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under-fives

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White Rose Research Online URL for this paper:

http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/122033/

Version: Published Version

Article:

Kendrick, Denise, Ablewhite, Joanne, Achana, Felix et al. (30 more authors) (2017)

Keeping Children Safe: a multicentre programme of research to increase the evidence

base for preventing unintentional injuries in the home in the under-fives. Programme

Grants for Applied Research. ISSN 2050-4322

https://doi.org/10.3310/pgfar05140

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VOLUME 5 ISSUE 14 JULY 2017 ISSN 2050-4322

Keeping Children Safe: a multicentre programme of

research to increase the evidence base for preventing

unintentional injuries in the home in the under-fives

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programme of research to increase the

evidence base for preventing unintentional

injuries in the home in the under-fives

Denise Kendrick,

1

* Joanne Ablewhite,

1

Felix Achana,

2

Penny Benford,

1

Rose Clacy,

1

Frank Coffey,

3

Nicola Cooper,

2

Carol Coupland,

1

Toity Deave,

4

Trudy Goodenough,

4

Adrian Hawkins,

5

Mike Hayes,

6

Paul Hindmarch,

5

Stephanie Hubbard,

2

Bryony Kay,

7

Arun Kumar,

1

Gosia Majsak-Newman,

8

Elaine McColl,

9

Lisa McDaid,

8

Phil Miller,

3

Caroline Mulvaney,

1

Isabel Peel,

3

Emma Pitchforth,

10

Richard Reading,

8,11

Pedro Saramago,

12

Jane Stewart,

1

Alex Sutton,

2

Clare Timblin,

1

Elizabeth Towner,

4

Michael C Watson,

1

Persephone Wynn,

1

Ben Young

1

and Kun Zou

1

1

Division of Primary Care, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

2

Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

3

Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK

4

Centre for Child and Adolescent Health, University of the West of England,

Bristol, UK

5

Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

6

Child Accident Prevention Trust, London, UK

7

University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK

8

Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Norwich, UK

9

Clinical Trials Unit, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

10

RAND (Europe), Westbrook Centre, Cambridge, UK

11

Norfolk Community Health and Care NHS Trust, Norwich, UK

12

Centre for Health Economics, University of York, York, UK

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has already declared a conflict of interest in respect of this grant and has not been involved in any discussions or decisions thereon. Elaine McColl was a NIHR journal editor for the NIHR PGfAR journal at the time that this report was written and has a declared conflict of interest in respect of this report and will not participate in any discussions, work or decisions thereon. The Keeping Children Safe programme received Flexibility and Sustainability Funding from Nottinghamshire County Teaching Primary Care Trust, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and Norfolk and Suffolk Comprehensive Local Research Network and Research Capability Funding from Nottinghamshire County Teaching Primary Care Trust and Nottinghamshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust to support NIHR Faculty memberssalaries.

Published July 2017

DOI: 10.3310/pgfar05140

This report should be referenced as follows:

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ISSN 2050-4322 (Print)

ISSN 2050-4330 (Online)

This journal is a member of and subscribes to the principles of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (www.publicationethics.org/).

Editorial contact: journals.library@nihr.ac.uk

The full PGfAR archive is freely available to view online at www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/pgfar. Print-on-demand copies can be purchased from the report pages of the NIHR Journals Library website: www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk

Criteria for inclusion in theProgramme Grants for Applied Researchjournal

Reports are published inProgramme Grants for Applied Research(PGfAR) if (1) they have resulted from work for the PGfAR programme, and (2) they are of a sufficiently high scientific quality as assessed by the reviewers and editors.

Programme Grants for Applied Research programme

The Programme Grants for Applied Research (PGfAR) programme, part of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), was set up in 2006 to produce independent research findings that will have practical application for the benefit of patients and the NHS in the relatively near future. The Programme is managed by the NIHR Central Commissioning Facility (CCF) with strategic input from the Programme Director.

The programme is a national response mode funding scheme that aims to provide evidence to improve health outcomes in England through promotion of health, prevention of ill health, and optimal disease management (including safety and quality), with particular emphasis on conditions causing significant disease burden.

For more information about the PGfAR programme please visit the website: http://www.nihr.ac.uk/funding/programme-grants-for-applied-research.htm

This report

The research reported in this issue of the journal was funded by PGfAR as project number RP-PG-0407-10231. The contractual start date was in April 2009. The final report began editorial review in November 2014 and was accepted for publication in February 2016. As the funder, the PGfAR programme agreed the research questions and study designs in advance with the investigators. The authors have been wholly responsible for all data collection, analysis and interpretation, and for writing up their work. The PGfAR editors and production house have tried to ensure the accuracy of the authors’report and would like to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments on the final report document. However, they do not accept liability for damages or losses arising from material published in this report.

This report presents independent research funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). The views and opinions expressed by authors in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NHS, the NIHR, CCF, NETSCC, PGfAR or the Department of Health. If there are verbatim quotations included in this publication the views and opinions expressed by the interviewees are those of the interviewees and do not necessarily reflect those of the authors, those of the NHS, the NIHR, NETSCC, the PGfAR programme or the Department of Health.

© Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO 2017. This work was produced by Kendricket al.under the terms of a commissioning contract issued by the Secretary of State for Health. This issue may be freely reproduced for the purposes of private research and study and extracts (or indeed, the full report) may be included in professional journals provided that suitable acknowledgement is made and the reproduction is not associated with any form of advertising. Applications for commercial reproduction should be addressed to: NIHR Journals Library, National Institute for Health Research, Evaluation, Trials and Studies Coordinating Centre, Alpha House, University of Southampton Science Park, Southampton SO16 7NS, UK.

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NIHR Journals Library Editor-in-Chief

Professor Tom Walley Director, NIHR Evaluation, Trials and Studies and Director of the EME Programme, UK

NIHR Journals Library Editors

Professor Ken Stein Chair of HTA and EME Editorial Board and Professor of Public Health, University of Exeter Medical School, UK

Professor Andree Le May Chair of NIHR Journals Library Editorial Group (HS&DR, PGfAR, PHR journals)

Dr Martin Ashton-Key Consultant in Public Health Medicine/Consultant Advisor, NETSCC, UK

Professor Matthias Beck Chair in Public Sector Management and Subject Leader (Management Group), Queen’s University Management School, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Dr Tessa Crilly Director, Crystal Blue Consulting Ltd, UK

Dr Eugenia Cronin Senior Scientific Advisor, Wessex Institute, UK

Ms Tara Lamont Scientific Advisor, NETSCC, UK

Dr Catriona McDaid Senior Research Fellow, York Trials Unit, Department of Health Sciences, University of York, UK

Professor William McGuire Professor of Child Health, Hull York Medical School, University of York, UK

Professor Geoffrey Meads Professor of Health Sciences Research, Health and Wellbeing Research Group, University of Winchester, UK

