Autonomy, well-being, and design

Rochester Institute of Technology

RIT Scholar Works

Theses

Thesis/Dissertation Collections

5-1-1997

Autonomy, well-being, and design

Paul James

Follow this and additional works at:

http://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses

Recommended Citation

Rochester

Institute

of

Technology

A

Thesis Submitted

to the

Faculty

ofthe

College

of

Imaging

Arts

and

Sciences

in

Candidacy

for

the

Degree

of

Master

of

Fine

Arts.

Autonomy,

Well-Being,

and

Design

by

Paul

A.

James

Approvals

Chief Advisor: Craig McArt

Date

SU-.s07

J 2

Associate Advisor: Doug Cleminshaw

Associate Advisor: Jim Sias

Date

_-"'V::'-o.:.2~2+/_'f~~Z

_

T

r

~

Chairperson: Kim Sherman

Date

5 .

-::z...;S -

f(

7

I, Paul A. James, prefer to be contacted each time a request for production is

made. I can be reached at the following address:

10

INTRODUCTION

Reflecting

on his father's indignant struggleto negotiate a bathroom

environment, author and design critic Ralph Caplan wrote, "What

handicapped him and handicapped me when I helped him

bathe,

was

not adisease. Itwas design. He died of

Parkinson's,

but he wasdisabled

by

design."1

The products and spacesthat we useto

help

us

bathe,

prepare

food,

groom ourselves and perform other_necessary

daily

activities can have a significant impact onthe overall _quality of our lives.

Accomplishing

these activities of

daily

living,

or

ADL's,

servesas a _primary basis for

physiological, psychological, and sociological health.2 Research into

the basic activities of

daily living

has shown that independence and

health are

directly

related to one's _capacityto perform basic activities

without assistance.3 _{When that}

autonomyis compromised dueto

injury

or

illness,

our _{physical, psychological, social,} and economic _{well-being is}

threatened.4

The quality ofourlives is dependent in part upon the _ability

ofthe products that support ourADL'sto shoulderthe burden of

adaptability as our physical and mental capabilitiesdiminish due to

aging or illness. Failure ofthose productsto react inthis fashion serves

onlyto compound the ramifications of ourdisabilities and diminish the

1 Ralph_Caplan, "Disabled_byDesign."

Interior Design(August 1992): 88

2 DonFabun,'TheWorldof_A+B<=>C,YouandCreativity,"Kaiser Aluminum News 25no._3,(1968): 9-16

3 Herman Miller ResearchCorporation, Metaform(PrintedPrivately), 1988.

4_{JamesJ. Pirkl,Transgenerational Design}- Products for_anAging Population (NewYork:Van

Nordstrand Reinhold, 1994), 87

2__

PROJECT

OVERVIEW

The objective ofthis thesis isto demonstrate howproductdesign can

effectivelyimprove the _quality of our lives

by

_promoting individual

autonomy in light of diminished physical capabilities due to illness and/or

aging. Critical to this demonstration is an _{understanding} of the

relationship between personal _well-being and our built environments.

Developing

this _{understanding became} the initial focus of _my research.

The link between personal _well-being and physiological, psychological,

and sociological health is well established. In a work _exploring the

dynamic _relationship between older adults and

daily living

tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and personal _care, authors

Clark, Czaja,

and Weber

propose atransactional model of human performance which suggests,

"the successful performance of atask is dependent on a match between

the individual's capabilities and the demands generated

by

the task."1 When a person's capabilities are diminished due to an

injury,

illness,

or

simple _aging, eitherthe demands ofthetask must be reduced orthe

person's original level of_competency must be restored in orderto ensure

successful completion ofthetask.2 _Inorderto

help

restore previous levels of _capability, physical _therapy,

training,

and other rehabilitation

strategies can and should be implemented to

help

alleviate the

imbalance between task demand and personal capability.

My

area of

productdesign to

help

reduce the demands ofthe task.

Designing

and

implementing

products, spaces and proceduresthat can reduce,

combine, or eliminate the demands ofthe task

thereby

reducing the demands and stress placed on the individual can

help

to restore the

necessary critical balance demand and capability.

By leveraging

the

demand side ofthis transactional performance model and _{understanding}

the _{direct relationship} between health and self-reliant _care, it is thus

realisticto conclude that responsible and intelligent product design can

directly

impactthe _quality of

living

forthe people

they

serve and support.

With an _{understanding} ofthe direct qualitative link between design and

well

being,

I soughtto

identify

an _activity of

daily living(ADL)

that held

both personal interest and a sufficient _opportunityforthe qualitative and

quantitative impact of design. I investigated and considered such ADL's

as food _preparation, personal _exercise, personal _grooming, household

maintenance, personal _{transportation,}vocational _{support, among} others.

Eventually

I became interested _specifically in the tasks _supporting

personal care needs dueto the

intuitively

powerful _relationship between

self-reliance,

independence,

dignity

and self esteem.

The personal care ADLwith _arguablythe most_significant, direct impact

on _{physiological, psychological,} and sociological health is personal

hygiene.

My

research suggested that _autonomy in _{making decisions} (and actions) regarding personal care was foundto have a direct

influence on _autonomyand performance levels in otherdomains.3

3Elias

S.Cohen,J.D.,"The

Elderly

Mystique:Constraintsonthe

Autonomy

ofthe

Elderly

with

Disabilities,"

Consequences ofthis

inability

or apprehension of an individual to

adequately care forthemselves not _{only had} obvious implications for

health,

but forsocial interaction and personal morale as well.4

Withthis understanding, I chose to _{focus my}efforts on

investigating

the

bathing

process.

My

intention wasto

identify

inefficiencies in the _existing relationships between people and _currently available

bathing

support

tools,

and then

develop

a meansto reduce or eliminatethese

inefficiencies,

thus _promoting autonomy, self-reliance, and well-being.

My

survey and analysis ofthe available products and environments designed to improve _safety and convenience in the

bathing

environment uncovered a _recurring solution with a problematic assumption and an inconsistent logicthat _eventually formed the basis forthe development of

myproduct.

