Volume 13, Number 4 (July 1960)

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American

Society of Range Management

The American Society of Range Management was created allied technologists, and to encourage professional improvement in I947 to foster advancement in the science and art of grazing of its members.

land management, to promote progress in the conservation and Persons shall be eligible for membership who are interested greatest sustained use of forage and soil resources, to stimu- in or engaged in practicing range or pasture management or late discussion and understanding of scientific and practical animal husbandry; administering grazing lands; or teaching, range and pasture problems, to provide a medium for the or conducting research, or engaged in extension activities in exchange of ideas and facts among society members and with range or pasture management or related subjects.

T

he JOURNAL OF RANGE MAN- AGEMENT , published bi-monthly, is the official organ of the American Society of Range Management. The Society, however, assumes no responsibility for the statements and opinions expressed by authors and contributors.

Off ice, Executive Secretary. Address all inquiries and correspondence including memberships, renewals, replacements of JOURNALS, etc., to Executive Secretary, American Society of Range Management, P.O. Box 5041, Portland 13, Oregon. Dues. Membership dues should be sent to the Executive Secretary. The dues are $8.00 per year including, a subscrip- tion to the JOURNAL OF RANGE MAN- AGEMENT. Dues for student members are $4.00 per year, including the JOURNAL. All subscriptions mailed outside the North American continent and insular possessions of the U. S. are $8.50 per year. Subscrip- tions must be paid in advance. Remit by draft or check on U. S. banks in U. S. funds. Reprinting. The reprinting of articles or parts of articles published in the JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT is author- ized on the express condition that full credit be given the JOURNAL and the author. The date of original publication must be shown with the credit line.

Posf Office Enfry. Second-class post- age paid at Portland, Oregon, and at ad- ditional offices.

Change of Address. Notices of change of address should be received by the Execu- tive Secretary one month before the date of issue on which the change is to take effect. Both the new and old addresses should be sent to the Executive Secretary, American Society of Range Management, P.O. Box 5041, Portland 13, Oregon.

Printers. The Nebraska Farmer Company, 1420 P Street, Lincoln, Nebraska.

JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT

EDITOR E. J. WOOLFOLK

Pacific Southwest Forest & Range Exp. Sta. Berkeley 1, California

EDITORIAL BOARD 1958-60

ARNOLD HEERWAGEN W. R. HANSON

Soil Conservation Service Eastern Rockies Forest 321 New Customs Building Conservation Board

Denver 2, Colorado Calgary, Alberta

1959-61

GEORGE E. GLENDENING U.S. Forest Service

DONALD R. CORNELIUS Tempe, Arizona JACK R. HARLAN Agricultural Research Service

P. 0. Box 245 Oklahoma State University Berkeley 1, California Stillwater, Oklahoma

1960-62 F. A. BRANSON U.S. Geological Survey

Federal Center Denver, Colorado

L. T. BURCHAM LYNN RADER

California Division of Forestry University of California Sacramento, California Berkeley, California

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY

President:

FRED H. KENNEDY U. S. Forest Service Albuquerque, N. Mex.

President Elect:

V. A. YOUNG

Executive Secretary:

JOHN G. CLOUSTON

733 West 2nd St. P. 0. Box 5041

Mesa, Arizona Portland 13, Oregon

BOARD OF DIRECTORS 1958-60

JAMES L. FINLEY MELVIN S. MORRIS

P. 0. Box 136 University of Montana

Gilbert, Arizona Missoula, Montana

1959-61

JOHN CHOHLIS C. H. MCKINNON

Western Livestock Journal LK Ranches, Ltd. Sacramento, California Calgary, Alberta

1960-62

KARL G. PARKER GERALD W. THOMAS

Montana State College Texas Technological College

Bozeman, Montana Lubbock, Texas

Past President:

DONALD F. HERVEY Colorado State University

Fort Collins, Colorado HISTORIAN: A. A. BEETLE, Dept. of Agronomy,

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IN THIS

ISSUE

Climatic Fluctuations in the Great Basin, 1931-56..._..Frederick L. Wernstedt 173

Wafer-Infake Studies on Range Soils af Three Locations in the

Northern Plains ._...__.__________~__________~_____Frank Rauzi

The Nutrient Status of Four Mountain Rangeland Soils in Wesiem Nevada and Eastern California . . .._._.Richard E. Eckert and A. T. Bleak

Responses of Annual Range fo Ura Applied ai Various Dates

Milton B. Jones

Effect of Selective Grazing by Sheep on the Control of Leafy

Spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) .._.._..._..A. Johnston and R. W. Peake

Integration in fhe Use of Public and Private Range in Pacific

Northwest Ranching ____ ____ ________________________________________._~ ________ __ ______ . . . . ..Tom Wilson

Effects of Burning and Clipping ai Various Times During fhe Wet Season on Tropical Tall Grass Range in Northern Australia

Edwin L. Smith

Fort Baker Ranges Returned fo Champagne Grasses.__...D. W. Cooper

Grass Management Pays Big Dividends . . . .._...._....__~____._~o~ace L. Leithead

Relationships Between Sprouting in Chamise and the Physiological

Condition of the Plant . . .._...MiZton B. Jones and Horton M. Laude

Technical Notes

Production of Native and Introduced Grasses in fhe Ponderosa Pine Region of Arizona...._...._...__C~a~Zes F. Cooper

Trirhabda Nifidicollis, A Pest of Rabbitbrush in New Mexico

Calvin L. Massey and Donald A. Pierce

Book Reviews: Methods of Vegetation Study (Edwin Allen Phillips); The Mammals of North America (E. Raymond Hall and R. Kelson); Approved Practices in Feeds and Feeding (Daniel W. Cassard); Soil, Grass and Cancer (Andre Voisin) ; Methods of Correllafion and Regression Analysis (Mordecai Ezekiel and Karl A. Fox)...._..._..

Current Literature ___________________________________________________________________.__________._______________________~.