Professor John Norrie Chair in Medical Statistics, University of Edinburgh, UK

Professor John Powell Consultant Clinical Adviser, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), UK

Professor James Raftery Professor of Health Technology Assessment, Wessex Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK

Dr Rob Riemsma Reviews Manager, Kleijnen Systematic Reviews Ltd, UK

Professor Helen Roberts Professor of Child Health Research, UCL Institute of Child Health, UK

Professor Jonathan Ross Professor of Sexual Health and HIV, University Hospital Birmingham, UK

Professor Helen Snooks Professor of Health Services Research, Institute of Life Science, College of Medicine, Swansea University, UK

Professor Jim Thornton Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, UK

Professor Martin Underwood Director, Warwick Clinical Trials Unit, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, UK

Please visit the website for a list of members of the NIHR Journals Library Board: www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/about/editors

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Abstract

Keeping Children Safe: a multicentre programme of research

to increase the evidence base for preventing unintentional

injuries in the home in the under-fives

Denise Kendrick,

1

* Joanne Ablewhite,

1

Felix Achana,

2

Penny Benford,

1

Rose Clacy,

1

Frank Coffey,

3

Nicola Cooper,

2

Carol Coupland,

1

Toity Deave,

4

Trudy Goodenough,

4

Adrian Hawkins,

5

Mike Hayes,

6

Paul Hindmarch,

5

Stephanie Hubbard,

2

Bryony Kay,

7

Arun Kumar,

1

Gosia Majsak-Newman,

8

Elaine McColl,

9

Lisa McDaid,

8

Phil Miller,

3

Caroline Mulvaney,

1

Isabel Peel,

3

Emma Pitchforth,

10

Richard Reading,

8,11

Pedro Saramago,

12

Jane Stewart,

1

Alex Sutton,

2

Clare Timblin,

1

Elizabeth Towner,

4

Michael C Watson,

1

Persephone Wynn,

1

Ben Young

1

and Kun Zou

1

1Division of Primary Care, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

2Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

3Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK

4Centre for Child and Adolescent Health, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

5Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

6Child Accident Prevention Trust, London, UK

7University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK

8Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Norwich, UK

9Clinical Trials Unit, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

10RAND (Europe), Westbrook Centre, Cambridge, UK

11Norfolk Community Health and Care NHS Trust, Norwich, UK

12Centre for Health Economics, University of York, York, UK

*Corresponding author Denise.Kendrick@nottingham.ac.uk

Background:Unintentional injuries among 0- to 4-year-olds are a major public health problem incurring substantial NHS, individual and societal costs. However, evidence on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of preventative interventions is lacking.

Aim:To increase the evidence base for thermal injury, falls and poisoning prevention for the under-fives.

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and usual care. The primary outcome was parent-reported possession of a fire escape plan. Evidence from all work streams subsequently informed the design of an IPB for preventing thermal injuries, falls

and poisoning.

Results:Modifiable risk factors for falls, poisoning and scalds were found. Most injured children and their families incurred small to moderate health-care and non-health-care costs, with a few incurring more substantial costs. Meta-analyses and decision analyses found that home safety interventions increased the use of smoke alarms and stair gates, promoted safe hot tap water temperatures, fire escape planning and storage of medicines and household products, and reduced baby walker use. Generally, more intensive interventions were the most effective, but these were not always the most cost-effective interventions. Children’s centre and parental barriers to, and facilitators of, injury prevention were identified. Children’s centres were interested in preventing injuries, and believed that they could prevent them, but few had an evidence-based strategic approach and they needed support to develop this. The IPB was implemented by children’s centres in both intervention arms, with greater implementation in the IPB+arm. Compared with

usual care, more IPB+arm families received advice on key safety messages, and more families in each

intervention arm attended fire safety sessions. The intervention did not increase the prevalence of fire escape plans [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) IPB only vs. usual care 0.93, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.58 to 1.49; AOR IPB+vs. usual care 1.41, 95% CI 0.91 to 2.20] but did increase the proportion of families

reporting more fire escape behaviours (AOR IPB only vs. usual care 2.56, 95% CI 1.38 to 4.76; AOR IPB+

vs. usual care 1.78, 95% CI 1.01 to 3.15). IPB-only families were less likely to report match play by children (AOR 0.27, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.94) and reported more bedtime fire safety routines (AOR for a 1-unit

increase in the number of routines 1.59, 95% CI 1.09 to 2.31) than usual-care families. The IPB-only intervention was less costly and marginally more effective than usual care. The IPB+intervention was more

costly and marginally more effective than usual care.

Limitations:Our case–control studies demonstrate associations between modifiable risk factors and injuries but not causality. Some injury cost estimates are imprecise because of small numbers. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were limited by the quality of the included studies, the small numbers of studies reporting outcomes and significant heterogeneity, partly explained by differences in interventions. Network meta-analysis (NMA) categorised interventions more finely, but some variation remained. Decision analyses are likely to underestimate cost-effectiveness for a number of reasons. IPB implementation varied between children’s centres. Greater implementation may have resulted in changes in more fire safety behaviours.

Conclusions:Our studies provide new evidence about the effectiveness of, as well as economic evaluation of, home safety interventions. Evidence-based resources for preventing thermal injuries, falls and scalds were developed. Providing such resources to children’s centres increases their injury prevention activity and some parental safety behaviours.

Future work:Further randomised controlled trials, meta-analyses and NMAs are needed to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of home safety interventions. Further work is required to measure NHS, family and societal costs and utility decrements for childhood home injuries and to evaluate complex multicomponent interventions such as home safety schemes using a single analytical model.

Trial registration:Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN65067450 and ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01452191.

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Contents

List of tables xv

List of figures xxiii

List of boxes xxvii

List of abbreviations xxix

Plain English summary xxxi

Scientific summary xxxiii

Chapter 1Introduction to the Keeping Children Safe programme of research 1

Why are child injuries important? 1

Child injury prevention policy in England 1

The most important injuries to focus on 3

The need to develop the evidence base for preventing thermal injuries, falls and poisonings 3

The Keeping Children Safe programme of research 4

Research questions 4

Work stream 1 4

Work stream 2 4

Work stream 3 4

Work stream 4 4

Work stream 5 6

Work stream 6 6

Structure of this report 6

Chapter 2What are the associations between modifiable risk and protective factors and medically attended injuries resulting from five common injury

mechanisms in children under the age of 5 years? (Work stream 1) 7

Abstract 7

Research question 7

Methods 7

Results 7

Conclusions 8

Introduction 8

Methods 9

Objectives 9

Study design 10

Setting 10

Participants 10

Variables 11

Bias 12

Study size 13

Quantitative variables 13

Statistical methods 14

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Results 15

Validation of exposures study (study B) 15

Case–control study of risk and protective factors for falls from furniture (study A) 21 Case–control study of risk and protective factors for falls on one level (study A) 27 Case–control study of risk and protective factors for stair falls (study A) 33 Case–control study of risk and protective factors for poisonings (study A) 40 Case–control study of risk and protective factors for scalds (study A) 47

