r the o t h e r two words.
1 .4 Nippon Kokugo D a i j i t e n .
T h is i s considered to be the l a r g e s t and most d e t a i l e d o f the
Japanese-Japanese d i c t i o n a r i e s . However, even in t h i s d i c t i o n a r y , as
shown b elo w , th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f the f o u r words are c i r c u l a r , and
t h e r e f o r e o f l i t t l e help to th e advanced l e a r n e r o f Japanese.
D e f i n i t i o n s g iven f o r the words r e f e r back to each o t h e r in the
f o l l o w i n g c i r c u l a r manner:
‘ todo no TSUMARI
TSUMARI
YOOSURUNI KEKKYOKU
SUNAWACHI
1 .5 Summary
We have seen t h a t none o f these d i c t i o n a r i e s , designed f o r use by
stu d en ts a t f o u r d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f language l e a r n i n g , supply adequate
synonymy and TSUMARI is u n iv ers a lly defined by replacement with the other three words.
2. An Overview of the Thesis
Chapter I begins with a description of how the four words are
presented in Japanese textbooks. These words are usually d ealt with in advanced textbooks, so th is chapter is a survey of some of those.
Chapter I I is concerned with how these four words have been treated in the Japanese lexicon and e sp ecially with how they are related to other words which have s im ila r grammatical functions. I n i t i a l l y i t examines how the words are related to conjunctions, then i t examines how they are related to adverbs.
Chapter I I I deals with several syntactic constraints on these four words. I t is shown th a t they are not included w ithin the scope of
such devices as questions, negatives, imperatives and sentential
pronominalization. Further discussion in the chapter centres on the words' re la tio n s with the NO DA construction, and on the movability of the four words.
Chapter IV investigates the semantic structures of the four
words, KEKKYOKU, TSUMARI, YOOSURUNI and SUNAWACHI, and proposes a
INTRODUCTION - NOTES
A n a l y s i s o f t h e f o u r words i s b as ed on d a t a g a t h e r e d from t h e
f o l l o w i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s . To s u p p l e m e n t t h e somewhat i n a d e q u a t e p u b l i s h e d
d a t a , t h e a u t h o r c o n s t r u c t e d example s e n t e n c e s and t e s t e d them f o r
a c c e p t a b i l i t y in i n t e r v i e w s w i t h n a t i v e J a p a n e s e s p e a k e r s .
1. Endoo, Shuusaku. Kor ian Z a k k i c h o o . Tokyo: M a in i ch i S h i n b u n s h a , 1972.
2. ______ , e d. Kokoro. Tokyo: S a k u h i n s h a , 1984.
3. H a t a , M a s a n o r i . Mutsugoroo no T am a te b ak o. Tokyo: Kadokawa S h o t e n , 1984.
4. I k e g a m i , Y o s h i h i k o . Kigooron e no S h o o t a i . Tokyo: Iwanami S h o t e n , 1984.
5. I t a s a k a , Gen. N i h o n j i n no R o n r i k o o z o o . Tokyo: Koodansha Gendai S h i n s h o , 1971
6. _______. Nihongo no H y ooj oo. Tokyo: Koodansha Gendai S h i n s h o , 1978.
7. K i n o s h i t a , Koreo. Ri ka k ei no Sakubun G i j u t s u . Tokyo: Chuukoo S h i n s h o , 1981.
8 . Mi kun i, I c h i r o o . Kotoba no a r u F u u k e i . Tokyo: S h i n c h o o s h a , 1985.
9. M iu r a, T e t s u o . Yuta t o F u s h i g i n a N a k a m a t a c h i . Tokyo: S hinchoo Bunko, 1984.
10. N i h o n j i n t o K o k u s a i k a . Ed. Dai 5 - k a i Tsukuba Kokusai S h in po ji umu J i k k o o I i n k a i . Tokyo: G y o o s e i , 1980.
11. S a t o o , Aiko. Koofuku no S h u u r e s s h a . Tokyo: Koobunsha Bunko, 1985.
12. T ana be, S e i k o . U b a z a k a r i . Tokyo: S hinchoo Bunko, 1984.
13. Watanabe, S h o o i c h i . C h i t e k i Tai oo no J i d a i . Tokyo: Koodansha Bunko, 1983.
14. ________. S h i n - J o o s h i k i s h u g i no Susume. Tokyo: Bunshun Bunko, 1984.
In a d d i t i o n , M o r i t a ( 1 9 77 , 1980) and t h e f o l l o w i n g d i c t i o n a r i e s have
1. Kenkyuusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary. Gen. Ed. Koo Masuda. 4th e d . , 1918. Tokyo: Kenkyuusha, 1974.
2. Nippon Kokugo D a i j i t e n . Ed. Nippon Daijiten Kankookai. 20 vols. Tokyo: Shoogakukan, 1972-1976.
3. Nippongo Kyooiku J i t e n . Ed. The Society for the Teaching of Japanese as a Foreign Language. Tokyo:
Taishuukan, 1982.
4. Gaikokujin no tame no Kihongo Yoorei J i t e n . Ed.
Bunkachoo. 2nd Ed., 1971. Tokyo: Ookurashoo Insatsukyoku, 1975.
References to examples from these sources are given in the t e x t , though
I have taken the l i b e r t y of shortening the f u l l t i t l e s of publications,
e.g. Koofuku no Shuuressha -» Koofuku.
^Shigeko Miyazaki. "Gaikokujin no tame no Nihongo Jisho
(Japanese Dictionaries for Foreigners)", Nihongogaku, 2 (June, 1983),
pp. 79-85.
She notes t h i s tendency a f t e r making i n q u ir i e s with students of
Japanese a t intermediate and advanced lev e ls .