I discovered _many excellent product solutions that have been developed to

help

aid those who have

difficulty

_providing fortheirown personal

bathing

needs. The most impressive designs included various grab

bars,

hand rails,

folding

seats, and _{barrier-less entry} products which improve egress and _mobility and have _greatly reducedthe risk of

injury

from falling. These attractive products provide a _{safe, simple,} dignified and affordable _way to

help

an individual _{to enter, occupy,} and exit a

bathing

The current products that supportthe actual

bathing

_processes, on the

other

hand,

are not as well resolved and

functionally

successful. The

faucet handles are hardto adjust and difficultto understand. The fixed

shower nozzles are restrictive

by

their nature since

they

can't

accommodate people of different heights. The hand-held shower

nozzles promise real, desirable benefits with their custom application

abilities, butthose customization benefits are _{unfortunately difficult for}

some individualsto realize. Though it is obviousthat the extensive

recommendation and implementation of grab

bars,

folding

seats, and

support rails confirm the market demandfor productsthatcompensate for

a person's lack of_{strength, coordination, mobility} and _sensory

competencies, these are _preciselythe capabilities that are _necessaryto

effectively operate and manipulate a hand-held shower nozzle. When

analyzed, the successful operation of a hand-held nozzles _requires, at a

minimum, acute

dexterity,

_{grip strength,}

flexibility,

hand-eye coordination,

and balance. If a person'sfaculties are _alreadyfocused on the motor

and concentration requirements of _negotiating a wet, slippery, and

potentially dangerous

bathing

environment, it is not realistic to thinkthat

adding waterdispersion requirements to thissituation provides _any

conceivable benefit. The opposite _{is actuallythe case,} and

consequently, the effortto improve the situation has furthercomplicated

the taskand alienated _many ofthe intended beneficiaries.

For_elderly and disabled persons, the _opportunityto realize the benefits

of a self-positionable watersource and share in the increased ease and

on the market_simply ignoresthe physiological characteristics ofthis

significant audience and the

totality

ofthe problem. I will show how this

gap might

theoretically

be bridged without

imposing

inefficienciesor redundancies thatwould relegate the solution to _only a niche audience.

2J

PRODUCT

OVERVIEW

To provide individualsthe meansto position the watersource anywhere

they

choose within their

bathing

enclosure while _eliminating the need to

accuratelygrasp, store, see, or even hold the

device,

I have developed the Freehand

Bathing

Arm (fig.1a,b).

The Freehand

Bathing

Arm provides the_simplicity of afixed position

showerand the

flexibility

of a hand-held shower while

taking

into account the limitationsof _elderly and handicapped persons. Fora fixed position,

standing shower, one can _{simply push, pull, nudge,} or place Freehand's shower headto the desired height. There is no needto release _any levers ortighten _anyscrews.

Simply

move the shower head to the

desired position and release. The unique balance created

by

Freehand's torsional springs and counter-balanced mass locations will

processtosuittheirspecific needs and tasteswhile _reducing the level of "skill"

necessaryto accomplish the task.

Forthose who prefer or require a seated shower, Freehand seamlessly adaptsto this application without_any adjustment whatsoever. Forthe batherwho needs a clear path of egressinto or out ofthe

bathing

environment, free oftangle of hoses or _{piping, Freehand simply}swings out ofthe _{way allowing} forclear accessto support rails and _seating apparatuses. Once seated, the usercan position Freehand's nozzle with the use ofa

hand,

elbow,

head,

knee orfoot while never _needing to account for

detaching

or _remounting adevice that might otherwise fall to the flooror become otherwise entangled. This freedom allows the user to devote their skillsto washing, relaxing and _{maintaining stability} and balance fora safer, more enjoyable and self-reliant

bathing

experience.

The Freehand

bathing

arm provides the _adaptability and _{compatibility} an individual needs for dignified bathing. It does so in a mannerthat doesn't stigmatize anyone

living

alone orin a

family

because of_{their stature,} situation, or physical limitations. In light of _aging and

disability,

Freehand improves the _qualityof our lives

by

_enabling people of all ages to be more self-sufficient with more

dignity

fora greater portion oftheirlives.

PROCESS OVERVIEW

The design process illustrated

below(fig

2.)

was assembled and utilized

to

develop

Freehand. The model enabled the identification and

objectification of the

issues,

constraints and opportunities critical to

developing

product concepts, _specificallywith universal or

cross-generational design appeal. The model functioned as aframework for

discussions,

a _wayto organize research or information _gathering efforts,

a_strategyfor

developing

insight and fresh

ideas,

and a means for

measuring the validity or appropriateness of a concept.

The model consists offour basic phases: Preparation. Analysis.

Synthesis, and Evaluation. These particularcategorizations are common

to _{many design} methods,5_{and are consistent with}

psychological models

of human creativity.6

Preparation

This phase contains much ofthe basic research effortsthat ledto the

generation ofthe project's objective. _{The variety}of research servedto

establish afirm foundation of data and insightthat helped to ensure the

relative

durability

of _my objective. Thevarious _secondary research

surveys also served as a general knowledge

learning

tool,

as it covered

many various _{complementary} topics focused on _{social, physiological,}

Preparation

C

Analys

Audience Profile

}

C

O

Task

Physiological

I

Psychological

Sociological

rf^ ^w

Product Mode

I

Activity(i)

1

Action(iJ)

Demand(iJ)

Interface(ij)

Synthesis

Evaluation

Initiation

Routine Use

I

Special Use

Completion

Analysis

This phase consists ofthree parts: Audience Profile Analysis.

Product/System Mode Analysis, and Task Analysis. The objective ofthis

phase is to generate

data, information,

and a general _{understanding} of all the issuesthat will affect the

form, fit,

andfunction ofthe final product

concept.

Audience Profile Analysis - The basic _{structure of} this _analysis is

borrowed in-part from James J. Pirkl and Anna L. Babic's booktitled

Guidelines and Strategies for

Designing

Transgenerational Products!

The purpose ofthe analysis isto establish a complete _{physiological,}

psychological, and sociological profile ofthe target audience. It's meant

to highlight _many ofthe often overlooked variables such as emotional

issues,

cultural _values, and

dynamic,

rather_{than static,} human factors data. Their bookprovides an excellent overview of the natural human

decrements due to _aging and a convenient source fordata and specific

human factors information.

Product/System Mode Analysis

-The format ofthis analysis is

based in-part on the mode analysis portion ofthe Structured

Planning

process model developed

by

Charles Owen at the Institute of Design at

considerthe various aspects orphases of a product's life cycle

during

the

concept

development,

or Synthesisphase of the this model. This is

accomplished

by

_engaging in conceptualization activities focused

around several individual life cycle phases. Phases like manufacturing,

distribution,

or

disposal,

for

instance,

can each have unique and often

conflicting constraints and objectivesthat affectthe products final

solution.