With the Sections

News and Notes

Society Business

Cover

Photo- “TAKING

FIVE”

179

164

166

192

195

197

203

206

210

214

216

217

220

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EDITOR’S ERROR

The photo erroneously carried as figure 1 of William F. Pringle’s article, page 139, number 3, volume 13, Journal of Range Management, May 1960, is correctly figure 2 of the Technical Note by Massey and Pierce appearing on pages 215 and 2 16 of this issue. Mr. Pringle’s photo was lost. My apologies to all concerned.

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Journal of

Volume 13, Number 4 July, 1960

RANGE

MANAGEMENT

Climatic Fluctuations in the Great Basin,

1931-56

FREDERICK L. WERNSTEDT

Associate Professor of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania

Drought is a persistent problem for effective range management in the drier portions of the western United States. Whereas considerable study has been di-

rected toward correlation of

varying precipitation amounts and range yields, little research has been directed toward an understanding of the magnitude of fluctuation in the area1 dimen- sion. While this is a problem

which assumes importance for

the geographer, since his primary concern is one of spatial relationships, it is not without significance to those concerned with effective utilization of our western drylands.

Introduction

The expansion or contraction, and the deepening or lessening in severity, of the dryland climates of the Great Basin of the United States have resulted in serious dislocation to the Great

Basin grazing economy. Area1

expansions of aridity bring

drought to agricultural regions that are inexperienced in coping

with decreased moisture; in-

creases in the severity of drought upset delicately balanced agricultural adjustments. Much has been written on the variability of one or more of the climatic elements. Such studies have em- phasized the fact that the magnitude of year to year fluctuations is sufficient to obviate the use

of long term averages. The present paper intends to explore the year-to-year variability of climate, both as to the area1 magnitude and degree of fluctuation of aridity, in the Great Basin of the United States.

The Great Basin of the United States

“Great Basin” is the topographic term commonly applied to a major physiographic prov-

ince of the western United

States. The province, as generally accepted, includes the basin and range country of Ne- vada, western Utah and sections of eastern California, southeastern Oregon and southern Idaho which lies between the principal crest lines of the Wasatch Moun- tains and the Sierra Nevada- Cascades. Within these east-west bounds drainage is centripetal. The northern and southern lim- its of the Great Basin are not so clearly defined; nor is there

unanimity among physiograph-

ers concerning them. Since the present paper is concerned less

with physiographic and more

with climatic homogeneity a

northern limit has been selected so as to include the five southeastern counties of Oregon and all of Idaho south of the Idaho Rockies. A somewhat arbitrary southern limit was selected

which marks the topographic

and climatic transitions into the

173

Sonoran desert area. This southern boundary roughly parallels U.S. Highway 91, extending in a straight line from El Cajon Pass, east of the Los Angeles lowlands, to a point in south- western Utah indicating the sep- aration between the Basin and the Colorado Plateau.

The Great Basin thus delim- ited is admittedly a region more of convenience; however, a considerable degree of geographical homogeneity is achieved within the area. Aridity, in varying degrees, is generally prevalent throughout the region, except in peripheral areas and at higher elevations, and rather clearly separates the Basin from adjoin- ing areas to the north, east and west. Edaphic and biotic en- vironments also are remarkably similar within the Basin and dissimilar from adjacent regions.

The Great Basin thus delim- ited represents an area of ap-

proximately 238,000 square

miles.

Climatic Elements

The climatic elements of temperature, precipitation and relative humidity, however, exhibit remarkably little north-south gradation in the Great Basin. Hot droughty summers, large di- urnal ranges of temperature, low relative and absolute humidities, general aridity and wide yearly and seasonal fluctuations from mean values characterize the climate of the entire Basin.

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174

creasing latitude with Death

Valley (70”s) and areas in southern Nevada (60 OS) the warmer.

However, secondary warm re-

gions also occur along the north in the lowlands of the Snake River and around the Great Salt Lake and Salt Lake Desert areas. Latitudinal effects on mean annual temperatures are modified significantly by elevation, exposure, and the proximity of large water bodies.

Average summer temperatures show slight gradation from south to north. The less direct solar radiation in the higher latitudes is partially compensated by the increased duration of sunlight at

the more northerly stations.

Only increased elevation brings lower summer temperatures.

Average winter temperatures show greater latitudinal variation than do the summer temperatures-southern areas maintain approximately 45’ January temperatures while more northerly stations fall to below 20”.

The control upon temperatures exerted t h r o u g h latitude, coupled to the known high degree of atmospheric transpar- ency, the duration of sunlight, and the meagerness of a protec- tive vegetation cover bespeak of the entire Basin as an area of temperature extremes.

Temperature Variability Although temperature differences from place to place in the Great Basin appear to be min-

imized when mean monthly or

annual values are employed, the year-to-year fluctuations from these average values are most

pronounced. Departure from,

rather than adherence to, mean temperature values is the rule. No part of the Great Basin has been completely free from freez-

ing temperatures-indeed, only

a few locales have escaped sub- zero minima. Conversely, with the exception of a few highland locations, daytime summer max-

imum temperatures everywhere

WERNSTEDT

in the Basin have exceeded 100”. Many stations have recorded absolute maxima in excess of 110” ; principally in the valley of the Snake River, the Salt Lake Des- ert and in southern Nevada and California, and a few locales have exceeded 120” (Death Val- ley, southern Utah and Califor- nia) .

Winter temperatures in partic- ular seem most susceptible to wide departure from mean values. January, 1937 and 1949 were abnormally cold with average monthly temperatures well be-

low mean values (Figure 1).

During these years all of the Great Basin, excepting a 12,000

square mile area in extreme southern Nevada and California,

experienced average monthly

temperatures of less than 30”, and extensive areas throughout the Basin recorded values of less than 10”. In contrast, Janu- ary, 1953 was abnormally warm. During this latter year January

temperatures everywhere were

above 30”, large areas experi-

enced 40” temperatures and

southern regions remained in the 50”s.