Ikuo Kawase. "Gaikokujin Gakushuusha no tame no Nihongo Jisho
Annai (A Guide to Dictionaries for Foreign Learners)", Gekkan Gengo,
14:4 (1985), pp. 71-75.
He rep or ts on what kind of d i c t i o n a r i e s are used by foreign
le a rn er s.
^Fumio Tamamura. "Nihongo Kyooiku to Jisho (Japanese Language
Teaching and D i c ti o n a r i e s ) " , Kokugo Shi ri izu Bessatsu 1, Nihongo to
IN JAPANESE LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS
0_._ _ _ _ A General A c c o u n t
T h i s c h a p t e r b r i e f l y su r v e y s , f r o m two p o i n t s of view, h o w the f o u r w o r d s are t r e a t e d in t e x t b o o k s of J a p a n e s e . F i r s t l y , it looks at the level of the t e x t b o o k s in w h i c h the w o r d s appear. S e c o n d l y , it looks at h o w t h e y are p r e s e n t e d or e x p l a i n e d .
It is not the a i m o f this s e c t i o n to d i s c u s s w h a t kind of p r e s e n t a t i o n of the w o r d s is the b e s t n o r to c r i t i c i z e the t e x t b o o k s . As it is i m p o s s i b l e to put e v e r y t h i n g in a t e x t b o o k , o n e c a n n o t e x p e c t too m u c h f r o m a n y one text. As will be seen later, the f o u r w o r d s f u n c t i o n as s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t i v e s . It is i m p o s s i b l e , by us i n g the w o r d s , to m a k e a s e n t e n c e w h i c h is s h o r t e n o u g h for s t u d e n t s to r e p e a t ora l l y . C o n s e q u e n t l y one has to p r e s e n t the w o r d s in a d i s c o u r s e , w h i c h le a d s to p r e s e n t i n g t h e m in w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s . Thi s f a c t e x p l a i n s w h y t e x t b o o k s for b e g i n n e r s do not p r e s e n t the f o u r words.
L._ _ _ _ T e x t b o o k s f o r B e g i n n e r s
In s u p p o r t of the a b o v e c o n t e n t i o n , the f o u r w o r d s do not a p p e a r in the f o l l o w i n g t e x t b o o k s i n t e n d e d for b e g i nners.
1) J a p a n e s e f o r B e g i n n e r s . Tokyo: G akken, Co. Ltd., 1976. 2) B a s i c J a p a n e s e : I n t e n s i v e C o u r s e f o r S p e a k i n g and Reading.
3) Intensive Course in Japanese. Elementary I and I I . Ed.
Japanese Language Promotion Centre, Tokyo: Language
Service, 1970.
4) Beginning Japanese by E.H. Jorden. Part I and I I . Tokyo:
C.E. Tuttl e Company, 1974.
5) Modern Japanese for University Students. Part I. Ed.
Japanese Department, Inter na tiona l Christian University.
Rev. e d . , 1963. Tokyo: ICU Bookstore, I n c . , 1965.
6) Nippongo I . Ed. Japanese Language School, Tokyo Univ. of
Foreign Studies. Tokyo: Bonjinsha, 1979.
7) Learn Japanese: College Text. Vol. I by John Young and
Kimiko Nakajima. Honolulu: East-West Centre, 1967.
2_._____ Textbooks for Advanced Learners
Even in textbooks for advanced l e a r n e r s , not all four words are
presented. The following tab le shows the names of the textbooks
examined and the place in them where the four words are discussed.
TEXTBOOK Y00SURUNI TSUMARI KEKKYOKU SUNAWACHI
(1) Lesson 12
p. 143
Lesson 14 p. 174
(2) Vol. I
Lesson 4 p. 164
(3) Vol. II
p. 1119
Vol. II p. 1120
Vol II p. 1119
(4) Vol. IV, L14
p. 196
Vol. I l l , L3 p. 27
(5) Vol I I I , L13 p. 60
Vol I I , L2 p. 7
Vol I I , L9 p. 49
Vol I I , L3 p. 12
(6) Vol I I , L21 p. 209
Vol I , L7 p. 123
(1 ) Nippongo I I . Ed. Japanese Language School, Tokyo Univ. o f Foreign Studies. Tokyo: Bonjinsha, 1979.
(2) In te g ra te d Spoken Japanese I . V o l. 1 and 2. Compiled and ed. the s t a f f o f the I n t e r - U n i v e r s i t y Centre f o r Japanese Language Studies in Tokyo. Tokyo: I n t e r - U n i v e r s i t y Centre, 1975.
(3) Japanese Language Patterns by A. Alfonso. Vol. I I . Tokyo:
Sophia U n iv e r s it y L.L. Centre o f Applied L in g u is t ic s , 1966.
(4) Learn Japanese: College T e x t . Vols. I I , I I I and IV , by John Young and Kimiko Nakajima. Honolulu: East-West Centre Press, 1968.
(5) Modern Japanese f o r U n iv e r s it y Students. P a rt I I and I I I . Ed. Japanese Department, I n te r n a tio n a l C h ris tia n U n iv e r s it y . Rev. e d . , 1963. Tokyo: ICU Bookstore, I n c . , 1965.
(6) Nihongo Hyoogen Bunkei: In te rm e d ia te Textbook. Vols. 1 and 2. Ed. Japanese Language Research Group, U n iv e r s it y o f Tsukuba. Tokyo: Isebu P u b lic a tio n Company L t d . , 1983.
As seen in the t a b l e , the word KEKKYOKU is presented in every textbook examined and i t is only the textbook from the In te r n a tio n a l C h ris tia n U n iv e r s ity which presents a l l fo u r words. The next section w i l l look a t how they are presented.