Using

each phase's set of constraints as a catalyst to

develop

product ideas that _selfishlyoptimize the needs ofthat particularphase

will

hopefully

uncoverfresh and innovative data that ,when considered in

total, will generate new and insightful

thinking

that will drive refinement

and innovation in the final solution.

Task Analysis

-The framework forthis phase of the analysis was found in a paper

by

M. Cherie

Clark,

SaraJ.

Czaja,

and Ruth A. Weber

titled "OlderAdults and

Daily Living

Task Profiles."^ _{The process here is}

to isolate specific activities performed

during

the accomplishment of a

task and distill those activitiesdown to the particular actions performed

by

the

individual,

thus _generating an _{understanding} ofthe demands

inherent in or generated

by

the environment

during

those actions. An

exhaustive list is thus compiled

describing

the interaction or interface between each personal action and its associated environmental

demand. This list represents the Interface portion ofthe model.

During

the generation ofthis

list,

one records _any

ideas,

_{opportunities,}

insights,

hunches,

problems, or concepts that might come to mind based upon the

knowledge and perspective established

during

the previous Audience

Profile and the Product/Svstem Mode analysis sections.

9 Clarketal,Task Profiles,p.537-549

Synthesis

The Synthesis phase ofthe model is designed to

bring

order, and

eventually

form,

to the information generated

during

the Interface portion

ofthe Analysis phase. With thefinal _{objective, constraints,} and _necessary

elements as a_guide, this is wherethe actual resolution ofform and initial

engineering ideation takes place.

Evaluation

This portion ofthe model is where the product concept's fit is evaluated

againstthe measurements determined

during

the Preparation phase of

the model. It is wherethe relative _quality ofthe solution can be

3_0

PREPARATION

The notion of a_{direct relationship}between the subjective _qualityof

an experience andthe physical elements ortools utilized

during

the

experience hasalways intrigued me. I _mayjust be predisposedto

enjoying neatlittle gadgets _{like my}

bikes,

_{camping equipment,}

cooking utensils, and musical

instruments,

but I_sincerely believe that these tools

directly

affect _myenjoyment ofthe _activitywhich

they

enable. Thisrelationship, I

believe,

contributedto _my interest not _onlyin industrial

design,

butto thefocus ofthis project.

3_1

BACKGROUND

Priorto _comingto Rochester Institute of

Technology,

I obtained an informational interview with industrial designer William Stumpf

during

which he shared his philosophyaboutdesign andthe role he felt itplayedin our_societyand culture. Apartfrom thesignificant

overall impactthis interview had on _my

life,

I was_specificallystruck

by

a recollection heshared ofafavorite

daily

event in hischildhood.

He described in fonddetail a ritual hisfatherwould undertake_every

morning. The

heating

of_{the water, thesharpening} ofthe straight

razor, the ivory-handled boar hair

brush,

the worn pewter _{mug, the} fragrantsoap, and the baritonevoicethat hummed Scandinavian folksongs as he watched his fatherprepare forwork. As I

wondered ifthiscould be ascene from a Norman Rockwell

painting, he asked meto contrastthatevent with _myown

preparation that morning. Aerosol_can, disposable razor, late for

the

bus,

and the monotonedescription oflast night's homicide on

the _morning radio newsshow. His point wasthat the ideaof

process and ritual in ourindustrializedwestern culture was

being

lostto the seductions of

technology,

_efficiency, and productivity.

The notion heshared, andthe personal aspirationthatit created

that

day

wasthat design could not _onlyprovide a sound and

graceful solutionto a_problem, but itcould also affectthe _qualityof

ourlives

by helping

to

bring discovery

and _meaning to the _ordinary

rituals of our existence.

This idea of somehow

leveraging

designto infuse _meaning and

enjoyment intothese

daily

activities while _enabling a successful and

efficient completion ofthe taskbecamethe foundation for

generating mythesis objective.

3_1

OPPORTUNITY IDENTIFICATION

My

searchforan appropriate and desirable topicon which tofocus

myeffortstookseveralturns. The

following

schematic

(fig

3.)

traces_my progress ofthoughtand focusthrough-out the firstfour

Meeting

#1:

"Improve _qualityoflife

by

cleaning up

environment"

Re-green urban environment

Waterpollution

Indoorair pollution

Reduce demands

on the environment

Primarysources: "Green _{Design"(Burrall)} "Design fortheRealWorld"

(Papanek)

Meeting

#2:

"IHowcan design improve _{qualityoflifeby}

focusing

on

'means'

of

living,

'being'not'having'"

Can humans understand _product, maintain

it,

feel satisfied

by

it?

? _{Does it increase choices?}

Does itenhance self _reliance, self worth?

Does it make maximum use of_existing infrastructure?

Is it safe to make, reuse, recycle?

? _{How does it recycle "naturally"?}

Does it leave room for imagination Primarysource:

and creativity? "Biologic"(Wann)

Meeting

#3:

"

Canproduct support or enhancelife

quality?"

Activities of

daily

living; bathing,

toileting,

continence,

dressing,

transfereing,

feeding,

walking, vision, grooming. . .

Idea of

"re-ritualization"

ofprocess

Choose

bathing

due to sensual nature,

urbanization, economics, census

data,

residential

remodeling data/trends. Primarysource:

"Metaform"(Herman _Miller)

Topictoo broad Environmental angle

fading

Looking

at "whole"

bathing

experience/environment

Need to narrow

target market

Meeting

#4:

"

Focus on elderly:

Universal,

Transgenerationaldesign.

"

? _Start

looking

into psychological, sociological, and phsyical issues of_aging

? _Issues:

well-being, independence,

dignity,

stigma, environmental support.

Analyze _aging process, current

bathing

solutions,

bathing

process(confront, avoid, remove,etc.)

identifying

commonalities, trends,shortcomings, etc. . .

A

OBJECTIFICATION

Afterthe fourth _{meeting, the}final focusofthis project

finally

became clear; todesign a

bathing

systemthat improvedthe _quality

of people's lives

by

_providingforthefollowing:

Help

peopleto remain independent as

they

grow older

by

seamlessly adaptingto theirchanging sensoryand physical

capabilities.

Allowpeopleto more _easilychoosethe means

by

which

they

accomplish theirpersonal hygiene needs.

Makethesystem _{equally desirable}

by

both

fully

and lessorabled

individuals inorderto reduce or eliminatethe stigma associated

with "specially" supportive products.

Makethesystem _{easyto specify, customize,}

install,

_use,

maintain, and enjoy.