Year-to -year fluctuations in

monthly, seasonal and annual

temperatures are of sufficient magnitude to seriously affect the

agricultural economy of the

f _Goldfiold, _Novodo

-25 I Richfirld, Idaho

II I I I I I I I I I ,, 1, )I, I,, , , 1 _I 9

+ *s tP rs R”

FIGURE 1. Departures of Annual January Temperatures from Mean Values, 1931-1956,

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CLIMATIC FLUCTUATIONS 175

Great Basin. Particularly the livestock industry, through loss by exposure, and winter wheat, through failure of germination, will suffer. Again stations far- ther north, particularly in Idaho

and northern Nevada, appear

more susceptible to greater temperature fluctuations in January than are the more southern locales.

The magnitude of fluctuation in summer temperatures is neither as great nor as significant agriculturally as the winter temperature fluctuations.

Average Precipifafion In general the Great Basin can be considered as a region of light (subhumid) precipitation. Ap- proximately one-seventh of the Great Basin receives an average annual precipitation of less than five inches; over one-half receives less than ten inches, and 98-99 per cent receives less than twenty inches annually (Table

1). Extensive areas of the Great Basin are too dry for non-irrigated agriculture in normal precipitation years, in spite of a tendency throughout the Basin

toward a winter maximum re-

gime of precipitation and conse- quent lower evaporation. Those areas located at higher elevations with western exposures

generally receive greater

amounts of precipitation; eastern slopes and interior basins, par-

---

FIGURE 2. Annual Precipitation of the Driest Year for the Great Basin, 1931-1956.

titularly in more southerly latitudes, receive least amounts. An extensive area in southeastern California and western Nevada

Table 1. Percentage of fhe Tofal Area of fhe Greaf Basin Included Within Selecfed Annual Precipiiafion Cafegories, 193 1-1956 *

Annual Precipitation Normal Year Driest Year Wettest Year

Less than 5” 15.3 47.6 0.5

5”_10” _36.5 _49.9 11.7

lO”-20” 47.1 2.5 73.0

More than 20” 1.1 0.0 14.8

*Driest and wettest years are not necessarily simultaneous for each station.

Table 2. Percenfage of fhe Total Area of fhe Greaf Basin Included Wifhln Each Climafic Type, 1931-1956”

Type of Climate Average Year Driest Year Wettest Year

Arid (BW) 31.3 74.0 4.7

Semi-Arid (BS) 50.9 23.0 16.4

Humid (C and D) 17.8 3.0 78.9

*Driest and wettest years are not necessarily the same for each station.

lying immediately east of the Sierra Nevadas and extending northward to the latitude of Reno receives the least precipitation (under 5 inches).

Precipifafion Variability The order of magnitude of precipitation variability in the Great Basin is extreme, probably as great or greater than for any other area in the United States (Visher, 1954). Consider- ing the Basin in its entirety, during the period 1931-1956, annual

precipitation averaged 11.41

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176

16 inches in 1941 (Figures 2 and 3). Variations in seasonal pre- cipitations from year to year are equally extreme and of critical import to agriculture. The Great

Basin receives an average

“Spring Precipitation” (April through June) of 2.90 inches, yet values have fluctuated from less than 2 inches in 1931, 1934, 1939 and 1940, and on occasions entire months were rainless, to more than 4 inches in 1941 and 1944.

Consideration of the Great Ba- sin in its entirety, however large the year-to-year departures from mean precipitation values are,

overshadows the magnitude of

the individual station fluctuations. Not only are variation curves smoothed by averaging, b u t meteorological phenomena are neither similar nor simultaneous throughout the B a sin. Frequently drought in northern sections of the Basin is attended by

average

or above average precipitation in southern areas, or vice versa. Each station, indi- vidually, will experience a much greater magnitude of variability than over-all Basin conditions indicate.

Plants, whether as an indige- nous or cultural cover, are susceptible to precipitation variability. Too little precipitation is especially destructive, result- ing in failure to germinate, death, decreased yields, inferior products and a host of attendant symptoms.

Climate

Geographers, climatologists

and agriculturists have long

sought ways to synthesize the

more important elements of a

climatic environment in order to analyze the relationships ex-

istent between climate and

plants. This sought-for objective has not met with complete success. Since the objective of this study concerns climatic variability and this objective can be attained regardless of whether

WERNSTEDT

ANNUAL PRECIPITATKU WETTEST YEAR

1931- 1956

FIGURE 3. Annual Precipitation of the Wettest Year for the Great Basin, 1931-1956.

Koppen’s system of climatic classif ication (1936)) DeMar- tonne’s index of aridity (1927) or Thornthwaite’s precipitation effectivity (1948) is used, the more familiar Koppen classif i- cation is emp1oyed.l

Most of the Great Basin normally experiences subhumid cli-

mates (Koppen’s BS and BW).

Humid climates (Koppen’s C and D) are generally encountered only at higher elevations where heavier precipitation, due to oro- graphic lifting, and lower temperatures result in greater availability of moisture for plant nourishment.

Under norm al precipitation and temperature conditions approximately 18 per cent of the

Basin experiences humid climates, principally in the foot- hills of the Sierra Nevadas, Cas-

1 The system of climate classifica- tion first proposed by Dr. W. Koppen in 1923 and subsequently published in modified form in 1931 and 1936 was based primarily up- on botanic associations. Five basic climatic types were recognized and defined:

A climates-Tropical rainy climates B climates-Dry climates w h e r e evaporation exceeded precipitation. Two subtypes: BS (semi-arid) and BW (arid)

C climates-Warm temperate rainy climates

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cades, W asatch and Bitteroot Mountains, in the higher mountains of central Nevada and in certain central Utah Piedmont areas. The remainder to the Ba- sin normally experiences arid or semi-arid climates.