3^_____ P resentation in the Advanced Textbooks.
o ther hand, in te rm ed iate and advanced textbooks contain no explanation but consist mainly o f sample reading m a t e r ia ls , sometimes from real w r i t t e n m a te ria ls l i k e newspapers and books, and sometimes from
s im p lif ie d m a t e r ia ls . Thus students are expected to learn the meaning from the context in which the word is used.
3.1 Japanese Language Patterns
A lfo n so 's J .L .P . gives several example sentences with TSUMARI, SUNAWACHI and KEKKYOKU, so l e t us s t a r t with the survey o f J .L .P .
3 . 1 . 1 TSUMARI and SUNAWACHI in J .L .P .
In J . L . P . , the fo llo w in g example sentences w ith TSUMARI and SUNAWACHI are given:
(1 ) mondai o kaiketsu -su ru tame ni
problem ACC solve PRES in order to
sono hon o yonda no desu.
the book ACC read PAST COMP COP POL r TSUMARI
mokuteki o m ot-te yonda no desu.
purpose ACC have PROG read PAST COMP COP POL V SUNAWACHI,
( In order to solve the problem, I read the book
TSUMARI/SUNAWACHI I t was f o r the purpose t h a t I read the b oo k.)
(2 ) g ik a i wa n i in ni wakarete imasu.
parliam ent TOP two Houses in t o d iv id e PASS be PROG I TSUMARI
, SUNAWACHIj
sangiin to shuugiin no fu ta ts u desu.
the House and the House two COP POL.
o f o f
(The parliament is divided into two Houses. TSUMARI/SUNAWACHI They are the House of Councillors and the House of Representatives.)
(3) seishin-byooin to iu no wa nan desu ka. mental hospital COMP TOP what COP QUES. J TSUMARI
kichigai o naosu byooin desu. I SUNAWACHI madness ACC cure hospital COP
(What is a mental hospital? TSUMARI/SUNAWACHI It is a hospital for curing madness.)
infure to yuu no wa doo yuu koto
inflation called COMP TOP what kind fact desu ka.
COP QUES TSUMARI
bukka ga sugoku agatte shimau koto desu.
prices NOM extremely go up COP.
SUNAWACHIj
(What is this thing called inflation? TSUMARI/SUNAWACHI It is when prices rise very steeply.)
(5) kono gakkoo ni wa Koronbiajin ga hi tori imasu. this school LOC TOP Columbian NOM one there
person is TSUMARI
Osuna san ga sono hito desu.
SUNAWACHI NOM that person COP
(In this school, there is one Columbian. TSUMARI/SUNAWACHI Mr Osuna is that person.)
J . L . P . e x p la in s the d i f f e r e n c e as one o f s t y l e . TSUMARI appears
in spoken language and SUNAWACHI appears more f r e q u e n t l y in w r i t t e n
language. While t h i s is t r u e , th e problem is not so s im p le . The
d e t a i l s w i l l be discussed l a t e r , s u f f i c e i t to say t h a t here we do not
look a t any example where these two words, TSUMARI and SUNAWACHI are not
in t e r c h a n g e a b le .
3 . 1 . 2 KEKKYOKU in J . L . P .
The t r a n s l a t i o n s given f o r KEKKYOKU are ' a f t e r a l l ' and ' i n the
e n d '. J . L . P . g iv e s th e f o l l o w i n g f o u r examples w it h KEKKYOKU.
( 6 ) d o tc h i no michi o i t t e - mo i i desu. which GEN way ACC go COND O.K. COP PRES
KEKKYOKU o n a j i to k o ro ni demasu.
the same p la c e to lead PRES POL
(You may take e i t h e r way. KEKKYOKU th e y both lead to the same p l a c e . )
( 7 ) hooboo s a g a s h ita no desu ga, f a r and wide search PAST COMP COP POL though
KEKKYOKU i i no wa arimasen d e s h i t a . good COMP TOP t h e r e is NEG POL PAST
(A lthough I searched f a r and w id e , KEKKYOKU I could not f i n d a good o n e .)
( 8 ) kusuri o t s u k a t t a r i neko o k a r i t a r i poison ACC use PAST c a t ACC use PAST
s h im a s h ita KEKKYOKU nezumi wa minna sugata o PRO PAST POL mouse TOP a l l d is a p p e a r
-k es h im a s h ita . PAST POL
(9) asa okite kara i r o i r o kangaemashita. morning get up GER since various things think POL PAST
KEKKYOKU soo suru no ga ichi ban i i to omotta so do COMP NOM the best think PAST
no desu. COMP COP
(I have thought about various a l t e r n a t i v e s since gettin g up t h i s morning. KEKKYOKU I'v e decided t h a t i t would be best to do such and such.)
As J.L.P. is a grammar book which focusses on p a t t e r n s , i t
presents KEKKYOKU, SUNAWACHI and TSUMARI independently of a discourse
environment. On the other hand, other textbooks present them in context
within a discourse. We will look a t examples following the order of
Table 1.
3.2 Nippongo II
Nippongo II presents two words, KEKKYOKU and SUNAWACHI.
3.2.1 KEKKYOKU in Nippongo I I .
KEKKYOKU is given a t the beginning of the sentence which by
i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s the l a s t paragraph of a longer discourse about the
prevention of i l l n e s s . I t describes the horror of t u b e r c u lo s is , and
notes t h a t despite developments in medical science, many people s t i l l
die of the disease every year. I t goes on to mention t h a t two major
problems are the i n a b i l i t y to d e te ct the disease in i t s ea rl y stag es ,
and the lack of a complete cure. After t h i s discussion comes the
sentence with KEKKYOKU.