Withthis objective established as a sort of"yardstick"

by

whichto

measurethe appropriateness of product_{concepts, the} Analysis

4.0

ANALYSIS

The analysis portion ofthe process model isseparated into three

sectionsthatgenerated three typesof information used as input forthe

Synthesis portion ofthe model.

The Audience Profile analysis helped to

develop

an _{understanding}

ofthe target audience.

The Task Demand Profile analysis helped to

identify

the specific

activities, personal _actions, and environmental demands that are

inherent in _{accomplishing} the task under investigation.

The Product/System Mode analysis helped to ensure the

consideration of all the possible modes of a product's existence.

Analyzing

all three ofthese areas provided a solid knowledge base from

whichto generate ideas for product solutions. The model could be used

to organize investigations _{into many}other producttypes withdifferent

target audience profiles

by

_{simply substituting} the appropriate audience

background information into this section ofthe model.

4J

AUDIENCE PROFILE ANALYSIS

This analysis establishes a profile of the psychological, physiological,

and sociologicalcharacteristics ofthetarget audience. In this case, the

audience _{is primarily}the _elderly population and _secondarily the

handicapped and disabled populations. As one stepsthrough this

portion of_{the model,} it is importantto record initial ideas oropportunities

that might cometo mind as one would _naturally extrapolate howthe

profile characteristics relateto the objective ofthe project. These initial

intuitions can be

liberating,

as

they

can dispel or challenge _existing

paradigms, since the identification of specificform or_engineering

constraints are not yet binding.

Historically,

design and human factors specialists have been concerned

primarily with the physiological aspects of _elderly and disabled persons.

Because ofthe obvious importance ofthe physical interface between the

individual andthe product, much data has been compiled that outlines

the specific physical and _sensorycharacteristics ofthese populations. As

a result, manyofthe products designed forthese populations have

focused _only on _overcoming the particular physical

limitations,

and have

neglected _addressing the importance ofthe emotional relationships we

have with our products and spaces. This neglect has ledto "specialized"

products _that, although

they

function adequately, _{condescendingly}

the psychological and sociological needs ofthat audience so as not to

compound the

debilitating

effects of physiological changes.

In their book "Guidelines and Strategies for

Designing

Transgenerational

Products,"

authors Pirkl and Babic provide an excellent overview ofthe

complex _physical, psychological and sociological changes that take

place in all of us as we age and confront diminished capabilities.1

They

also present a set of detailed guidelines and strategies intended to

help

the development of products that are sensitive to thespecific physical

and _{sensory limitations} ofthe _elderly audience.2

The book provides a

resource for

developing

an audience demand profile and an

understanding ofthe _elderly population.

Below,

I

briefly

outline the

elemental process of _creating this audience profile, and provide

examples of how product ideas were generated while

developing

_my

understanding ofthe target audience.

4.1.1

Psychological

Changes

Psychological changes can be separated into three areas: information

processing, personality, and the myth ofsenility.3

Information

Processing

1 Pirklet_{al, "Guidelines for}Transgenerational

Products,"

11-18,27-44passim.

2

ibid.,50-74passim.

3 _Ibid.,38

Information processing includes reaction

time, intelligence, learning,

memory patterns, and problem _solving techniques.

Reaction Time - Reaction

time increases(response _slows) with age.

It is also correlatedto the_complexityofthe task.

Idea: In the

bathing

_environment, dangerous consequences of slower

reaction times canbe seen inissues relatedto _stabilityand

balance,

falling,

anddangers from _{scalding burns} and cold watershocks.

Balancedpressure_plumbing loops provide resistanceto sudden water

temperature changes

by

_eliminatingpressure surges due to unexpected

waterdemands elsewhere in the home.

Intelligence

-Intelligence does not appear to change until quite late

in life. Issuesof _{motivation, vocabulary, contemporaryskills,} and _speed,

however,

decrease and do affecttask performance.

Idea: If

bathing

spaces and products demandnew and unfamiliar_skills,

or present other possible motivational

barriers,

the desire or_ability to

bathe couldbeaffected. Avoid

developing

products thatare unfamiliarin

style, process, material, orfunction. Make

bathing

process as similar as

possible to previous life _experience, or atleastequalto "normal"

bathing

practices.

Learning

-Learning

appears to be unaffected

by

age.

Reducing

complexity

by

redundant_cueing and _simplifying complex tasks into

water adjustmenthandle couldbe warm, andthe cold waterhandle

cold?

Memory

- As

people age, it is proven that shortterm _memory

capabilities diminish whereas

long

term _memory remains more intact.

Idea: A temperaturepreset on a watercontroldevice might eliminate a

possible danger ifan _elderlyperson needs to rememberto avoid_overly

hot baths for

instance.

Problem

Solving

- Older

people are much more cautious than

younger people and are less

likely

to use trial-and-error problem _solving

techniques. The absence of clearinstruction orintuitiveclues(i.e. _size,

shape, color, sequence, priority, etc.) can be

intimidating

and can

discourage _elderlypeople from even _attempting a _puzzling task thata

younger person wouldtackle out of curiosity.

Idea:Haveyou eversteppedintoa hotelroom shower andhadtrouble

determining

howtoadjustthe watertemperature?

Push,

_{pull, up,}

down,

left,

right,

red, blue? Ihave hadtrouble. Iimagineothers havetoo.

Personality

Although _{it is generally}thoughtto be true that older persons

display

more

and more ofthe temperament

they

had as ayoungster, there are wide

diversities in those personalities and it is crucial that designers avoid

developing

concepts based on _any certain stereotype.

Idea:Provide a productthatallows theperson the option to customizeits

use to whatevercultural or personalbackground

they

mighthave.

The Myth of

Senility

The best research availabledisprovesthat it is somehow

"natural"

to

becomeforgetful ordisengaged from _reality as one ages. Over94%of

elderly people remain

independent,

and the normal _aging process is not

congruent with mental health problems.

Idea: Provide alevelofintuitive interaction thatis simple enough fora

childbutso powerfulin its refinement and sophistication as to_satisfythe

most

discerning

oftastes.

4.1.2

Sociological

Changes

There are more people overthe age of65

living

today

than have lived at

youth-been studying issues _pertaining to this situation and have named them

ageism, gerontophobia, and retirement.5

Ageism

Ageism refersto discrimination based on old age. It is manifest in

attitudes,

beliefs,

financial _matters, and employment. Like _any other

discrimination,

itstemsfrom afearofthings thatare different. The fact is

that older people are, of_course, not

different,

and though

they

_may need

more environmental support,

they

don'twant to be treated as

being

different.