The core of Great Basin aridity lies in western Nevada and eastern California immediately to the east of the Sierra Nevadas. Here a pronounced rain-shadow effect, coupled with the pres- ence of semi-permanent anticy- clonic circulation and higher temperatures, have combined to produce a 74,000 square mile area of arid climates. Lesser areas of arid climate are found in the Salt Lake Desert, and in isolated basins in western Ne-

CLIMATIC FLUCTUATIONS

vada. Except under irrigation these arid regions, representing 31 per cent of the Basin area, do not support permanent agriculture.

Much of the remainder of the Great Basin (51 per cent) experiences semi- arid climates- transitional arid-humid climates which neither exclude nor guar- antee success in non-irrigated agricultural pursuits.

Climatic Variability

The magnitude of climatic

variability is as great as the variability in the individual climatic elements. Only a very small portion of the Basin has remained within the same climatic type during each of the years be-

CLIMATE DRIEST YEAR

1931- 1956 a ARID (SW) 0 STEPPE (BS) a HUMID (‘2 AND 0)

FIGURE 4. Climate of the Driest Year for the Great Basin, 1931-1956, according to the Koppen system of climatic classification.

177

tween 1931-1956. A small 10,000 square mile area in southeastern California and southern Nevada maintains its aridity, while at

higher elevations an 8,000 square mile area persists with perenni-

ally humid climates. The greater portion of the Great Basin, approximately 92 per cent, alter- nates from one climatic type to another, frequently with disas- trous, although occasionally sa- lubrious, agricultural repercus- sions.

During the period 1931-1956 fully 74 per cent of the Great Basin experienced at least one arid year, more often undergoing a prolonged series of arid years. Similarly 79 per cent of the Ba- sin experienced at least one humid year with, unfortunately, too seldom frequency (Figures 4 and 5).

Two areas within the Great Basin seem particularly susceptible to frequent and extreme climatic fluctuation: west central Utah and the Snake River valley. In these two regions moist subhumid or dry humid climates prevail sufficiently often to encourage permanent agricultural occupance. Both areas, however, can experience severe aridity, often for prolonged periods.

Summary and Conclusions The raising of sheep and cattle is a major economic pursuit in the Great Basin. The industry generally is based upon open range grazing for at least a portion of each year. With a major dependence upon the availability and sufficiency of range forage it is obvious that climatic fluctuations will play a dominant role in the success of the grazing economy. Unfortunately statistical data are not perfected to the point that correlation be-

tween fluctuating livestock

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178 WERNSTEDT

CLIMATE WETTEST YEAR

1931 - 1956 I: ARID (EW) 0 STEPPE (es) = HUMID (C AND 0)

FIGURE 5. Climate of the Wettest Year for the Great Basin, 1931-1956, according to the Koppen system of climatic classification.

a time when losses suffered In spite of the lack of adequate through preceding severe winter statistical data, the strong de- weather conditions and spring or pendence of a livestock industry summer drought have been re- upon prevailing climatic condi-

placed. tions in the Great Basin can be

amply demonstrated. Two cli-

matic conditions appear to ma- terially reduce livestock numbers, i.e., severe winter temperatures and light precipitation. Sections of the Great Basin are particularly susceptible to frequent abnormally cold winters; winters cold enough to materi- ally reduce livestock numbers

through exposure, pneumonia,

and the inability of livestock to secure forage because of ground conditions. The combination of low precipitation, high day temperatures, low relative humidity, high evaporation, high winds,

high proportion of sunshine

cause plants to use available water more quickly.

Year-to-year fluctuations in climate, particularly in precipitation and winter temperatures, have profound short term effects upon the livestock industry in the Great Basin. These effects are manifested through reduc- tions of livestock herds brought about by exposure and variations in range herbage supplies.

LITERATURE CITED

DEMARTONNE, E. 1927. Regions of

interior-basin drainage. Geo-

graphical Review. 17: 397-414. KOPPEN, W. 1936. Das geographische

system der klimate. Handbuch der

Klimatologie. Gebruder Born-

traeger, Berlin. 1: l-40.

THORNTHWAITE, C. W. 1948. An ap- proach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Review. 48: 55-94.

VISHER, S. S. 1954. Climatic Atlas of the United States. Univ. of Har- vard Press, Cambridge. 403 pp.

Argentine Opportunities

Argentina is interested in a positive program of range improvement. To further its grassland development and cattle improvement programs, Argentina is seeking two North American Range Management Specialists. Recruitment to fill these positions is now in process.

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Water-Intake Studies on Range Soils at Three

Locations in the Northern Plains1

FRANK RAUZI

Soil Scientist, Soil and Water Conservation Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Laramie, Wyoming

The ability of rangelands to

absorb and store rain water is

of great importance in the pro-

duction of range forage, main-

tenance of stock water, and con-

trol of runoff and erosion. Every

effort should be made to im-

prove or maintain the storage

ability of these lands. This is

especially important in western

arid and semi-arid areas where

moisture is the limiting factor

in forage production.

Some of the more important

physical factors

affecting ab-

sorption and storage of water in-

clude soil and rainfall charac-

teristics, amount

of surface

cover, and type of management

prevalent on the areas (Duley

and Domingo, 1949; Lassen et al.,

1952; Osborn, 1952). Rainfall re-

tention is proportionally higher

with good vegetative cover pro-

tecting the soil because

this

leads to higher

water-intake

rates (Osborn, 1952; Rauzi 1956;

Rauzi and Zingg 1956).

Water-intake studies using a

truck-mounted

infiltrometer

(Figure 1) were conducted dur-

ing the summer months of 1956

at three locations in western

North Dakota and at four loca-

tions in Montana (Rauzi, 1956).

Fenceline comparisons forming a

contrast were utilized and a to-

1 Cooperative project between the Western Soil and Water Manage- ment Research Branch, Soil and Water Cons. Res. Div., ARS, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Soil Cons. Serv., U. S. Dept. Agr.; and the Wyoming Agri- cultural experiment station.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Wyoming Agricul- tural Experiment Station as Jour- nal Paper No. 109.

tal of 40 plots were studied.