Discussion 55

Main findings 55

Strengths and limitations 57

Comparisons with existing literature 59

How these findings inform other research within the Keeping Children Safe programme 60 Chapter 3What are the NHS, child and family costs of falls, poisonings and

scalds? (Work stream 2) 61

Abstract 61

Research question 61

Methods 61

Results 61

Conclusions 61

Chapter summary 62

Introduction 62

The costs of injury 63

Health-related quality of life following childhood injury 64 Methods relating to the health-related quality-of-life and costs substudies 68

Ethics approval 69

Validation of the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (health-related quality-of-life

substudy) 69

Methods 69

Results 74

Discussion 87

Resource use study (costs substudy) 90

Methods 90

Results 91

Discussion 108

Chapter 4What injury prevention interventions are being undertaken by children’s centres to prevent thermal injuries, falls and poisonings? Children’s centres’use of injury prevention interventions: two cross-sectional national

surveys (work stream 3) 113

Abstract 113

Research question 113

Methods 113

Results 113

Conclusions 113

Chapter summary 113

Introduction 114

Methods 114

Results 115

Characteristics of children’s centres 115

Children’s centre priority areas and injury prevention strategies 115

Knowledge and attitudes 117

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Joint working 120 Barriers to, and enabling factors for, injury prevention work 123

Support for injury prevention activities 124

Discussion 124

Main findings 124

Strengths and limitations of the study 124

Comparisons with existing research 124

How these findings inform other research within the Keeping Children Safe programme 125 Chapter 5What are the barriers to, and facilitators of, implementing thermal

injury, falls and poisoning prevention interventions among children’s centres,

professionals and community members? (Work stream 4) 127

Abstract 127

Research question 127

Methods 127

Results 127

Conclusions 128

Chapter summary 128

Introduction 128

Systematic review using quantitative and qualitative studies of barriers to, and facilitators

of, implementing home safety interventions among families with young children (study E) 129

Methods 129

Results 130

Identifying barriers to, and facilitators of, injury prevention among children’s centre

managers and staff (study F) 136

Methods 136

Results 137

Identifying barriers to, and facilitators of, injury prevention among parents and caregivers

(study G) 144

Methods 144

Results 144

Discussion 149

Main findings 149

Strengths and limitations of these studies 151

Comparisons with the published literature 153

How these findings inform other research within the Keeping Children Safe programme 154 Chapter 6How effective and cost-effective are a range of strategies for

preventing falls, poisoning and scalds based on decision-analysis models incorporating data generated from research questions 1–3 and systematic

reviews of the published literature? (Work stream 5) 155

Abstract 155

Research question 155

Methods 155

Results 155

Conclusions 156

Chapter summary 156

Introduction 156

Methods 158

Overviews of reviews and systematic review of primary studies published subsequent

to the reviews (study H) 158

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Network meta-analyses (study J) 161

Decision analyses (study K) 163

Results 168

Fire prevention 168

Scalds prevention 218

Falls prevention 231

Poisoning prevention 253

Discussion 280

Main findings 280

Strengths and limitations of the studies 283

Comparisons with existing literature 285

How these findings inform other research within the Keeping Children Safe programme 287 Chapter 7Multicentre cluster randomised controlled trial evaluating

implementation of a fire-prevention injury prevention briefing in children’s

centres (work stream 6) 289

Abstract 289

Research question 289

Methods 289

Results 289

Conclusions 290

Chapter summary 290

Introduction 290

Methods 291

Objective 291

Design 291

Participants 291

Allocation to the intervention and delivery of the intervention 292

Outcome measures 294

Ascertainment of outcomes 295

Sample size 296

Blinding 297

Withdrawals 297

Analysis 297

Missing data 297

Health economic analysis 298

Qualitative analysis 299

Incorporating findings from the trial into the development of a second injury

prevention briefing 300

Ethics and organisational review 300

Trial registration 300

Results 300

Developing the injury prevention briefing 300

Developing the facilitation package 302

The injury prevention briefing training sessions 302 Structured interviews with parents to ascertain fire safety practices and fire

escape behaviours 303

Developing a composite fire escape behaviour variable 306

Trial results 307

Incorporating findings from the trial into the development of a second injury

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Discussion 336

Main findings 336

Strengths and limitations 337

Comparisons with existing research 338

Chapter 8Patient and public involvement 341

Study A (piloting of case–control questionnaires) 341 Study B (validation of tools used to collect data) 342 Study G (interview study of parents to identify barriers to, and facilitators of, injury

prevention) 342

Study M (interview study of parents in children’s centres about safety practices) 343 Study M (randomised controlled trial of the injury prevention briefing) 343

Chapter 9Overall conclusion 345

Patient and public involvement 345

Synergies 345

Conclusions 346

Dissemination and impact 347

Chapter 10Implications for practice 349

Work stream 1 349

Work stream 2 349

Work stream 3 349

Work stream 4 349

Work stream 5 349

Work stream 6 350

General safety advice 350

Preventing fire-related injury 350

Preventing scalds 350

Preventing falls 351

Preventing poisoning 351

Chapter 11Recommendations for research 353

Important recommendations for research 353

Recommendations for research of interest but of lesser importance 353

Acknowledgements 355

References 363

Appendix 1Case–control questionnaires, home observation checklist for study B

and summary of analyses using hospital controls for study A 395

Appendix 2Follow-up questionnaires and mini questionnaire, medical record

data extraction form and unit cost tables for study C 479

Appendix 3The 2010 and 2012 questionnaires for study D 547

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Appendix 5Search terms and strategies for studies H and I and base-case model

inputs for the decision analyses for study K 577

Appendix 6Statistical appendix, interview schedules and questionnaires for

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List of tables

TABLE 1 Characteristics of families observed at home and case–control study

participants not observed at home 17

TABLE 2 Sensitivities, specificities, predictive values and kappa coefficients for agreement between the questionnaire and observations for exposures related

to falls 18

TABLE 3 Sensitivities, specificities, predictive values and kappa coefficients for agreement between the questionnaire and observations for exposures related

to poisons 19

TABLE 4 Sensitivities, specificities, predictive values and kappa coefficients for agreement between the questionnaire and observations for exposures related

to scalds 20

TABLE 5 Age and sex of participants and non-participants 22

TABLE 6 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and controls 23

TABLE 7 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 25

TABLE 8 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 25

TABLE 9 Significant interactions in adjusted analyses between exposures and age

comparing cases with controls 26

TABLE 10 Age and sex of participants and non-participants 28

TABLE 11 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and controls 29

TABLE 12 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 31

TABLE 13 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 31

TABLE 14 Significant interactions in adjusted analyses between rugs/carpets firmly fixed to the floor and number of adults living with the child, comparing

cases with controls 32

TABLE 15 Age and sex of participants and non-participants 34

TABLE 16 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and controls 35

TABLE 17 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 37

TABLE 18 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 38

TABLE 19 Significant interactions in adjusted analyses comparing cases with controls 39