(10) KEKKYOKU kekkaku ni kakaranai yoo tuberc ulo sis s u f f e r from NEG HOR
juubun ni tori muri ya fusessei na koto wa enough take over or being indifferent to TOP
work one's health
sake dooji ni maitoshi kanarazu
avoid at the same time every year without fail
teikiteki ni kenkooshindan o uke
regularly medical examination ACC take
tsune ni kenkoo o tamotsu koto ga taisetsu desu. always health ACC keep COMP NOM important COP POL
(In conclusion, in order not to contract tuberculosis, i t is important to always keep oneself healthy, to get enough sleep and rest , to avoid overwork and the neglect of one's health, in addition to having a regular medical examination every year without f a i l . )
KEKKYOKU in this context indicates that the statement following i t is a
concluding remark. By putting the sentence containing KEKKYOKU at the
end, this function is clear.
3.2.2 SUNAWACHI in Nippongo II.
SUNAWACHI, as i t is presented here, does not appear at the
beginning of a sentence. Thus i t s function here is not to summarize
preceding sentences but to make what has been presented immediately
before the word into a shorter expression. So i t s function stays within
the sentence.
(11) rikutsu ga aeba naruhodo to omou to ka
logic stand to COND yes think
suji ga - tooreba nattoku suru to ka iu koto,
be reasonable COND be convinced COMP
SUNAWACHI toozen na koto o toozen to omou
proper matter ACC regard
koto wa jitsuwa TOP actually
jinrui no
human being of nagai kunren no long training GEN
sue ni dete kita kangaekata na no de aru.
( I f something is lo g ic a l, i t may be regarded as tru e , or i f i t is reasonable then you may be convinced. That i s , the regarding of natural things as being natural is a concept that has emerged only at the end of a long period of human development.)
SUNAWACHI in th is case can be replaced by TSUMARI and by
YOOSURUNI as w e ll.
3.3 Integrated Spoken Japanese I
This textbook presents only the word KEKKYOKU. I t appears in a conversation between people discussing the good and bad aspects of te le v is io n . A f in a l comment is :
(12) koredake terebi ga fuerya yokare ashikare
so many T.V. NOM, increase fo r good or bad colloq
minna ga tereb i no eikyoo o ukerutte wake desu kedo,
everybody be influenced COMP although
terebi datte KEKKYOKU doogu ni suginai n desu kara
tool merely COP since
yappari koo iu doogu o juubun ni tsukai konasu dake a f t e r a l l such f u l l y use s k i l f u l l y kashikoku naranakya n a ra n a i-tte koto jya nai n desu ka.
wise become COMP COP
(Television is now so widespread th a t fo r b e tte r or worse, everyone is influenced by i t . However, te le v is io n is a f t e r a l l , only a t o o l , and as such i t is something we should use s k i l f u l l y . )
Like Nippongo I I , th is textbook presents a sentence containing KEKKYOKU in context at the end of a discourse. This example could also be replaced by YOOSURUNI.
3.4 Learn Japanese: College te x t
3.4.1 KEKKYOKU in Learn Japanese.
KEKKYOKU is presented in a conversation between two people. One is Japanese and the other is person A, who is studying Japanese. Although A has not le a rn t many Chinese ch a ra cte rs, he has le a rn t hiragana in two weeks. The Japanese person says to him:
(13) KEKKYOKU ka n ji mo hirangana mo
Chinese characters and
m ainichi renshuu-suru koto ga ta is e ts u every day p ra c tic e PRES COMP NOM im portant
desu ne.
COP POL SFP
(A fte r a l l , i t is im portant to p ra c tic e both Chinese characters and hiragana every day, i s n 't it ? )
In th is textbook a ls o , the sentence w ith KEKKYOKU comes towards the end o f a la rg e r segment o f discourse. In th is example, KEKKYOKU cannot be replaced by any o th e r word.
3 .4 .2 TSUMARI
TSUMARI in th is textbook is used fo r paraphrasing a noun phrase w ith a noun.
(14) kihon ni naru k a ta c h i, TSUMARI bushu
basis in to c o n s titu te form c la s s if ie r
(A form which c o n s titu te s the b a sis, th a t is , the c l a s s i f i e r . )
The usage which lin k s two p ro p o sitio n s is not introdu ced, but no o th e r word, is allowed in th is co n text e ith e r.
3.5 I.C.U
3.5.1 TSUMARI
TSUMARI is used not in paraphrasing sentences but in paraphrasing
a word, as follows:
(15) mu ga ooki na mi, TSUMARI 6 to iu imi de ari
NOM big meaning COP
("mu" is a big "mi", t h a t i s , i t means 6)
This word cannot be replaced by any other word.
3.5.2 The f i r s t presentation of SUNAWACHI is as a sentence connective.
In the context of a discussion about the summer in Japan, several
sentences about the geography of those places in Japan t h a t are
considered to be very hot, are followed by t h i s example of SUNAWACHI:
(16) SUNAWACHI, syoochikei to ka takasa, umi nado no small land height sea etc GEN
eikyoo ga atsusa ni t a i s h i sootoo ni k i i t e kuru influence NOM hotness in regard so much e f f e c t
to
no de aru. COMP COP
(The influence of such things as the size and height of a landmass, and the presence of the sea, has a great e f f e c t on the he at. )
SUNAWACHI in t h i s case functions to r e i t e r a t e what has already
been mentioned in a d i f f e r e n t way. In t h i s case, YOOSURUNI can also be
used.