Idea:

Develop

productsthaiare appropriate forpeople of allages, not

just_simplythe_youngorthe old. Products with this

flexibility

would

help

to highlight thesimilarities between thegenerations and eliminatethe

stigma attachedto "special-use"products.

Gerontophobia

Gerontophobia refers to the fearor _growing old.

Many

culturesview

growing old in differentways. Our American culture places a premium on

youth, andthis attitude has been internalized

by

_many people, young

and old. The resulting, internalized fear is often manifest inthe products

and spacesthatwe wantand use, even ifthose products don'tserve our

bestinterests.

Idea: Designattractive, stylishbathproducts thatare safer and easierto

use. Designyouthfulmarketdesireinto non-genderbiasedproducts.

Ibid.,41

Retirement

Retirement marks a departure from the labor force. In ourwork-oriented

society, this new non-productive status contributesto the viewthat_elderly

ordisabled people are different. This amplifies the aforementioned

problems of ageism and gerontophobia.

Idea: Makeproducts thathighlighta person's_abilityto be creative and

productive. Insteadof an automatichuman

bathing

machinethatdoesall

ofthe workforyou, whatabout a productthatenables youto do more of

the work yourself. Providea

feeling

of accomplishment.

4.1.3

Physiological

Changes

The changes thatoccur as a result of biological and physiological _aging

representthe most significant obstaclesto _retaining our_abilityto function

autonomouslyas we grow old or succumbto

injury

ordisease. Whether

the losses are physical(flexibility, strength, _{coordination)} or

sensory(visual, auditory, tactile),

they

can hinderour_abilityto _effectively

interact with the products and spacesthat surround us in our

homes,

offices, and public places. This hindrancethreatens our _qualityof living.

Acomplete and _easyto use resource forthe physical and _sensory

decrements ofthe _elderly and disabled populations can be found in Pirkl

impairments. A _summary oftheir generic guidelines for

designing

transgenerational products follows.

Generic Guidelines

-Provide cross-sensory redundant _cueing forall _{alarms, signals,} and

controls, e.g., combine an audio signal with a visual indicator.

- Offer

redundant modes of operation _utilizingthe next largerset of motor

movements, e.g., fingerto

hand;

handto arm; armto foot.

-Establish consistent display/motion _{relationships, e.g.,}

forward/up,

to

increase,

backward/down to decrease.

-Provide definitive feedback

dues,

_e.g., control detentsshould

"snap"

into position.

- Reduce

the _complexity of all _{operations, e.g.,} minimize number oftasks.

- Place

critical,

frequently

used controls within easiest reach, e.g., cluster

controls on basisof priority.

- Prevent

accidental actuation of critical _{controls, e.g.,} recess or provide

guard.

-Provide adjustable product/user

interfaces,

_e.g.,

horizontal/incline,

vertical/incline, raise/lower, push/pull.

- Design for _use

by

a_variety of _{populations, e.g., male/female, old/young,}

weak/strong.

- Design

to facilitate physical and cognitive

function,

_e.g., encourage user

to practice and improve.

- Design beyond

the basic physical/functional _{need, e.g.,} enhance the

user's

independence,

self _respect, and

quality

of life.

- Compensate for

a range of accommodation

levels,

e.g., provide for

some exercise through user interaction/participation.

- Strive

to make task movementssimple and enjoyable, e.g., clockwise

for "on"

or

"increase",

counterclockwisefor

"off"

4__

Task Profile

Analysis

This analysiscreates a profile or listof all ofthe personal actions and

coinciding environmental demands that take place

during

the successful

completion of atask_{utilizing existing} products and spaces.

By

_utilizing

this form of analysis I was ableto betterisolatethe problems of _existing

bathing

products and

identify

an area of investigation that ledto the

Freehand

Bathing

Arm concept.

Thestructure forthis analysis was found in a paper

by

M. Cherie

Clark,

SaraJ.

Czaja,

and Ruth A. Webertitled "OlderAdults and

Daily Living

Task Profiles."8 _{As applied}

here,

_{the analysis isolates specific activities}

performed

during

the accomplishment of atask anddistills them down to

the particular actions performed

by

the individual as well as the demands

inherent or generated

by

the environment

during

those actions. The goal

isto generate an exhaustive list

describing

the interaction orinterface

between each personal action and its associated environmental

demand.

During

this analysis I was conscious of

keeping

notes of product

ideas,

opportunities,

insights,

hunches,

problems, orconceptsthat might come

to mind based upon the knowledge and perspective established

during

the Audience Profile andthe Product/System Mode analysis sections.

The shear number and_variety of ideas generated is important

here,

and

8_{Clarketal, "Task}Profiles,"

537-549

one should avoid _anytendenciestowards convergent thinking. The

abilityto thinkcreativelyand

divergently

at this point iscritical.

Following

isan illustration ofthe Task Analysisstructure as well as an

explanation of each _section, with some examples _pertaining to the

development of Freehand.

4.2.1

Activities

For_anytask that a person performsthere are a certain number of

activitiesthatare done issupport ofthat task. To

bathe,

for

instance,

one

must _generallyget undressed, turn on _{the water,} adjustthe _temperature,

enterthe bathtub or showerstall, move underneath or _applythe water

stream to one's

body,

possiblyadjustthe waterflow or

temperature,

get

awayfromthe waterstream in orderto _applythe _soapto lift the dirtand

grime into _{suspension, reapply}the waterin orderto rinse _awaythe _soap

and

dirt,

turn off_{the water,} exit_{the environment,}

dry

_oneself, and dress

oneself. As can be seen, the seeminglysimple task of

bathing

_involves

manydifferentstages, in this casethere aretwelve. These activities

opportunities exist. In _{my investigation into existing}

bathing

products it

was clearthat egress was the main concern forsafe and proper bathing.

Having

already found numerous well designed products that addressed

this

issue, however,

I continued tosearch foran _opportunityto further

improve the _safetyor effectiveness ofthe

bathing

process. Thissearch

was facilitated

by

the

following

interface analysis.

4.2.2

Action /Demands

Interface

For each _activityestablished above there are both personal actions and

environmental demands associated with it.