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TABLE 21 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and controls 42

TABLE 22 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 44

TABLE 23 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 45

TABLE 24 Significant interactions in adjusted analyses comparing cases with controls 46

TABLE 25 Age and sex of participants and non-participants 49

TABLE 26 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and controls 49

TABLE 27 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 50

TABLE 28 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with controls 52

TABLE 29 Significant interactions in adjusted analyses comparing cases with controls 54

TABLE 30 Comparison of the results from the complete-case and multiple

imputation analyses for those exposures for which there was a>10% difference 54

TABLE 31 Costs of injury 65

TABLE 32 List of items with labels and first- and second-order factor structures 73

TABLE 33 Demographic details of study A‘cases’(aged≥24 months) and of

participants and non-participants in the study C HRQL substudy 75

TABLE 34 Injury details of study A‘cases’(aged≥24 months) and of participants

and non-participants in the study C HRQL substudy 76

TABLE 35 Item scores at baseline: full study A sample (n=1334) 77

TABLE 36 Scale-level summary statistics at baseline: full study A sample

(n=1344) 78

TABLE 37 Comparison of PedsQL scale and summary scores of study A‘cases’pre

injury with UK healthy population data 78

TABLE 38 Goodness-of-fit statistics for confirmatory factor analysis 79

TABLE 39 Known-groups validity with respect to baseline (pre-injury) PedsQL scores 80

TABLE 40 Known-groups validity with respect to follow-up (post-injury) PedsQL

scores (independent samplet-tests) 80

TABLE 41 Known-groups validity with respect to follow-up (post-injury) PedsQL

scores (one-way ANOVA) 82

TABLE 42 Responsiveness to change: measures of injury severity 84

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TABLE 44 Numbers of resource use questionnaires administered and returned 92

TABLE 45 Comparison of parent responses and information from medical records 93

TABLE 46 Numbers of children by nature of initial contact and admission status,

as reported by parents 94

TABLE 47 NHS resource use reported by parents stratified by injury mechanism 95

TABLE 48 Characteristics of participants not fully recovered at 2 weeks who were

subsequently lost to follow up 96

TABLE 49 Characteristics of study participants 97

TABLE 50 Emergency department and hospital admission costs by injury

mechanism and nature of treatment 98

TABLE 51 Numbers of hospital admissions and costs by injury mechanism 100

TABLE 52 Other health-care costs by injury mechanism 100

TABLE 53 Total health-care costs according to whether admitted overnight at initial ED visit, admitted for observation at initial ED visit or not admitted to ED

at initial visit by mechanism of injury 102

TABLE 54 Sensitivity analysis of health-care costs: lower and upper interquartile limits for ED treatment and investigation costs and hospital inpatient and

outpatient costs 103

TABLE 55 Non-health-care resource use reported by parents 104

TABLE 56 Non-health-care costs by injury mechanism 105

TABLE 57 Total non-health-care costs according to whether admitted overnight at initial ED visit, admitted for observation at initial ED visit or not admitted to

ED at initial visit by mechanism of injury 106

TABLE 58 Total health-care and non-health-care costs according to whether admitted overnight at initial ED visit, admitted for observation at initial ED visit

or not admitted to ED at initial visit by mechanism of injury 107

TABLE 59 Number of households with complete and missing data for each

variable included in the imputation model 110

TABLE 60 Results from the multiple imputation analysis 111

TABLE 61 Characteristics of children’s centres participating in the 2010 and

2012 surveys 116

TABLE 62 Priority areas 116

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TABLE 64 Facilitators for implementing home safety interventions identified

from included studies 132

TABLE 65 Barriers to implementing home safety interventions identified from

included studies 134

TABLE 66 Characteristics of participating children’s centres 137

TABLE 67 Characteristics of the children whose parents participated in the study

by injury mechanism 146

TABLE 68 Findings relevant to the design of the injury prevention intervention

and the sources of the recommendations 152

TABLE 69 Dates for running searches for reviews and primary studies for

each overview 159

TABLE 70 Summary of assumptions for the base-case model for the decision

analysis for interventions to promote functional smoke alarms 166

TABLE 71 Characteristics of reviews included in the overviews for fire, scald, falls

and poison prevention (study H) 171

TABLE 72 Characteristics of the primary studies included in all overviews (study H),

PMAs (study I) and NMAs (study J) for fire, scalds, falls and poisoning prevention 173

TABLE 73 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of the

interventions to promote possession of functional smoke alarms 198

TABLE 74 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMAs comparing the effect of different

interventions on possession of a functional smoke alarm 200

TABLE 75 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of types of

battery-powered smoke alarms 201

TABLE 76 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMAs of types of battery-powered

smoke alarms 201

TABLE 77 Base-case analysis results (probabilistic) for the cost-effectiveness of

interventions for promoting possession of functional smoke alarms 202

TABLE 78 Sensitivity analysis results for interventions promoting the possession

of functional smoke alarms 204

TABLE 79 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of fireguards 208

TABLE 80 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on fireguard use 208

TABLE 81 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of

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TABLE 82 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on the possession of fire extinguishers 211

TABLE 83 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of the safe

storage of matches 214

TABLE 84 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on the storage of matches out of reach of children 214

TABLE 85 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of a fire

escape plan 216

TABLE 86 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on possession of a fire escape plan 216

TABLE 87 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of the

interventions promoting a safe hot water temperature 222

TABLE 88 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on safe hot water temperature 224

TABLE 89 Base-case analysis results (probabilistic) for the cost-effectiveness of

interventions promoting a safe hot tap water temperature 225

TABLE 90 Sensitivity analysis results for interventions promoting a safe hot tap

water temperature 227

TABLE 91 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of

interventions promoting the safe handling of hot food and drinks 229

TABLE 92 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions for promoting the safe handling of hot food and drinks 229

TABLE 93 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of

interventions to prevent falls injuries in children aged<5 years 235

TABLE 94 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on having a fitted safety gate 238

TABLE 95 Base case cost-effectiveness results for safety gates to prevent

stairway falls 239

TABLE 96 Sensitivity analysis results for intervention promoting the use of safety

gates to prevent stairway falls 241

TABLE 97 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on the possession of window safety devices 246

TABLE 98 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

interventions on baby walker possession or use 249

TABLE 99 Pooled ORs (95% CrIs) from NMA comparing the effect of different

(23)