Objectives of this study were

(a) to determine the effect of

different kinds and amounts of

grass cover on the ability of a

soil to absorb water, and (b) to

obtain a relative water-intake

rating for major soil types under

varying vegetative covers.

Methods and Materials

Simulated rainfall was applied

to a circular area of approxi-

mately 13 square feet by use of

a mobile infiltrometer. The test

plot for water-intake measure-

ments was 2 feet square and lo-

cated in the center of the area

receiving rainfall (Figure 2).

Under this arrangement, the test

plot was relatively free from the

influence of lateral water move-

ment. Water-intake rate was

measured as the difference be-

tween the rate of applied rain-

fall and the rate of measured

runoff. Surface detention, re-

tention, absorption, and inter-

ception by vegetation and mulch

material are included in the

measured intake but usually are

negligible after the first 15 to 30

minutes of the test.

Intensity of rainfall on the

test plot varied from 3.00 to 4.50

inches per hour. Rainfall was

applied to each plot for a l-hour

period and the amount of run-

off was determined at 15-minute

intervals which permitted eval-

uation of water intake by 15-,

30-, 45-, or 60-minute periods.

Rate of water intake during the

second 30-minutes was found to

be more stable than during ear-

lier periods and was believed to

be more nearly typical of con-

ditions during an actual storm.

This value was used along with

intake rate during the fourth 15-

minute period for all statistical

analyses.

All standing vegetation in the

test plot including previous

years’ growth was clipped

at

ground level one or two days

after the test. This material was

bagged, air-dried, and weighed,

and the yield computed

in

pounds per acre. All mulch ma-

terial on the test plot was col-

lected and yield determined in

the same manner.

Data for different range-con-

dition classes encountered were

grouped into two categories: ex-

FIGURE 1. Mobile raindrop applicator used to determine water-intake rates on rangelands.

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180 FRANK RAUZI

FIGURE 2. Two by two foot square plot exclosure with runoff spout attached as used in this study. The burlap on the spout is to absorb simulated rainfall to prevent splash into

the plot.

cellent and good ranges were grouped as “high” and fair and poor ranges as “low.” Range conditions and so i 1 s descriptions were obtained from Soil Conser- vation Service technicians in the areas studied.

Locations

Three sites studied in North Dakota were located in Williams County within a lo-mile radius of Williston in a lo- to 14-inch rainfall belt. Fenceline contrasts used were between rangelands rated in excellent and fair conditions (Figure 3). Soil texture was classed as loam. The dom-

inant grasses were western

wheatgrass (Agrop yron smithii), needle-and-thread (Stipa com- ata), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis).

Two of the four sites in Mon- tana were in McCone County in a lo- to 14-inch rainfall belt. One was located approximately 2 miles northeast of Circle, Mon- tana, and the- other approximately 15 miles west of the Wolf Point Bridge, south of the Mis- souri river. The two sites forming the fenceline contrast were rated in good and fair range condition (Figure 4) . Soil texture

was classed as silt loam. Western wheatgrass, needle-and-thread, and blue grama were again the dominant grasses. At the time of test this area was extremely dry and growth was very limited.

The other two sites in Mon- tana were in Glacier County in a 15-to 19-inch rainfall belt, one approximately 18 miles northwest of Browning and one ap-

proximately 2 miles east of East Glacier. The site northwest of Browning was a fenceline contrast rated excellent and poor. Soil texture was classed as loam. The site east of East Glacier was a fenceline contrast rated excellent and fair. Soil texture was classed as silt loam. Both sites are in the 15- to 19-inch- rainfall belt. Dominant grasses were rough fescue (Festuca sca- brella), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), and wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.). Shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilk fruticosa) was found on both the high and low range conditions along with several forbs, both annual and perennial.

Resulfs

Willisfon, North Dakota Area

In the Williston, North Dakota area average water-intake rate for the three sites during the second 30-minute period of the l-hour test was 3.02 inches per hour on the high-condition range and 1.14 inches on the low-condition range (Table 1). Average rate during the fourth 15-minute period was 2.88 inches per hour for the high condition range and 0.96 inch on the low-condition range.

FIGURE 3. Fenceline contrast at North Dakota Site 1, located approximately 6 miles

northeast of Williston, N. Dak. The contrast is between range in excellent and in fair

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WATER-INTAKE STUDIES 181

Table 1. Wafer-intake rate and pounds of forage and mulch per acre on rangelands in high and low range con- dition for three sites near Willisfon, North Dlakofa, 1956.

Site* Forage Range Condition Mulch

Intake Rate during l-hour Test of

Second 30-minutes Fourth 15Minutes

High Low High Low High Low High Low

Lbs. per Acre Lb. per Acre Inches per hour Inches per hour

1 3,030 880 2,280 1,070 2.76 1.41 2.64 1.28

2 3,020 650 2,020 1,570 3.11 0.81 2.96 0.56

3 2,410 770 3,280 990 3.19 1.20 3.04 1.00

Average 2,820 770 2,530 1,210 3.02 1.14 2.88 0.96

:% Each range condition had three test plots for a total of 6 plots per site.

There was an average of 2,820 pounds per acre standing vegetation at the time of test for the three sites rated in high condition and 770 pounds per acre for the sites rated in low condition. Sites rated in high condition had received limited or no use by livestock whereas two of the three sites rated in low condition were being utilized at the time of test and the other site was being rested for the year.

On these three sites the

amount of standing vegetation

and mulch present was quite

uniform within the two range

groups. Higher water-intake

rates were associated with the better cover conditions, which protected the soil from raindrop impact and thus prevented the sealing of the pore spaces which occurs on bare soil. A storm intensity of between 2.00 and 2.50 inches per hour for a 30-minute period would be expected to occur in this area once in five years (Yarnell, 1935). On the basis of the second 30-minute period of the l-hour test, rangelands rated in good condition would have sufficient cover to prevent major runoff from such a storm.