Turning

on_{the water,} for

example, requires several actions and associated demands. A person

mustfirst locate the watercontrol

device(action) by

maybe _seeing or

feeling

for

it(demand),

addressthe

device(action)

by

_{possibly navigating}

the physical nature ofthe space inwhich it is mounted(demand),

determine how to operate

it(action)

by,

again, visual or_sensory

clues(demands), and then operate

it(action),

by

either_{grasping, pushing,}

pulling, twisting, or maybe even _{verbally commanding it}

(demands)

to

startthe flowof water.

Once the action/demand pairings were established forthe various

bathing

activities, it became clearto methat there were a significant

amount of simultaneous physical and _sensory requirements

during

the

washing process.

Depending

on user _capability

levels,

these

simultaneous demands posed possible conflict that could either leadto

interruption orfailure to accomplish the activity, or more critically, the

dangerof

instability

and injury.

In orderto bathe in a conventional _manner, a person must perform four

basicactions: getwet, applysoap, scrub, and rinse.

Accomplishing

thesefoursteps with _existing products iswhere I discovered an

opportunity for my productconcept.

Getting

wet is a_seeminglysimple process; turn on _{the water,} adjustthe

flow level andthe temperature to the desiredsettings, andthen either

move yourself intothe waterstream ormovethewaterstream onto you.

Ifyou're

fully-abled,

the process of _moving yourself intothe waterstream

is,

of_course, a simpletask. But forthe person hampered

by

an

injury

or

other

disability,

the task of _moving around in a_{wet, slippery}environment

can be a difficult and dangerous proposition, even with the appropriate

support rails and fixtures. If it's _necessaryor

desirable,

_then, to move the

waterstream onto and around you, products like the ever-popular, hand

held shower nozzle seem likethe perfect solution. Because oftheir

flexibility

to allow a personto stand or sit and _apply water where and

when

they

desire,

it is not _surprising tofind one ofthese products

specified in _every single instance where a

bathing

system is intended for

people such asthe _elderly and

disabled,

who are less

inclined,

or unable

to move within the

bathing

environment. Though this seems like a

My

analysis uncovered the paradoxthat the utilization of a hand held

water nozzle in orderto respondto the various needs of lesser-abled

people _actuallycreates _conflicting and increased demands on those

individuals. Even a person with minimal impairments will find that

obtaining,

directing

and then _reaffixing a hand-held unit while

maintaining balance and _utilizing various soaps and accessories creates

a myriad ofsimultaneous tasks. Even in a well designed

bathing

stall

with appropriate _seating and support rail

fixtures,

the

bathing

process is

compromised. Ifdue to these complications,

then,

a user_simply leaves

the nozzle fixed in its wall mount in orderto lesson the interface

demands,

the inadequacies of afixed position watersource apply, and

little has been gained or resolved.

So,

despite solving the issues of

egress, even a well designed

bathing

environment _utilizing a hand held

nozzle solution _maypose an

intimidating

and even dangerous

experience for an impaired person.

It was atthis point in the projectthat the idea ofthe Freehand

Bathing

Arm emerged. As I considered the

bathing

process and the need to

dispersewatertovarious desired locationsforvarious periods of

time,

I

wondered if a similartype of dispersion situation _already existed that

mightserve as a model to emulate. That afternoon found me _sitting at _my

drafting

board,

and attachedto that surface was a

drafting lamp

and a

movable

drafting

arm. I noticedthat both ofthese instruments allowed

metodistribute of disperse either light or information to desired locations

forvarious periods oftime. Once the desired location was determined

andthe unit was placed, I could remove _{my grasp} and itwould retain its

position.

What ifyou replacedthelight bulb with a shower nozzle? What

if,

like the

both the light andthe

drafting

_arm, you could movethe end ofthe

apparatus

by

touching

it at_anypoint with either a hand orafoot? What

about the factthatwhen I wantto broadcastthe light over a wide area or

concentrate _{it closely} on adetail I need _merely push the lightto where its

needed andthen _{focus only} on the

drawing

and not on

hanging

or

clamping the light fixture? Afterall, light and water can behave in similar

Product/System

Mode Analysis

From aproduct's manufactureand _{sale, through} eventual disposal

or_reclamation,thesuccess ofits design iscontingent on morethan

merely satisfyingthe

day

to

day

usage needs oftheconsumer.

Safeand efficient _manufacture, profitable_sales, excellent

form,

fit,

and

function,

ease of_repair, and _ecologically responsible disposal

all contributeto a successful product.

The purpose ofthe Product/System Modeanalysis istoexamine all

possible phases of a product's existence andbeginto considerhow

these issuescan affect a product'sform andfunction. The idea for

thestructure and objective ofthis analysisis patterned afterthe

Structured

Planning

model developed

by

Dr. Charles C. Owen at

the InstituteofDesign at Illinois Institute ofTechnology.1

According

to Owen's model, the modes establish focal points around whichto

both generatedata of particularand selfish interestto the mode and

distill information and insight aboutthe product and itsapplication

acrossthevarious phases of its lifecycle.

Though it_mayseem premature or_constrainingto considerthese

broad

issues,

even before _anytangibleconcepts have been

developed,

there is an_opportunityto considerthese modes as

starting points around whichto

develop

abatch of unconstrained

insightor even initial productconcepts beforetoo _many

commitments or prejudices are established. Each mode is meant

1Charles

Owen,"ClassNotes," 1991.

to act as a catalystfor_generating unconstrained ideas. These

ideas may be

imaginary,

idealistic,

or optimal for_onlya given mode,

but

they

_maysparkinnovative ideas or at least dispel outdated

assumptions and allowfora

truly

progressive solution.

Following

is an illustration ofthe analysis(fig.

4)

listing

some ofthe

System

Mode:

Issue:

Design

Implication(example):

Initiation:

MassCustomization

Marketing/Sales

Purchase/Specification

Installation

Design for assemble-to-order

(ATO),

not engineer-to-order

(ETO)

or make-to order

(MTO)

_strategy

Market as menu-based productfor

price, size, and function

flexibility

Telephone/on-line specification and

ordering ofmenu-based components

Productretrofitsto _anyexisting

wall-mountfixture

Routine

Use:

Bathing/Hygiene Interchangablesnap-on

bathing

toolsforsoaps,

lotions, brushes,

etc.