TABLE 100 Summary of studies and their data included in the NMA of the

interventions to prevent poisonings 259

TABLE 101 Base-case cost-effectiveness results for interventions to promote the

safe storage of medicines 263

TABLE 102 Sensitivity analysis results for interventions promoting the safe

storage of medicines 265

TABLE 103 Base-case cost-effectiveness results for interventions promoting the

safe storage of household products 271

TABLE 104 Tools for measuring parent and children’s centre outcomes by

treatment arm 295

TABLE 105 Summary of the base-case analysis 298

TABLE 106 Roles of children’s centre staff attending training sessions 302

TABLE 107 Characteristics of participants 304

TABLE 108 Fire safety practices reported by participants 305

TABLE 109 Elements of fire escape plans described by participants who reported

having a plan 306

TABLE 110 Frequency of reporting of the five component elements of a fire

escape plan 307

TABLE 111 Posterior probabilities derived from the categorical latent

variable model 308

TABLE 112 Univariate and multivariable analysis of baseline factors associated

with retention in the trial 311

TABLE 113 Characteristics of the children’s centres at baseline 312

TABLE 114 Fire safety advice provided by children’s centres at baseline 313

TABLE 115 Sociodemographic characteristics of participating families at baseline 313

TABLE 116 Fire safety practices reported by parents at baseline 315

TABLE 117 Classification criteria for levels of implementation of the IPB and

numbers of children’s centres achieving each level by treatment arm 318

TABLE 118 Fire safety promotion activities reported by children’s centres on the

follow-up questionnaire by treatment arm 323

TABLE 119 Reported receipt of fire safety advice and other fire safety promotion

(24)

TABLE 120 Primary and secondary outcome measures at follow-up, by

treatment arm 326

TABLE 121 Unit costs (UK£, 2012) 329

TABLE 122 Costs of providing the IPB, training and facilitation (UK£, 2012) 330

TABLE 123 Summary of the fire safety activities at children’s centres 331

TABLE 124 Summary of fire safety activities attended by parents and home

safety inspections 331

TABLE 125 Other intervention costs expressed per cluster (i.e. children’s centre)

and per family 332

TABLE 126 Cost-effectiveness analysis results for the complete-case data set 333

TABLE 127 Cost component missing data description 335

TABLE 128 Results of the cost-effectiveness analysis for the imputed data set 335

TABLE 129 Numbers of delegates attending IPB workshops by location 336

TABLE 130 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases, community controls and

hospital controls participating in the falls from furniture study 395

TABLE 131 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with

community and hospital controls participating in the falls from furniture study 397

TABLE 132 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with community and hospital controls

participating in the falls from furniture study 398

TABLE 133 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases and community controls

and hospital controls participating in the falls on one level study 399

TABLE 134 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with

community and hospital controls participating in the falls on one level study 400

TABLE 135 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with community and hospital controls

participating in the falls on one level study 401

TABLE 136 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases, community controls and

hospital controls participating in the stair falls study 402

TABLE 137 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with

community and hospital controls participating in the stair falls study 404

TABLE 138 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with community and hospital controls

participating in the stair falls study 405

TABLE 139 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases, community controls and

(25)

TABLE 140 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with

community and hospital controls participating in the poisoning study 408

TABLE 141 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with community and hospital controls

participating in the poisoning study 410

TABLE 142 Sociodemographic characteristics of cases, community controls and

hospital controls participating in the scalds study 411

TABLE 143 Frequency of exposures and unadjusted ORs comparing cases with

community and hospital controls participating in the scalds study 413

TABLE 144 Adjusted ORs comparing cases with community and hospital controls

participating in the scalds study 415

TABLE 145 Unit costs (£) of emergency medicine treatments and investigations in

the ED, MIU and walk-in centre: national average unit costs (IQR) 542

(26)

List of figures

FIGURE 1 The Keeping Children Safe programme of research 5

FIGURE 2 Recruitment to the validation of exposures study (study B) 16

FIGURE 3 Flow of cases and controls through the falls from furniture study:

(a) recruitment of cases; and (b) recruitment of controls 21

FIGURE 4 Flow of cases and controls through the falls on one level study:

(a) recruitment of cases; and (b) recruitment of controls 27

FIGURE 5 Flow of cases and controls through the stair falls study: (a) recruitment

of cases; and (b) recruitment of controls 33

FIGURE 6 Flow of cases and controls through the poisonings study:

(a) recruitment of cases; and (b) recruitment of controls 40

FIGURE 7 Flow of cases and controls through the scalds study: (a) recruitment of

cases; and (b) recruitment of controls 48

FIGURE 8 Recruitment and questionnaire administration flow chart 70

FIGURE 9 Scatterplots of costs against IMD score: (a) health-care costs; and

(b) non-health-care costs 108

FIGURE 10 Box plots of health-care and non-health-care costs by benefit status 109

FIGURE 11 Box plots of health-care and non-health-care costs by study centre 109

FIGURE 12 Attitudes towards injury prevention among respondents 118

FIGURE 13 Injury prevention activities undertaken by children’s centres 119

FIGURE 14 Advice provided by children’s centres on fire prevention (2010 survey) 120

FIGURE 15 Advice provided by children’s centres on falls prevention

(2012 survey) 121

FIGURE 16 Advice provided by children’s centres on poisoning prevention

(2012 survey) 122

FIGURE 17 Advice provided by children’s centres on scald prevention

(2012 survey) 122

FIGURE 18 Barriers to injury prevention work 123

FIGURE 19 Facilitators for injury prevention work 123

FIGURE 20 Process of the selection of quantitative and qualitative studies for

(27)

FIGURE 21 Recruitment to the study identifying barriers to, and facilitators of,

injury prevention among parents and caregivers (study G) 145

FIGURE 22 Schematic diagram illustrating the three-stage process for decision modelling using the example of interventions to promote the prevalence of

functional smoke alarms 164

FIGURE 23 Decision model structure within each yearly cycle of the stage 2

(preschool model) model 165

FIGURE 24 Process of study identification and selection for the overview of

reviews and NMAs for fire prevention outcomes (studies H and J) 169

FIGURE 25 Identification and selection of studies for inclusion in the PMAs for

fire, scalds, falls and poisoning prevention (study I) 170

FIGURE 26 Forest plot of effect sizes for possession of a functional smoke alarm

from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 195

FIGURE 27 Forest plot of effect sizes for smoke alarm batteries being checked or

changed from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 197

FIGURE 28 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for interventions promoting

possession of functional smoke alarms 203

FIGURE 29 Forest plot of effect sizes for use of fire guards from studies

evaluating home safety educational interventions 207

FIGURE 30 Forest plot of effect sizes for possession of a fire extinguisher from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 209