McCone County, Montana Area At the study areas in McCone County, Montana, water-intake rate during the second 30-minute period of the l-hour test on ranges rated in high condition was 1.41 inches per hour and 0.90 inch on ranges rated in low condition (Table 2) . During the fourth 15-minute period of the l-hour test, ranges rated in high

condition had a water-intake rate of 1.36 inches per hour com- pared to a rate of 0.76 inch on ranges rated in low condition.

Standing vegetation present at the time of test was 1,740 pounds per acre on the high-condition ranges and 620 pounds per acre on the low-condition ranges. To- tal cover, including mulch material, for the high-condition range was 3,090 pounds per acre and 1,230 pounds per acre on the low-condition range.

There was only 0.51 inch per hour difference between the two conditions during the second 30- minute period. This would tend to indicate that differences between range conditions for these two sites were not very great.

At the time of test the ranges rated in high condition had received little or no use, whereas those ranges rated in low condition were being utilized.

Glacier County, Montana Area At the Glacier County, Mon- tana sites water-intake rate averaged 2.19 inches per hour during the second 30-minute period of the l-hour test on the ranges rated in high condition and 0.88 inch for the ranges rated in low condition. During the fourth 15- minute period water-intake rate on the high condition range was 2.04 inches per hour and 0 inch on the low-condition range.

There was an average of 4,130 pounds per acre standing vegetation on the high condition

FIGURE 4. Fenceline contrast at Montana Site 2, located approximately 15 miles south

(14)

182

RAUZI

FIGURE 5. Fenceline contrast at Montana Site 4, east of East Glacier. Pasture on the left of the fence is used as winter pasture and rates in excellent condition. The pasture to

the right of the fence is rated in fair range condition.

range and 1,870 pounds per acre

on the low-condition range at

the time of test. Mulch material

averaged 5,740 and 2,030 pounds

per acre, respectively, for the

high and low range condition.

Ranges rated in high condition

had received no use from live-

stock at the time of test, as they

are used for winter pasturage.

The low-condition ranges were

being utilized at the time of test

(Figure 5) .

Multiple Regression Analyses

The data indicated that forage

yield and mulch seemed to be

related rather. closely to water

intake. To test this hypothesis,

individual plot data were ana-

lyzed by means of multiple re-

gression analysis to determine

the degree of association be-

tween the variables.

An analysis combining all sites

was made using water-intake

rate (fourth 15-minute period)

as the dependent variable (Y)

and forage yield X, (tons per

acre) and mulch X, (tons per

acre) as the independent vari-

ables. The correlation coefficient

for this analysis was R= 0.637,

which showed that the forage

yield and mulch accounted for

approximately 41 percent of the

variation in water-intake rates.

The regression equation (Ey =

0.2264 X, + 0.0170 X, + 0.14)

was statistically significant at

the 0.01 level. Partial correla-

tion coefficients for the inde-

pendent variables, forage yield,

r = 0.635, and mulch, r = 0.456,

indicate that both independent

variables contribute significant-

ly to the water-intake rate.

Since total regression

ac-

counted for only 41 percent of

the variation in water-intake

rates, the three different areas

(Williston, McCone, and Glacier

County) were analyzed separ-

ately to determine if a closer as-

sociation among the variables

existed for the individual areas.

Sites in the Williston area had

a correlation coefficient of R =

0.915, which indicated that vari-

ations in forage and mulch yield

accounted for 84 percent of the

variation in water-intake rate.

The regression equation (Ey =

0.4134 x, + 0.0229 x, + 0.09)

was statistically significant at

the 0.01 level. Partial correlation

coefficients for the independent

variables were for forage yield,

r = 0.914, and mulch, r = 0.575,

indicating again that both inde-

pendent variables contribute sig-

nificantly to water-intake rates

but that forage yield was more

closely related to water-intake

rates than was mulch.

The two sites in McCone

Table 2. Wafer-intake rate and pounds of forage and mulch per acre on rangeland in high and low range con- dition for four sites in Montana, 1956.

Mulch Intake Rate during l-hour Test of

Site* Forage Range Condition Second 30-minutes Fourth 15-minutes

High Low High Low High Low High Low

Lbs. per Acre Lbs. per Acre Inches per hour Inches per hour

McCone County ’

1 1,880 660 1,710 530 1.35 0.79 1.52 0.60

2 1,600 580 990 690 1.47 1.02 1.20 0.92

Average 1,740 620 1,350 610 1.41 0.90 1.36 0.76

Glacier County

3 3,890 1,360 5,470 2,970 1.80 0.71 1.56 0.42

4 4,380 2,380 6,000 1,100 2.59 1.05 2.64 1.00

Average 4,135 1,870 5,735 2,035 2.19 0.88 2.04 0.76

(15)

WATER-INTAKE STUDIES 183

County had a correlation coeffi- infiltration of rainwater and in absorb the maximum amount of cient of R = 0.672 indicating that

variation in forage yield and mulch accounted for 45 percent of the variation in water-intake rates. The regression equation

(Ey-0.1544X, + 0.980X, +

0.13) was not statistically significant but approached significance at the 0.5 level. Partial correlation coefficients for the independent variables were for forage yield: r = 0.658 was significant at the .05 level, and for mulch, r = 0.592, approached significance at the .05 level indicating that both independent variables contribute to water- intake rates.

The two sites in Glacier County had a correlation coefficient of R = 0.803, which showed that variation in yield and mulch accounted for 65 percent of the variations in water-intake rates. The regression equation (Ey = 0.1148 X, + 0.0864 X, + 0.01) was statistically significant at the 0.01 level. Partial correlation coefficients for the independent variables, forage yield, r = 0.749, and mulch, r = 0.756, indicate

that both of the independent variables contributed signif i- cantly to water-intake rates.