Relaxation

Safety

Recycle

(recirculate/filter/reheat)

watertoconserve forextra

long

periods

Utilize external-to-wall _plumbing

linesas hand support rails

Special Use:

Rehabilitation

Cleaning/Maintenance

Providespecial add-on accessories

forimmediate conversionto

highly-supportive uses

Components_snap apartfor

replacement or_cleaning in

dishwasher

Reconfiguration _Snapapart _methodologyallowsfor

ablilityto change configuration in

future

Completion:

Disposal/Recycle Parts_snapor breakapart and are

labeled for_sorting with like-kind materialsfordisposalor

recycling

5_Q

SYNTHESIS

The analysis activities resulted in

identifying

six

key

design

objectives. Thisphasedescribes howthe Freehand

Bathing

Arm

came to _satisfythe

following

criteria:

1

)

Makethe

bathing

processas similar as possible toprevious life

experience inorderto reduce stigma of "special"solutions. Create

cross-generational or"universal" design and commercial appeal.

2)

Minimizesimultaneoustaskdemands in orderto reduce

dangeroussituations related to_stabilityand balance.

3)

Makeproduct/person interface as intuitive and refined as

possible(including redundantvisual, auditory, and sensual _cues) in

orderto reduceapprehension,

frustration,

stigma, and eventual

neglect.

4)

Providea personthe option to_easilycustomize a product's

specification,

installation,

and

daily

usetowhatever_personal,

functional,

environmental or cultural preference one _mayhave.

6)

Offerredundant modes of operation _utilizing

increasingly

larger

motor movements inorderto _{automatically} and

invisibly

respondto

diminished capabilities.

5J

MANIPULATION

During

this phase, all ofthe research

data, learning,

and insight

established

during

the analysis period was

integrated,

or

manipulated, into designconceptsthat attemptedto_satisfythe

above objectives.

After_considering several process scenarios designed toeliminate

simultaneous

tasking

conditions

including

_telescoping,

flexible,

and

accordion-type dispersion mechanisms aswell as various

enclosure-specificconcepts _utilizing wall, ceiling, and/orfloor

delivery

systems, I choseto pursue a solution thatcapitalized on

the _efficiencyfound inthe

drafting

equipment _{analogy identified}

during

myanalysis. In _{myopinion, this}concept

intuitively

provided

the best platformcapable of_satisfying theabove objectivesdueto

its relativelyconventional mechanical principles and inherent

dimensional flexibility. Asolution ofthis typecould_simply provide

the level of

flexibility

and customizationthat ahand-held unit

provides butwithoutthe precarious manipulation issuesthose

devices present. Itwould also represent such agentle and intuitive

evolution _{away from}conventional

bathing

processes asto avoid

labeling

and_stigmatizingthe batheras one _requiring

"special"

support.

Following

are photographs of a_study model thatdemonstrate not

onlythe eventual _articulatingsolution with itscounter-balance and

friction _systems, butdisplaysthe_capabilityand application

*+'*.

Figures5a-5cdemonstrate thesystem's _capabilityof

accommodating both "conventional"wall-mounted shower

applications as well as applications_{only previously}served

by

hand

heldshower nozzles. Noticethat issuesof physical stature or

personal preferencecan _{be automatically}accommodated with no

need_{to unlock, unfasten,}

hang

up, or retighten _anypart ofthe unit.

The unit can be positioned

by

either_{pushing, pulling, nudging,} or

grasping anyone ofitsvarious segments andthen _{releasing it}to

remainfixed inthedesired location. Note howthe bathercould

sit(or_stand) either

facing,

perpendicular

to,

or_away fromthe _supply

wall andthe unit would_similarly accommodate either position. Also

notice howthe unit can be used as an extensionto access and

concentrate on locations not _easilyreacheddueto

flexibility,

balance,

or musclefatigue and_cramping issues. Once the

bathing,

or relaxation period iscomplete, the batherneed _onlyto push the

unit _aside, and exitthe enclosure.

5_2

RESOLUTION

Thefinal form andfunctional resolution ofthe Freehand

Bathing

The primary rotational planeis governed

by

axis "A" andis parallel

to the _supplywall. The batherfirstpositionsthe unit

"generally"

in

this plane inanticipation of either a_standing or seated shower.

This general position can be

instantly

altered at_anytime

during

the

bathing

process, butthe _majorityof articulation needs foreither a

standingor seated event can beaccomplished

by

a single

positioning inthis plane. Utilization ofthe _supplytube(axis

"B")

traveling

inthis plane works well as a global _{repositioning} "handle"

when_using the apparatus as an extensionfeature.

Asthe unit moves about axis

"A",

it is

tensioned,

or

balanced,

by

two methods.

First,

a counter-balance mass _off-setting the unit's

gross component and captured water weight givesthe unit a

partiallybalanced attitude. Sincethe magnitude ofthe torsional

force _acting on axis

"A"

varies as Freehand's_secondarysegments

move _along and _awayfromthe wall (i.e. the result of a_varying

moment), axis "A"is further restricted

by

a

braking

system

illustrated in figure 7a. This

braking

system istensioned once at

the time ofinstallation (orafter_cleaning or_maintenance)to achieve

a_smoothlybalanced operation in _any configuration, thus

customizingthe relative"stiffness" of_{Freehand's primary}

articulating action. This "ride" canthus becustomized tosuit either

enclosure _geometry,

bathing

style, or other personal preference.

As Freehandswings _awayfrom the_supplywall about axis

"B",

it

again creates a situation of_varying torsional loads

depending

on

the locationofthe _supply nozzle. The"twisting"force is

relatively

small whenthe nozzle is either closetoaxis "B" or closetothe

primaryrotational _{plane, then} grows_steadily largeras the nozzle

moves_awayfrom the _wall, and reaches a maximum when

positioned perpendicularto thewall when axis "B" is parallel to the

floor.

Tocounteractthis_{varying force}so that Freehand"floats" about

only in responseto the user's deliberate input

(grab,

nudge or

push), axis "B" isgoverned

by

a variable ratetorsional

counterbalance ofthe kind illustrated in figure 7b. Thetorsion

spring"winds

up"

andincreases its resistance ifaxis "B" rotates

awayfrom thewall. Itcreates a counter-balancethatvaries insize

responding

directly

to the_varying loadscreated as the Freehand

Arm is moved aboutthe

bathing

enclosure. The rate ofthis_spring

would be determined

by

the _geometryand size ofthespecified

configuration and preinstalled

during

manufacture, or_simply

repositioned inthefield tocreate various preloads. This ensures

that Freehand's nozzle _effortlesslyglides about regardless ofthe

customized lengthsofthe varioussegments.