FIGURE 31 Forest plot of effect sizes for storing matches out of reach of children

from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 213

FIGURE 32 Forest plot of effect sizes for having a fire escape plan from studies

evaluating home safety educational interventions 215

FIGURE 33 Process of study identification and selection for the overview of

reviews and NMAs for scalds prevention 218

FIGURE 34 Forest plot of effect sizes for safe hot tap water temperature from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 221

FIGURE 35 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for interventions to promote

safe hot tap water temperature 226

FIGURE 36 Forest plot of effect sizes for keeping hot food or drinks out of reach

of children from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 228

FIGURE 37 Process of study identification and selection for the overview of

(28)

FIGURE 38 Forest plot of effect sizes for having a fitted safety gate from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions (some of which included the

provision of safety gates) 234

FIGURE 39 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for the base-case analysis indicating the probability that each intervention is the most cost-effective for a

range of willingness–to-pay ratios 240

FIGURE 40 Forest plot of effect sizes for possession of non-slip bathroom items from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions (some of which

included provision of non-slip bathroom items) 243

FIGURE 41 Forest plot of effect sizes for possession of window safety devices from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions (some of which

included the provision of window safety devices) 245

FIGURE 42 Forest plot of effect sizes for not having or using a baby walker from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 248

FIGURE 43 Forest plot of effect sizes for preventing children being left unattended on high surfaces from studies evaluating home safety

educational interventions 251

FIGURE 44 Process of study identification and selection for the overview of

reviews and NMA for poisoning prevention 254

FIGURE 45 Forest plot of effect sizes for poisoning injury rates from studies

evaluating home safety educational interventions 256

FIGURE 46 Forest plot of effect sizes for storage of medicines out of reach from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 258

FIGURE 47 Network meta-analysis and PMA results for the safe storage

of medicines 262

FIGURE 48 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for interventions to promote

safe storage of medicines 264

FIGURE 49 Forest plot of effect sizes for storage of household products out of

reach from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 268

FIGURE 50 Network meta-analysis and PMA results for the safe storage of

household products 269

FIGURE 51 Forest plot of effect sizes for the storage of poisons out of reach

from studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 272

FIGURE 52 Network meta-analysis and PMA results for interventions promoting

the safe storage of poisons 273

FIGURE 53 Forest plot of effect sizes for the possession of syrup of ipecac from

(29)

FIGURE 54 Forest plot of effect sizes for having a PCC sticker available from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 277

FIGURE 55 Network meta-analysis and PMA results for interventions to promote

having a PCC number available 278

FIGURE 56 Forest plot of effect sizes for storage of plants out of reach from

studies evaluating home safety educational interventions 279

FIGURE 57 Network meta-analysis and PMA results for the safe storage of

poisonous plants 280

FIGURE 58 Responses to positively worded statements about the IPB training in

IPB+arm training session attenders 303

FIGURE 59 Responses to negatively worded statements about the IPB training in

IPB+arm training session attenders 303

FIGURE 60 Recruitment of children’s centres and flow of children’s centres

through the trial 309

FIGURE 61 Recruitment of parents and flow of parents through the trial 310

FIGURE 62 Provision of advice on each of the five key IPB messages by children’s

centres in the IPB-only and IPB+arms reported in the implementation fidelity

interviews at follow-up 322

FIGURE 63 Use of the IPB exercises by children’s centres in the IPB-only and IPB+

arms reported in the implementation fidelity interviews at follow-up 322

FIGURE 64 Plot of total costs per family (2010 UK£) by cluster (i.e. children’s

centre): (a) usual care; (b) IPB only; and (c) IPB+ 333

FIGURE 65 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves: base-case (complete-case)

analysis and complete-case analysis omitting the outlier 334

FIGURE 66 Improving injury prevention research through PPI poster 344

(30)

List of boxes

BOX 1 Key facilitators for delivering health promotion and injury prevention

interventions in children’s centres 138

BOX 2 Key barriers to delivering health promotion and injury prevention

interventions in children’s centres 142

BOX 3 Barriers to parents’injury prevention practices 148

BOX 4 Facilitators of parents’injury prevention practices 150

BOX 5 Examples of fire safety promotion at a children’s centre classified as

achieving extended implementation (children’s centre B3; IPB+) 318

BOX 6 Examples of fire safety promotion at a children’s centre classified as

achieving essential implementation (children’s centre D1; IPB+) 320

BOX 7 Examples of fire safety promotion at a children’s centre classified as

achieving minimal implementation (children’s centre D2; IPB+) 321

BOX 8 Example of fire safety promotion at a children’s centre classified as

(31)
(32)

List of abbreviations

AIC Akaike information criterion

ANOVA analysis of variance

AOR adjusted odds ratio

ASSIA Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts

BIC Bayesian information criterion

BME black and minority ethnic

CBA controlled before-and-after study

CBQ Child Behaviour Questionnaire

CFI comparative fit index

CI confidence interval

CINAHL Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature

CMO Chief Medical Officer

CRC child-resistant cap

CrI credible interval

DAG directed acyclic graph

df degree of freedom

ECBQ Early Child Behaviour Questionnaire

ECCE Evaluation of Children’s Centres in England

ED emergency department

EQ-5D EuroQol-5 Dimensions

EU European Union

GP general practitioner

HADS Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale

HALO Long Term Health and Healthcare Outcomes of Accidental Injury

HASS Home Accident Surveillance System

HRQL health-related quality of life

IBQ Infant Behaviour Questionnaire

ICC intraclass correlation coefficient

ICER incremental cost-effectiveness ratio

IMD Index of Multiple Deprivation

IPB injury prevention briefing

IQR interquartile range

IRR incidence rate ratio

KCS Keeping Children Safe

MCMC Markov chain Monte Carlo

MCS Millennium Cohort Study

MID minimally important difference

MIU minor injury unit

MRC Medical Research Council

NICE National Institute for Health and Care Excellence

NIHR National Institute for Health Research

NMA network meta-analysis

NNT number needed to treat

NPV negative predictive value

Ofsted Office for Standards in Education

OQAQ Overview Quality Assessment Questionnaire

OR odds ratio

PAF population attributable fraction

PARIHS Promoting Action on Research in Health Services

PCC poison control centre

PCG primary care group

PCT primary care trust

PDH Parenting Daily Hassles

PedsQL Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory

PH public health guidance

PMA pairwise meta-analysis

PPI patient and public involvement

PPV positive predictive value

QALY quality-adjusted life-year

(33)

RMSEA root-mean-square error of approximation

RoSPA Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents

SD standard deviation

SE standard error

SEM standard error of measurement

SHA strategic health authority

SRMR standardised root-mean-square residual

SSLP Sure Start Local Programme

SSPAU short-stay paediatric assessment unit

TBI traumatic brain injury

TBSA total body surface area

TLI TuckerLewis Index

TMV thermostatic mixer valve

(34)