3.5.3 KEKKYOKU
The context in which KEKKYOKU is used is as follows. The speaker
o b j e c t s . A f t e r l i s t i n g several f e a t u r e s of a n i m a t e bei n g s , he says it is n o t e n o u g h to m e e t j u s t o n e o f th e s e f e a t u r e s b e c a u s e even an i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t can sha r e o n e o f them. Then,
(17) K E K K Y O K U w a t a s h i - t a c h i wa h i t s u y o o de wa aru ga we T O P n e c e s s a r y COP t h o u g h j u u b u n de nai j o o k e n de m a n z o k u suru s u f f i c i e n t COP N E G c o n d i t i o n w i t h s a t i s f y
yori hoka arim a s e n . e x c e p t COP N E G POL
(We have no a l t e r n a t i v e but to be s a t i s f i e d w i t h c o n d i t i o n s tha t are i n s u f f i c i e n t but n e c e s s a r y . )
U n l i k e the e x a m p l e s in the t e x t b o o k s s u r v e y e d so far, in this boo k the s e n t e n c e w i t h K E K K Y O K U doe s n o t com e at the end of a text. H o w e v e r , b e f o r e and a f t e r the s e n t e n c e w i t h K E K K Y O K U , t h e r e is a c l e a r c h a n g e o f topic. Thus, K E K K Y O K U can be i n t e r p r e t e d as i n t r o d u c i n g a c o n c l u d i n g remark.
3 . 5 . 4 Y O O S U R U N I
Y O O S U R U N I in this t e x t b o o k c l e a r l y has the f u n c t i o n of s u m m a r i z i n g w h a t has been m e n t i o n e d b efore, thus m a k i n g the poi n t c l e arer. Y O O S U R U N I is p r e s e n t e d as follows:
(18) . . . " a i s u r e b a koso" wa ittai d a r e ga love TOP on e a r t h w h o N O M
a i s u r u no de a r o o ka, " w a t a s h i " ga " a i s u r e b a koso" love COMP COP Q I
n a n o ka "k a n o j o " ga nan o ka a r u i w a
Q she or
" s eken ippan no hi to" ga na no ka Y O O S U R U N I shu k a k u in general of p e o p l e s u b j e c t o d a r e ni shi t e yoi ka ga m e i r y o o de nai to iu no
ga arim a sh ita .
(In the expression "aisureba koso", who is doing the loving? Is i t 'me' who's lo v in g or is i t 's h e 1, or is i t people generally? YOOSURUNI i t is unclear who should be made the o b je c t.)
3.6 Nihongo Hyoogen Bunkei
This textbook presents three words, TSUMARI, KEKKYOKU and
YOOSURUNI in th a t order and w ith some exp la n a tio n . TSUMARI is given as the word to be used fo r r e it e r a tin g what has already been said in d iffe r e n t words. KEKKYOKU is explained as the word which means " a f te r in q u iry " or " in the end a ft e r various c o n s id e ra tio n s ". YOOSURUNI has no e xp la n a tio n .
3.6.1 TSUMARI
TSUMARI is used as fo llo w s :
(19) takuhatsu wa too kakan ni n i-k a i
re lig io u s mendicancy TOP 10 days per 2 times
TSUMARI ik-kag etsu ni ro k -k a i okonau koto ni na tte
1 month per 6 go about
imasu.
(T a lkin g about re lig io u s mendicancy, we go about as begging p rie s ts tw ice in 10 days, th a t is , 6 times per m onth.)
As in the o th e r textbooks in tro d u c in g TSUMARI (except J .L .P ), th is usage o f TSUMARI e f f e c t iv e ly s u b s titu te s one expression fo r another.
3 .6 .2 KEKKYOKU
A person who always comes to c las s a t the l a s t moment got up e a r l i e r
than usual. He finished his breakfast 30 minutes e a r l i e r than usual,
so, he thought t h a t he would not be l a t e . However:
(20) tokoro ga, dekakeyoo to s h i t e i t a toki n i , however, be about to go out PAST PROG when
denwa ga kakatte ki te nagabanashi o sare telephone NOM have a c all long t a l k
KEKKYOKU g i r i g i r i ni n a tte shimatta. a t the l a s t moment become COMPL PAST
(However, j u s t when I was about to go out, I had a phone c a l l , was caught up in a long conversation, and had l i t t l e time in the end.)
In t h i s case, KEKKYOKU cannot be explained within the sentence
where t h i s word is used. I t also r e f e r s to the previous context. On
the other hand, the second presentation of KEKKYOKU can be explained
within the sentence:
(21) tabisaki ni wa Hawai o hajime i r o i r o na de sti n a tio n TOP Hawaii as well as many
kuni o kangaeta ga KEKKYOKU Nuujiirando country ACC think PAST although New Zealand
ni kimatta. decide PAST
(As a d e s t i n a t i o n , we [have] thought about various countries including Hawaii, but we chose New Zealand in the e n d . )
The t e x t t r a n s l a t e s t h i s usage of KEKKYOKU as " a f t e r many
consid era tio ns" , but t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n is s p e c i f i c a l l y for t h i s context,
not a general one.
3.6.3 Y00SURUNI
This textbook also presents Y00SURUNI, but only by using i t in
A l: senshuu k i t a ano hi to wa mada wakai. l a s t week come PAST t h a t person TOP y e t young (The person who came l a s t week is s t i l l young.)
A2: dakara sonnani takusan no koto o s h i t t e ir u hazu
thus so much GEN things ACC know STAT should
wa nai daroo.
NEG CONJ
(He should not be expected to know so much.)
A3: sore na no ni nandemo yoku s h i t t e i r u . f o r a l l th a t eve ryth ing well know STAT (For a l l t h a t he knows everything q u ite w e l l . )
A4: YÖOSURUNI nakanaka no benkyooka na n da ne.
very hard worker COMP COP SFP
(YOOSURUNI he is a very hard w o rk e r.)
YOOSURUNI functions here to wrap up the previous statements in to a concluding remark.