Further analysis showed that the three regressions were different and that the three areas represent three distinct popula-

tions. When the areas were

grouped together, only 41 percent of the variation in water- intake rates was accounted for by variation in amount of forage yield and mulch, but, when analyzed separately, from 45 to 84 percent of the variation was accounted for.

Discussion

These studies on water-intake rates on rangelands emphasize the importance of vegetation and mulch material in increasing the amount of rainfall absorbed by

the soil. Dyksterhuis and

Schmutz (1947) state that with few exceptions, mulches are the primary factor in determining

preventing erosion. The pastures rated in low condition had less water intake because too heavy use had decreased the amount of standing vegetation and mulch material, which bared the soil to the sealing action of the rain- drops. Duly and Domingo (1949) found that when the grass was clipped and the litter removed, water-intake rates were reduced because of a loss of the surface protection. Trampling by livestock probably contributed to the lower absorption capacity of the soil. Lassen et al. (1942) state that the principal effect of soil compaction, so far as soil- water relations are concerned, is the reduction of pore space and increase in soil density. As a result, ranges rated in high condition took in almost three times as much water as did the pastures rated in low condition

(Rauzi, 1956).

On two of the three areas studied, analysis showed that the amount of standing vegetation

present contributed more to

water intake than did the mulch material. Hopkins (1954) work- ing in Kansas found that mulch affected the water-intake rates but was not a controlling factor.

Hanks and Anderson (1957)

found that destroying the surface mulch by burning substan- tially decreased water intake on native bluestem pastures in Kan- sas. In Glacier County standing vegetation and mulch material contributed about equally to the intake rates.

Frequently during the sum-

mer months, torrential rains of high intensity but of short duration occur and result in exces- sive runoff and erosion. This is especially true on those rangelands not protected with a good cover of grass and mulch. Also, that portion of the precipitation that becomes runoff is lost, thereby reducing on-site produc- tiveness. It is therefore important that rangelands be man- aged so that they are able to

water from torrential rains to increase forage and reduce erosion.

Summary

Water-intake studies were

conducted with a mobile infiltrometer on rangelands at three locations in the northern plains. Two of the three areas (Willis- ton, North Dakota, and McCone County, Montana) are in the lo- to 14-inch-rainfall belt. The other area (Glacier County, Montana) is in the 15-to-19-inch- rainfall belt. Fenceline compari-

sons were made between pas-

tures rated in either a high or low range condition. Soil texture for th sites was either silt loam or loam.

Ranges rated in high condition absorbed almost three times as much water in the form of simulated rain as the low-condition ranges during the fourth 15-minute period of the hour test. Ranges rated in high condition had more standing vegetation and mulch material present at the time of test than did those rated in low condition.

Regression analysis was used to compare variations in water intake with variations in forage and mulch yield. An over-all regression of the three areas indicated that the relationship be-

tween water-intake rates and

amount of forage yield and

mulch was highly significant, but only 41 percent of the variation in water intake was accounted for. Individual regressions for each area were then computed and it was found that from 45 to 84 percent of the variation in water intake was accounted for by mulch and forage yield in the individual areas.

(16)

184 _RAUZI

Although significant relation-

ships between water-intake rates

and amount of forage yield and

mulch were established for all

areas, the individual regressions

for the different areas show a

closer degree of association

among the variables and there-

fore greater accuracy can be ob-

tained from their use.

DULEY, F. L. AND C. E. DOMINGO. 1949. Effect of grass on intake of water. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. 159: 1-15.

DYKSTERHUIS, E. J. AND E. M. SCHMUTZ. 1947. Natural mulches or “litter” of grasslands; with kinds and amounts on a southern prairie. Ecology 28:163-179.

HANKS, R. J. AND KLING L. ANDERSON. 1957. Pasture burning and moisture conservation. Jour. Soil and Water Cons. 12:228-229.

HOPKINS, HAROLD H. 1954. Effects of mulch upon certain factors of the

grassland environment. Jour.

Range Mangt. 7:225-258.

LASSEN, L., HOWARD W. LULL AND BERNARD FRANK. 1952. Some plant- soil water relations in watershed

management. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 910: l-64.

OSBORN, BEN. 1952. Storing rainfall at the grass roots. Jour. Range Mangt. 5: 408-414.

RAUZI, FRANK. 1956. Water infiltration studies in the Bighorn Na- tional Forest. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mimeo. Circ. 62: 1-7.

RAUZI, FRANK AND A. W. ZINGG. 1956. Rainmaker helps prove a theory. Soil Conservation. 21: 228-229-240. YARNELL, DAVID L. 1935. Rainfall intensity-frequency data. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 204: l-67.

The Nutrient Status of Four Mountain

Rangeland Soils in Western Nevada

and Eastern California1

RICHARD E. ECKERT AND A. T. BLEAK2

Range Conservationists, Crops Research Division, Agri- cultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Reno, Nevada, and Ephraim, Utah, respectively

Artificial revegetation of de-

pleted grazing lands on the

eastern slope of the Sierra Ne-

vada Range has resulted in vary-

ing degrees of success. Fair to

good stands have been attained

at elevations of 6,000-7,000 feet.

At elevations of 8,000-10,000 feet

the use of selected species and

approved planting methods have

resulted in good seed germina-

tion and emergence; however,

seedlings lacked vigor and grew

slowly.

Three-year-old

plants

often appeared to be seedlings

and produced herbage of less

than 100 pounds per acre. The

purpose of the study reported

here was to investigate the nu-

trient status of the soil, one of

1

This study was begun by A. T. Bleak while stationed at Reno, Nevada.

2 The authors wish to extend their appreciation to E. A. Naphen, of the Soil Conservation Service, for reviewing this manuscript and to Lou Langen, also of the Soil Con- servation Service, for collecting the Smith Valley soil.

the environmental factors which

may have been responsible for

the limited plant growth ob-

served.

Review of Literature

The various methods of deter-

mining the nutrient status of the

soil can be divided into two main

classes: chemical and biological.