Plain English summary

B

urns, scalds, falls and poisoning are major causes of death, disability and health service use in the under-fives. We undertook 13 studies to explore factors associated with injuries, what prevents injuries, the cost of the injuries to the NHS and parents, and what parents and childrens centres (which provide families with information, support and co-ordinated services from a range of professionals) were doing to prevent injuries. We used evidence from these studies to design a resource [an injury prevention briefing (IPB)] for children’s centres to use with parents for preventing house fire injuries. We gave 12 children’s centres the IPB, with training and support to implement it, (IPB+group) and 12 centres the IPB without

training or support (IPB-only group). A further 12 centres were not given the IPB (usual-care group). Childrens centres in both IPB groups used the IPB and increased injury prevention activity, more markedly in the IPB+centres. The IPB did not increase how many families had a fire escape plan in either IPB group,

(35)
(36)

Scientific summary

Introduction

Unintentional injuries at home in the under-fives are a major public health problem, incurring substantial NHS, individual and societal costs. However, evidence on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of preventative interventions is lacking. The Keeping Children Safe (KCS) programme of research aimed to enhance the evidence base for preventing the most common types of child home injury.

Work stream 1

Research question

What are the associations between modifiable risk and protective factors and medically attended injuries resulting from five common injury mechanisms in children under the age of 5 years?

Methods

Five multicentre case–control studies were undertaken (study A), one each for falls from furniture, falls on one level, stair falls, poisonings and scalds. Cases were 0- to 4-year-olds attending secondary care with one of these injuries, matched with primary care recruited control subjects (controls). Exposures were measured using parent-completed questionnaires, validated by home observations in 162 participants (study B). Odds ratios (ORs) were estimated using conditional logistic regression.

Results

Comparisons between self-report and home observations found sensitivities of≥70% for 19 out of 30

exposures and specificities of≥70% for 20 out of 30 exposures.

Case–control studies recruited between 338 (scalds) and 672 (falls from furniture) cases and between 1438 (scalds) and 2658 (stair falls) controls.

Comparing cases with controls, for falls from furniture, case households were more likely not to use safety gates [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.65, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.29 to 2.12] and not to teach children rules about climbing on kitchen objects (AOR 1.58, 95 % CI 1.16 to 2.15). Cases aged 012 months were more likely to have been left on, had nappies changed on or been put in car/bouncing seats on raised surfaces (AOR 5.62, 95% CI 3.62 to 8.72; AOR 1.89, 95% CI 1.24 to 2.88; and AOR 2.05, 95% CI 1.29 to 3.27, respectively). Cases aged>36 months played or climbed on furniture more frequently (AOR 9.25,

95% CI 1.22 to 70.07).

No significant associations were found for any exposures and falls on one level.

For stair falls, compared with controls, case households were more likely not to use stair gates (AOR 2.50, 95% CI 1.90 to 3.29) and to leave gates open (AOR 3.09, 95% CI 2.39 to 4.00), not to have carpeted stairs (AOR 1.52, 95% CI 1.09 to 2.10), not to have landings part-way up stairs (AOR 1.34, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.65) and to report stairs not being safe to use (AOR 1.46, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.99) or needing repair (AOR 1.71, 95% CI 1.16 to 2.50).

(37)

For scalds, compared with controls, case households were more likely to leave hot drinks within children’s reach (AOR 2.33, 95% CI 1.63 to 3.31) and to not teach children rules about climbing on kitchen objects (AOR 1.66, 95% CI 1.12 to 2.47), about behaviour when parents are cooking (AOR 1.95, 95% CI 1.33 to 2.85) or about hot kitchen objects (AOR 1.89, 95% CI 1.30 to 2.75).

Conclusions

Modifiable risk factors were found for falls from furniture and on stairs, poisonings and scalds in children aged 0–4 years.

Work stream 2

Research question

What are the NHS, child and family costs of falls, poisonings and scalds? Is the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory [PedsQL™; see www.pedsql.org/ (accessed 6 January 2017)] an acceptable and psychometrically sound measure of health-related quality of life (HRQL) in children aged≥2 years in an emergency

medicine setting?

Methods

Health-related quality of life was measured using the toddler version of the PedsQL with parents completing questionnaires immediately post injury, 2 weeks post injury, and 1, 3 and 12 months post injury. Instrument acceptability, internal consistency reliability, construct validity and responsiveness to change were measured. Resource use and expenditure questions were included in the HRQL questionnaire. Resource use data were combined with unit costs to calculate health-care and non-health-care costs (study C).

Results

Internal consistency reliability was adequate (Cronbach’sα>0.70). Retrospectively reported pre-injury

scale, summary and total scores were (except for the nursery/school subscale) higher than previously reported in healthy UK toddlers and among study A community controls. Children with long-term health conditions had poorer pre-injury PedsQL scores than those without long-term health conditions, and hypotheses regarding post-injury physical functioning scores for groups defined by injury severity were supported. There were reductions from pre injury to post injury in physical functioning for children with more severe injuries, with most effect sizes being large (≥0.8).

In total, 344 parents completed resource use questionnaires. Over 95% of children recovered within 2 weeks of injury and almost 99% recovered within 1 month. Mean NHS costs across injury mechanisms ranged from £2588 to £2989 for admissions of≥2 days, from £719 to £1011 for admissions of 0–1 days and from £97 to £178 for those only attending the emergency department (ED). NHS costs were highest for scalds for admissions of 0–1 days and for ED attendances. Small numbers prevented comparisons between injury mechanisms for longer admissions. Mean family costs across injury mechanisms ranged from £99 to £399 for admissions of≥2 days, from £38 to £200 for admissions of 0–1 days and from £18 to £68 for those only attending the ED. Family costs were highest for scalds for admissions of 01 days and for falls from furniture for ED attendances. Family costs mainly consisted of costs for informal child care and time off work.

Conclusions

The PedsQL was a feasible and acceptable measure of HRQL in this population, showing internal consistency reliability, discrimination between varying levels of injury severity and sequelae and responsiveness to change. Findings relating to construct validity were equivocal.

Injuries result in high NHS costs for admissions lasting≥2 days, but these are uncommon. More common

(38)

Work stream 3

Research question

What interventions are undertaken by childrens centres to prevent thermal injuries, falls and poisoning?

Methods

Two national postal surveys of children’s centre managers were undertaken (study D). Surveys covered injury prevention activity, knowledge and attitudes, barriers and facilitators, and partnership working. The first survey (2010) covered fire-related injuries and the second (2012) covered falls, poisoning and scalds.