4._____ Summary
1. The way KEKKYOKU is presented is common to fo u r out o f the f i v e textbooks. In a l l except the one from I . C . U . , the sentence with KEKKYOKU comes a t the end o f a t e x t . By t h is placement, the word KEKKYOKU is emphasized as being used f o r in d ic a t in g a concluding remark.
3. SUNAWACHI in Nippongo II (see 3.2.2) functions to replace two
NP's with one NP. In the other ( 3 . 5 . 2 ) , i t functions to
summarize what has been mentioned before with a sentence which
begins with SUNAWACHI.
4. YOOSURUNI in one textbook (3.5.4) functions to replace three
clauses with one clause. I t can be t r a n s l a t e d as 'i n s h o r t ' . In
the other textbook ( 3 . 6 . 3 ) , YOOSURUNI appears a t the beginning of
a sentence.
5. We have encountered some examples where the word used is
interchangeable with one or more of the other words. We will
consider these cases in Chapter IV when the meanings of the four
0. I N T R O D U C T I O N
As m e n t i o n e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n , the w o r d s to be c o n s i d e r e d in this t h e s i s are not g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as b e l o n g i n g to the same g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r y in d i c t i o n a r i e s . One word, S U N A W A C H I is c l a s s i f i e d as a c o n j u n c t i o n and the o t h e r t h r e e w o r d s , K E K K Y O K U , Y O O S U R U N I and T S U M A R I , as a d v erbs. It is still c o n t r o v e r s i a l w h e r e the b o u n d a r y e x i s t s b e t w e e n a d v e r b s and c o n j u n c t i o n s and this p r o b l e m is r e f l e c t e d in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the w o r d s t r e a t e d in this thesis. Som e J a p a n e s e l i n g u i s t s r e g a r d th r e e of these w o r d s as c o n j u c t i o n s and the o t h e r one as an a d v e r b , w h e r e a s o t h e r s r e g a r d all of t h e m as c o n j u n c t i o n s . T h i s c h a p t e r is d e v o t e d to a b r i e f s u r v e y of p r e v i o u s t r e a t m e n t s of the w o r d s in the J a p a n e s e lexicon. S p e c i f i c a l l y , it dea l s w i t h t h e i r r e l a t i o n s to o t h e r w o r d s w h i c h have s i m i l a r g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s , i.e., o t h e r c o n j u n c t i o n s and adverbs.
T h e c h a p t e r c o n s i s t s of two s ections. T h e f i r s t e x a m i n e s one of the m a n y a t t e m p t s to c l a s s i f y J a p a n e s e c o n j u n c t i o n s . T h i s s e c t i o n d eals w i t h a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h i c h is b a s e d on the e f f e c t of the c o n j u n c t i o n s on the s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the c o n j o i n e d s e n t ences. The s e c o n d s e c t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of J a p a n e s e sent e n t i a l ad v e r b s . T h e r e are n o t m a n y s t u d i e s of these, and here N a k a u ' s (1980) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , is e x a m i n e d .
n o r to g i v e t h e m a c e r t a i n g r a m m a t i c a l s tatus, but to put t h e m into some kind o f c o n t e x t so that t h e y can be m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d . It will be e a s i e r for the r e a d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e w o r d s if he can see h o w t h e y r e l a t e to o t h e r w o r d s in the lexicon.
K _ _ _ _ C o n j u n c t i o n s
In the n a t i v e J a p a n e s e g r a m m a t i c a l t r a d i t i o n ( K o k u g o g a k u ) , th e r e is a c o n t r o v e r s y as to w h e t h e r or not c o n j u n c t i o n s are a f o r m of a dverb. T h e c o n c e p t of " c o n j u n c t i o n " i t s e l f did n o t o r i g i n a l l y e x i s t in the J a p a n e s e t r a d i t i o n , but w a s i n t r o d u c e d f r o m D u t c h gramm a r .
Y a m a d a1 is one o f the J a p a n e s e l i n g u i s t s w h o r e g a r d c o n j u n c t i o n s as a s u b s e t of adverbs. W h i l e this s e c t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n j u n c t i o n s , as th e r e is some d o u b t as to w h e t h e r c o n j u n c t i o n s are a g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r y in t h e i r own right, we shall t o u c h b r i e f l y on Y a m a d a ' s c l a i m here. He c o n t e n d s tha t s o - c a l l e d c o n j u n c t i o n s in J a p a n e s e are d i f f e r e n t f r o m c o n j u n c t i o n s in E u r o p e a n g r a m m a r and that t h e y s h o u l d be c a l l e d c o n j u n c t i v e adverbs. A c c o r d i n g to him, c o n j u n c t i v e a d v e r b s can be d e f i n e d as follows:
t ada s hita ni kuru go m a t a wa bun o sootei suru nomi n a r a z u k a n a r a z u ue ni aru m o n o to sh i t a ni aru m o n o o c h u u h o baikai s h i t e m o t t e dooshi m a t a w a bun ni kankei o y u u s e s h i m u m o n o n a r i.2 s o m e t h i n g w h i c h not o n l y m o d i f i e s the f o l l o w i n g w o r d or s e n t e n c e but w h i c h a l s o r e l a t e s verbs or s e n t e n c e s to e ach othe r , m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n t hat w h i c h p r e c e d e s and tha t w h i c h follows.
(My t r a n s l a t i o n )
T h i s idea has been t a k e n up by M a t s u s h i t a3 and d e v e l o p e d by M o r i s h i g e.4
d iffe re n c e between adverbs and conjunctions according to Tokieda's a n a lysis is illu s t r a t e d in the fo llo w in g examples. The same word form, "m ata", is used once as an adverb and once as a co n ju n ctio n .
(1) iz u re mata oukagai shimasu.
some day again v i s i t humble form ( I w i l l v i s i t you again some day.)