At axis

"C",

Freehand once again experiences variabletorsional

loads dueto_varying moments relatedto nozzle location. Here

again, the

braking

system describedabove foraxis

"A",

figure

7a,

The remaining axes,

"D",

"E",

and

"F",

are governed_solely

by

the

friction created

by

the _o-ringwater seals as illustrated in figure 7c.

This solution is dueto thefactthat the forces_acting on thesejoints

so "farout"

along Freehand's length are _relativelysmall and

constant and can be accountedfor

by

friction alone without

hindering

thesmooth and balancedaction onthe apparatus. This

illustration also hints atthe means

by

whichthe varioussegments

of Freehand's

body

can be "snapped" apartforcustomization of

size, replacement, orfor_easycleaning ofthe component partsin

the kitchen dishwasher.

A

I so*r i i i3 :T5

N3_{< <S.}

N

i>\

U

4

fit

T3fc'

>r

I

If

Thewaterflow andtemperature regulation forFreehand is

accomplished

by

asingle lever-type handle mixer valve seen in

figures8 and 9. _{The geometry} and action aredesignedwith a

combination ofdiscrete visual,

tactile,

and_sensorycues, as well as

culturally intuitive directional cues. To increase flow_rate, pull _up

("more"),

forincreased

temperature,

rotate_{clockwisefincrease")} in

thedirection ofthe raisedemboss, the oppositeforcold.The lever's

simple rectangular shape stands out_awayfromthewall so that it

can _{easily be}activated

by

hand,

_elbow,

foot,

or prostheticdevice.

The emboss and _{deboss along} withthe ratcheting-type_rotating

action provide _sensoryfeedbackas to direction and magnitude of

movement.

Thevalve unit can be installed in _anylocation within the

bathing

environment so that_easyaccess can beobtained both priorto

entering the enclosure, and/or

during

the

bathing

process. The unit

is also intended foruse with eitherabalanced pressure valve or

plumbing loop1 which guards against_anysudden pressure or

temperaturefluctuations _resultingfrom usagedemands elsewhere

inthe home such as

laundry, kitchen,

ordemands of other

bathroom fixtures.

"HerbertPanzer, PE,"OperationalCriteriaforBalanced PressureShowerValves,"

Heating-Piping. Air

Conditioning

August,(1991), 59-63.

In the area of_{customization,} Freehand'stwo arm segmenttubes

can be specified invarious lengths in orderto allowsystem to be

custom fitto _anysize enclosure. Thecounter-balance and

braking

systemsare designed toanticipate these_varying set-ups and adapt

to the _{resulting load}characteristics created

by

each combination.

Thevarioustubesegments will _{simply snap}into place foreither

installation,

remodeling, maintenance, or_cleaning purposes.

The Freehand

Bathing

Arm presents a_{unique, powerful,} and

dignified approachto _reducing the demandsofthe

bathing

process.

It's

fresh,

yet intuitivesolution enables and prolongsthe _abilityfor

self-sufficient

bathing

practicesin amannerthat is _essentially

consistentwith established lifeexperiences. This_autonomy

providesfora

feeling

of_{accomplishment, self-reliance,} and

dignity,

while _reducingthe stigma often associated _speciallysupportive

productsand processes. Itallowsforpersonal interpretation and

selection, and respondsto either_temporary, permanent, sudden, or

evolutionarychanges insupport needs. Freehand improves the

qualityand _well-being of people's lives

by

_absorbingthe burden of

adaptability, allowing peopleto remain independent and more

__Q

EVALUATION/CONCLUSION

Atthe_writing ofthis paper_{it is nearly}fouryearssincethe _gallery

exhibition and defense ofthisthesis.

Revisiting

theproject and

finalizing

this paper has been an _revealing

learning

experience, as

it has forced meto siftthrough the thoughts and ideasof ayounger

self. Though much of what Ifoundcould have benefited from _my

additional fouryears ofexperience and perspective, I havecometo

drawthe

following

conclusions:

First,

that the notion behind Freehand's potential _abilityto improve

the _qualityof peoples lives

by

_promoting independence and self-reliance remains significant and _{substantially}sound.

Secondly,

thatthe _resultingdesign process provided a good comprehensive approachto problem identificationand solution that

enabled afresh approachto a well established product metaphor.

This processcould_certainlyserve as aframework forother projects and objectives.

Thirdly,

though I find the_{existing articulating} solution somewhat

intriguing,

I now recognize itto be

functionally

abittoo complicated

and_{aesthetically}too "machine-like" and inconsistentwith the

sensual nature of a

bathing

environment. From _mycurrent

perspective, I would recommend a_{wholly different articulating} configuration thatwould _simplifythe architectureand work in better

concert with _gravity andthe

bathing

environment.

Finally,

I no longer feel that a_universallydesigned product capable of _meeting the needs of an _{extensively broad} audience is necessarilyin the best net interestof all the audience segments involved. _{A responsibly}and

intelligently

designed niche productwill not_onlybetterserve its particularaudience dueto its increased

level of_{customization,} butcan doso, I

believe,

without

having

to

apologize foritsspecial capabilities and without_violating the

dignity

ofthe user.

Recalling

the original projectobjectives, The Freehand

Bathing

Arm

attemptsto providethefollowing:

Help

peopleto remain independentas

they

grow older

by

seamlessly adaptingto theirchanging sensory and physical

capabilities.

Allow peopleto more _easilychose the means

by

which

they

accomplish theirpersonal hygiene needs.

Makethe system _{equally desirable}

by

both

fully

and lessor-abled

individuals in orderto reduce or eliminatethe stigma associated

with "specially" supportive products.

Makethesystem _{easyto specify, customize,}

install,

_use,

maintain, and enjoy.

In _concept, The Freehand

Bathing

Arm demonstrates howthe

qualityof ourlives couldbe improved

by

_shifting the burden of

adaptabilityand _{compatibility away}from usto the productsthat

serve us. In lightof_aging and

disability,

the Freehandsystem

would enable peopleto be moreself-sufficient, with more

dignity,

Selected

Bibliography

Berghorn,

Forrest

J.,

and Donna E.

Schafer,

ed. The Dynamics ofAging:

Original Essays onthe Process and Experiencesof

Growing

Old.

Boulder: Westview

Press,

1 981.

Borchert, Mary,

Marty

Dugan,

David

Levey,

Clark

Malcom,

Dallas

Moore,

Susan

Packard,

Kathy

Sexton,

Bill

Stumpf,

and

Gary

Waymire.

Metaform. Herman Miller Research

Corporation(Privately

Printed),

1988.

Bordett,

Harvey

M.,

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