Results

Response rates were 56% in 2010 and 61% in 2012. In both surveys, around 60% of childrens centres identified unintentional injuries as one of their three main priorities, but fewer than half had written injury prevention strategies. Attitudes were positive towards injury prevention, but gaps in knowledge were reported. Two-thirds of centres had access to safety equipment schemes in 2010, but only 42% had access in 2012. Common barriers limiting injury prevention were staff capacity, funding and engaging

‘hard-to-reach’groups. Common facilitators were good relationships with families, partnership working, safety equipment schemes, and trained and knowledgeable staff.

Conclusions

Most children’s centres lack an evidence-based strategic approach to child injury prevention and need support to deliver effective injury prevention.

Work stream 4

Research question

What are the barriers to, and facilitators of, implementing thermal injury, falls and poisoning prevention interventions among children’s centres, professionals and community members?

Methods

This work stream consisted of three studies.

1. Study E. Quantitative papers were identified from the systematic review carried out in study I, supplemented with a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Bibliographic databases and other sources were searched (May 2009 for quantitative papers, March 2010 for qualitative papers). Data were explored using framework analysis and synthesised narratively.

2. Study F. Semistructured interviews were conducted with childrens centre staff across four study sites. Interviews explored health and safety promotion programmes including injury prevention, barriers and facilitators. Data were analysed using framework analysis.

3. Study G. Semistructured interviews were conducted with parents of injured and uninjured children. Interviews explored injury prevention beliefs and strategies, control over injury prevention actions, and barriers and facilitators. Data were analysed using a thematic analysis.

Results

(39)

Conclusions

Facilitators of and modifiable barriers to childrens centres and parents undertaking injury prevention were identified. The effect of addressing barriers and facilitators within interventions requires evaluation.

Work stream 5

Research question

How cost-effective are strategies for preventing thermal injuries, falls and poisonings?

Methods

This work stream consisted of four studies.

l Study H. Systematic overviews were carried out, with bibliographic databases and other sources searched (fires, March 2009; falls, October 2010; poisoning, January 2012; scalds, October 2012). Data were synthesised narratively.

l Study I. A systematic review was carried out, with bibliographic databases and other sources searched to May 2009. Random-effects pairwise meta-analyses (PMAs) were used to estimate pooled ORs and incidence rate ratios.

l Study J. Random-effects network meta-analyses (NMAs) were used to estimate pooled effect sizes for all combinations of interventions.

l Study K. Decision analyses were used to estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) and probabilities of interventions being cost-effective.

Results

There was little evidence about the impact of home safety interventions on risk of injury or death from fires, scalds, falls or poisonings.

Fire prevention

Most evidence related to smoke alarms. Several casecontrol studies found that smoke alarm ownership was associated with a lower risk of house fire death and injury. PMA showed that interventions increased functional alarm ownership (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.30 to 2.52). NMA found that education plus home safety inspection plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment was most effective in increasing functional alarm ownership [OR 7.15, 95% credible interval (CrI) 2.40 to 22.73; probability (p) best=0.66]. Education

plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment was the most cost-effective intervention [£34,200 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY), reducing to £4500 per QALY assuming 1.8 children aged<5 years

per household].

Scald prevention

Most evidence related tosafehot bathwater temperatures. Narrative reviews and PMA found that interventions promoted‘safe’temperatures (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.07 or 1.86). NMA found that education plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment [thermostatic mixer valves (TMVs)] was the most effective intervention (OR 38.82, 95% CrI 3.58 to 599.10;pbest=0.97). However, this was the most

cost-effective intervention only if TMVs were fitted during major refurbishment or in new builds for families in social housing, in which case money was saved.

Falls prevention

Most evidence related to safety gates and baby walker use. Narrative reviews and PMA found that interventions increased safety gate use (OR 1.61, 95% CI 1.19 to 2.17). NMA found that education plus home safety inspection plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment was the most effective intervention (OR 7.80, 95% CrI 3.18 to 21.3;pbest=0.97). Usual care (p=0.999) had the highest

(40)

1.18 to 2.09). NMA found that education was most effective (OR for walker use 0.48, 95% CrI 0.31 to 0.84). Decision analyses were not undertaken for interventions to reduce baby walker use.

Poisoning prevention

Most evidence related to safe storage of medicines and household products. Narrative reviews and PMA found that interventions increased the safe storage of medicines (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.27 to 1.84) and household products (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.22 to 1.96). NMA found that education plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment was the most effective intervention for medicines (OR 2.51, 95% CrI 1.01 to 6.00;pbest=0.39) and that education plus home safety inspection plus providing and fitting low-cost/

free equipment was the most effective intervention for household products (OR 2.59, 95% CrI 0.59 to 15.16;pbest=0.37). Usual care (p=0.83) had the highest probability of being cost-effective (at £30,000

per QALY) for the safe storage of medicines. Education had the lowest ICER compared with usual care, at £41,330 per QALY, reducing to £19,315 per QALY if education was targeted at families in the most disadvantaged areas where injury rates were higher. For safe storage of cleaning products, all interventions were more costly and less effective than usual care.

Conclusions

In general, more intensive interventions (e.g. education plus providing and fitting low-cost/free equipment and in some cases home safety inspection) were more effective than less intensive interventions, but the most effective interventions were not necessarily the most cost-effective.

Work stream 6

Research question

How effective and cost-effective is implementing an injury prevention briefing (IPB) for one exemplar injury prevention intervention?

Methods

Work stream 6 consisted of a review of reviews of implementation and facilitation of health promotion interventions (study L) and a randomised controlled trial (RCT) of an IPB for preventing fire-related injury (study M). The findings were incorporated into a second IPB covering fire-related injury, falls, poisoning and scalds.

Study M was a three-arm multicentre cluster RCT in 36 children’s centres. Participants were families with a child aged 02 years. Childrens centres were randomly allocated to (1) IPB plus support (training and facilitation) (IPB+), (2) IPB without support (IPB only) and (3) usual care (control). IPB+childrens centres

received training and four facilitation contacts over the 12-month intervention period. The primary outcome was the proportion of families with a fire escape plan. Secondary outcomes included other fire safety behaviours, measures of IPB implementation, resource use and expenditure. Random-effects modelling was used to compare outcomes between treatment arms and for the economic analysis. Qualitative data were analysed thematically.

Results

In study L, 10 reviews were identified. Common themes emerged about factors affecting the implementation of community prevention programmes. The Promoting Action on Research in Health Services (PARIHS) framework and Carrollet al.’s fidelity framework were identified and informed intervention design and measurement of fidelity and implementation.

Figure

FIGURE 1 The Keeping Children Safe programme of research.
FIGURE 2 Recruitment to the validation of exposures study (study B). a, Includes eight cases subsequently foundnot to be eligible for study A (study C, n = 7; study G, n = 1)
TABLE 1 Characteristics of families observed at home and case–control study participants not observed at home
TABLE 5 Age and sex of participants and non-participants
+7

References

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