(2) s a k u jits u wa ojama shim ashita.
yesterday TOP d is tu rb PAST
mata sono setsu wa gochisoo ni n a ri mashita.
also the occasion TOP tr e a t PAST
( I am so rry th a t I distu rb e d you yesterday. But thank you fo r your h o s p it a lit y . )
In the example ( 1 ), 'm a ta ', which fu n c tio n s as an adverb, expresses the r e p e titio n o f an a c tio n , i . e . , v is it in g . On the other hand, in ( 2 ) , 'mata' as a co n junctio n does not modify e ith e r o f the sentences which i t connects but expresses the speaker's in te n tio n to add some new fa c t to the previous one.
This idea has been pursued by lin g u is ts such as Tsukahara5 and Ichikawa6. The c la s s ific a t io n o f conjunctions which we are going to consider here is Ich ika w a 's. I t is based on the e ffe c t which conjunctions have on the semantic re la tio n s h ip between the statements which they connect.
(3) Statement A - conjunction - Statement B.
Ichikawa classifie s conjunctions into five major groups according
to the relation of the two statements, antecedent and consequent. Each
major group has sub-groups. Each group and each sub-group is given a
name which indicates the relation between the statements.
A. Shoosetsu ) (Lit. receive and connect).
The consequent derives directly from, or is related to, the
antecedent.
al Kiketsu (Consequence).
(i) Junsetsu (Non-constrastive): dakara (therefore),
shitagatte, sorede
( i i ) Gyakusetsu (Constrastive): shikashi, tokoroga, ga
(but)
a2 Kikkake (Turning point): suruto, soosuruto, to (then)
a3 J i t a i ya sayoo kara no kekka (result of situation or
process): kakute, kakushite, kooshite (accordingly)
a4 Tenka (Additive)
To the antecedent, add and order, or juxtapose the
consequent: sarani, sorekara, (moreover), katsu (besides)
a5 Sentaku (Alternative [Lit. "selection"]): soretomo, aruiwa,
matawa (or)
a6 Taihi (Contrastive)
The consequent contrasts with the antecedent: to iu yori
wa, mushiro, kaette (rather)
a7 Gentei (Restriction)
The consequent r e s t r i c t s the antecedent: tadashi, tada,
mottomo (however)
a8 Horyuu (Leave aside. [ L it . defer])
Reserve judgement on the antecedent in order to express the
consequent, sh ik as hi , tomokaku, tomoare (anyhow)
a9 Ootoo (Response)
Consequent is a response to the antecedent: iya, ina,
shikari (u n tr an sla ta bl e)
B Saijo ( J f & O (Restatement)
Consequent describes the antecedent in some r e p e t i t i v e way.
bl. Kangen (Restatement): tsum ari , sunawachi (in other words)
b2. Shoojutsu ( E x p a t ia t io n ) : tsumari, sunawachi
b3. Yooyaku (Summary): yoosuruni, kekkyoku ( a f t e r a l l )
b4. Hanpuku (R epetition): no word l i s t e d by Ichikawa.
N.B. The words l i s t e d in t h i s group are the words which are being
considered in t h i s t h e s i s .
C. Tenkan (jfef-^) Conversion
The consequent repre sents a change from the antecedent with
regard to time, place, s i t u a t i o n or f a c t .
tokorode, s a t e , somosomo (by the way, well, in the f i r s t place)
D. Hosoku ( ) (Supplement)
The consequent is dependent on the antecedent and c l a r i f i e s i t .
d . l Kaisetsu (L it. expository)
The consequent explains the antecedent with regard to
cause, reason, s i t u a t i o n , condition, manner or a t t r i b u t e ,
and provides a d d i t i o n a l , usually c ont ra dic to ry, m at er ia l,
d.2 Reiji (Exemplification)
tatoeba (for example), genni (actually), j i j i t s u (in fact)
E Maeoki Introduction
The antecedent supports the consequent as an introduction to i t .
el Teiji (Presentation)
The antecedent presents a situation, background subject,
topic or general truth relating to the consequent, or
presents as an introduction a generalization, conclusion
or result of the consequent,
sunawachi (in other words).
e2 Reiji (Exemplification)
The antecedent introduces an example of the consequent.
According to this class ificatio n, the four words analyzed in this
thesis are members of the "restatement" category. One word, SUNAWACHI,
also appears under the heading of "introduction".
2_ ._____Sentence Adverbials
The previous section looked at the classification of
conjunctions. In this section, we shall examine the classification of
sentence adverbials. Sentence adverbials are defined as those adverbs
which modify the whole sentence as opposed to those adverbs which modify
primarily verbs or verb phrases inside the main sentence. That is,
sentence adverbials stand outside the main sentence and modify the
sentence as a whole. Structurally, therefore, sentence adverbs are
similar to conjunctions in that both are outside the main sentence.
Nakau (1980)7 distinguishes sentence adverbs from other adverbs,
proposition). The significance of the fact that sentence adverbs are
outside the proposition is that they can never constitute a part of the
proposition. That i s , they do not change the meaning of any of the
elements inside the proposition, the meaning of the adverb which
modifies the sentence is not influenced by i t .
Nakau's classification mainly follows Bellert (1977)8.
Consequently, his classification is based on English words, although he
l i s t s Japanese vocabulary items. He classi fies sentential adverbs into
four groups as follows:
(1) Kachihandan (Evaluative)
(2) Shingihandan (Truth, judgement or modal)
(3) Hatsuwakooi (Speech act or pragmatic)
(4) Ryooikishitei (Domain)
Besides these four types of sentential adverbs, Bellert proposes one
more group, called 'conjunctive adverbs'. However, Nakau rejects the
view that conjunctive adverbs belong to sentential adverbs. He claims
that conjunctive adverbs are different from sentential adverbs in that
they do not modify or r e s t r i c t the content of the proposition. The
function of conjunctive adverbs lies not in connecting two propositions
but in connecting two sentences each of which consists of modality and
proposition.9
Vocabulary items listed under each category along with a brief
explanation are given below.
(1) Evaluative adverbs18
The adverbs in this group describe a speaker's evaluation and
judgement of a given situation or state.
enough), odoroitakotoni (surprisingly), fushiginamonode (interestingly enough), zannennagara (to my regret), toozen no kotonagara (not surprisingly), okinodokudesuqa (unfortunately), shinjigatai kotodaga (unbelievably), kanashiikana (regrettably)
(2) Truth judgement
These adverbs describe a speaker's judgement at speech time on
the degree of truth of the proposition.
osoraku (perhaps), tabun (maybe), mochiron (of course), muron (of course), kitto (possibly), kanarazu (certainly), sadameshi (probably), sazo (surely), tashika, tashikani (certainly), akirakani (apparently), omouni, kangaeruni (in my opinion), tsura tsura omonmiruni, utagaimo naku (undoubtedly), hyottoshite (maybe), moshika suruto (in my estimation), watashi no miru tokoro (as far as I know), watashi no shiru kagiri (to the best of my knowledge)
(3) Speech act
These adverbs describe the speaker's attitude towards the
proposition and are concerned with the speaker's way of presenting a
propostion.
tsuidenagara (incidentally), chinamini (incidentally), yoosuruni (briefly), tatoeba (for instance), sunao ni i t t e (honestly), hontoono tokoro (trut hfully ), tsumariwa (in other words), iwaba (so to speak), ittemireba, iunareba (so to speak), dochiraka to ieba ( i f anything), uchiwa no hanashidaga (speaking of private a f f a i r s ) , hanashi wa chigai masuga ( i f I may talk about a different topic), ooppiraniwa ienaiga (confidentially), chotto oukagaishimasuga ( i f I may ask you), osoreiirimasuga (I am sorry to trouble you, but . . ) , monowa soodan daga
( i f I may ask you), aratamete iumademonaku (needless to say)
Note that two of the words to be considered in this thesis fall into
this category (viz. YOOSURUNI and TSUMARI). The other two words are not
listed by Nakau, but should also fall into this category.
(4) Domain
Although Nakau represents this group as an independent sub-type
of sentential adverbs, he admits that some of the adverbs of this type
definition, although he gives us the following words.
tatemaetoshitewa (in principle), omotemukiwa (publicly), meimokujoo wa
(nominally), moto o tadaseba (basically), konpon tekiniwa
(fundamentally), kihontekiniwa (fundamentally), risoo o ieba (ideally), rikutsu o ieba (logically speaking), genrijoo (in principle), teigijoo (by definition)
According to this classification, the words dealt with in this thesis
belong to the third group, "speech act adverbs". In the following
chapters, we will consider the restrictions which Nakau presents under
this heading.
3_._____Summary
The previous sections have shown two systems under which these
four words have been classified under the following headings:
(1) conjunctions for restatement
(2) speech act adverbs
(i) sentence adverbials
( i i ) restricting the way of presenting the propostion
Although this classification might be helpful in showing how the
four words are related to other Japanese words, i t cannot help language
students to understand the differences between them. The following
chapters attempt to provide a description which will help foreign
CHAPTER II - NOTES
1. Yoshio Yamada. Nihon Bunpoo-gaku Gairon (An O u t l i n e o f J ap a ne se
Grammar). (Tokyo, 1936).
2. Yoshio Yamada. Nihon Bunpooron. (Theory o f J a p a ne se Grammar).
(Tokyo, 1908), p. 535.
3. Daizaburo M a t s u s h i t a . Kaisen Hyoojun Nihon Bunpoo. (Tokyo,
1930).
4. S a t o s h i M or is h ig e. Nihon Bunpoo Ts u ur on . (Tokyo, 1959).
5. Tetsuo Ts uka har a. V ol . 1 o f Zoku-Nihon Bunpoo Kooza:
S e t s u z o k u s h i . (Tokyo, 1958).
6. Takashi Ichikawa. Vol. 6 o f Nippongo: Bunpoo I . (Tokyo, 1976).
7. Minoru Nakau. "Comparison o f S e n t e n t i a l A dve rb s" , N i c h i e i g o
Hikaku Kooza ( L e c t u r e s Comparing J a p a ne se and E n g l i s h ) . Vol. 2,
(Tokyo, 1980), pp. 157-220.
8. I r e n a B e l l e r t . "On Semantic and D i s t r i b u t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s o f
S e n t e n t i a l A dve rbs. " L i n g u i s t i c I n q u i r y , 8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 337-351.
9. op. c i t . p. 165.
op. c i t . pp. 162-163.
ON THE NORDS
0. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with the syntactic constraints on the four words being examined in this thesis. Unlike predicate adverbs, sentential adverbs are not included within the scope of such devices as questions, negatives, imperatives and sentential pronominalization (Sawada; 1978, Greenbaum; 1969). The constraints on these four words, and their behaviour in the above mentioned syntactic constructions, are considered separately in each section. As it is important for students to know in which constructions such words can or cannot appear, an understanding of these syntactic constraints has valuable implications for the teaching of Japanese as a second language.
K _ _ _ Occurrence in Questions
So-called sentential adverbs cannot be the focus of clause interrogation (Greenbaum; 1969: p. 24, Sawada; 1978: p. 19).
*(1) Does he fortunately know about it? (Quirk, et. al. 1972).
*(2) kare wa isamashiku mo moesakaru biru ni He TOP bravely burning building into tobikonde-itta no desu ka?
dash into PAST Q
(Did he bravely dash into the burning building?)