The latter can be sub-divided

into two groups: those in which

certain microorganisms are used

as the test plants and those in

which higher plants serve as the

nutrient-extracting agent. (Van-

decaveye, 1948),

According to Vandecaveye

(1948)) some of the first pot-cul-

ture tests were conducted by

Boussingault in 1838. Also, ac-

cording to Vandecaveye (1948),

Mitscherlich, in 1930, placed this

type of investigation on a quan-

titative basis and studied the ef-

fect of a single factor on the

growth of plants. Jenny et al.

(1950) described the lettuce-pot

culture in which Romaine let-

tuce was the indicator plant and

the concept of relative yield was

used to compare treatment re-

sponse. Stephenson and Schu-

ster (1941) developed a pot-cul-

ture technique in which sun-

flower was used as the indicator

plant. The principle of this

method consists of vigorous ex-

traction of nutrients by massive

plant growth on a small quantity

of soil. Colwell (1943) used sun-

flower for determining boron-de-

f iciency

symptoms.

Billings

(1950) determined the nutrient

status of soil developed from

chemically altered rocks in wes-

tern Nevada. Indicator plants

were corn, sagebrush, and to-

bacco.

Vlamis et

al.

(1954) presented

a greenhouse assay of the nutri-

ent status of brushland soils in

southern California. A modif ied

Mitscherlich pot-testing tech-

nique was used and lettuce was

the test plant. The authors re-

ported that in general, the green-

house evaluation of fertility cor-

related fairly well with field es-

timation of the natural vegeta-

tive cover. Mondrzak-Rosenberg

(1958)) using the method of

Jenny et

al.

(1959), published

the results of pot-fertility trials

on Israel soils.

(17)

184 _RAUZI

Although significant relation-

ships between water-intake rates

and amount of forage yield and

mulch were established for all

areas, the individual regressions

for the different areas show a

closer degree of association

among the variables and there-

fore greater accuracy can be ob-

tained from their use.

DULEY, F. L. AND C. E. DOMINGO. 1949. Effect of grass on intake of water. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. 159: 1-15.

DYKSTERHUIS, E. J. AND E. M. SCHMUTZ. 1947. Natural mulches or “litter” of grasslands; with kinds and amounts on a southern prairie. Ecology 28:163-179.

HANKS, R. J. AND KLING L. ANDERSON. 1957. Pasture burning and moisture conservation. Jour. Soil and Water Cons. 12:228-229.

HOPKINS, HAROLD H. 1954. Effects of mulch upon certain factors of the

grassland environment. Jour.

Range Mangt. 7:225-258.

LASSEN, L., HOWARD W. LULL AND BERNARD FRANK. 1952. Some plant- soil water relations in watershed

management. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 910: l-64.

OSBORN, BEN. 1952. Storing rainfall at the grass roots. Jour. Range Mangt. 5: 408-414.

RAUZI, FRANK. 1956. Water infiltration studies in the Bighorn Na- tional Forest. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mimeo. Circ. 62: 1-7.

RAUZI, FRANK AND A. W. ZINGG. 1956. Rainmaker helps prove a theory. Soil Conservation. 21: 228-229-240. YARNELL, DAVID L. 1935. Rainfall intensity-frequency data. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 204: l-67.

The Nutrient Status of Four Mountain

Rangeland Soils in Western Nevada

and Eastern California1

RICHARD E. ECKERT AND A. T. BLEAK2

Range Conservationists, Crops Research Division, Agri- cultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Reno, Nevada, and Ephraim, Utah, respectively

Artificial revegetation of de-

pleted grazing lands on the

eastern slope of the Sierra Ne-

vada Range has resulted in vary-

ing degrees of success. Fair to

good stands have been attained

at elevations of 6,000-7,000 feet.

At elevations of 8,000-10,000 feet

the use of selected species and

approved planting methods have

resulted in good seed germina-

tion and emergence; however,

seedlings lacked vigor and grew

slowly.

Three-year-old

plants

often appeared to be seedlings

and produced herbage of less

than 100 pounds per acre. The

purpose of the study reported

here was to investigate the nu-

trient status of the soil, one of

1

This study was begun by A. T. Bleak while stationed at Reno, Nevada.

2 The authors wish to extend their appreciation to E. A. Naphen, of the Soil Conservation Service, for reviewing this manuscript and to Lou Langen, also of the Soil Con- servation Service, for collecting the Smith Valley soil.

the environmental factors which

may have been responsible for

the limited plant growth ob-

served.

Review of Literature

The various methods of deter-

mining the nutrient status of the

soil can be divided into two main

classes: chemical and biological.

The latter can be sub-divided

into two groups: those in which

certain microorganisms are used

as the test plants and those in

which higher plants serve as the

nutrient-extracting agent. (Van-

decaveye, 1948),

According to Vandecaveye

(1948)) some of the first pot-cul-

ture tests were conducted by

Boussingault in 1838. Also, ac-

cording to Vandecaveye (1948),

Mitscherlich, in 1930, placed this

type of investigation on a quan-

titative basis and studied the ef-

fect of a single factor on the

growth of plants. Jenny et al.

(1950) described the lettuce-pot

culture in which Romaine let-

tuce was the indicator plant and

the concept of relative yield was

used to compare treatment re-

sponse. Stephenson and Schu-

ster (1941) developed a pot-cul-

ture technique in which sun-

flower was used as the indicator

plant. The principle of this

method consists of vigorous ex-

traction of nutrients by massive

plant growth on a small quantity

of soil. Colwell (1943) used sun-

flower for determining boron-de-

f iciency

symptoms.

Billings

(1950) determined the nutrient

status of soil developed from

chemically altered rocks in wes-

tern Nevada. Indicator plants

were corn, sagebrush, and to-

bacco.

Vlamis et

al.

(1954) presented

a greenhouse assay of the nutri-

ent status of brushland soils in

southern California. A modif ied

Mitscherlich pot-testing tech-

nique was used and lettuce was

the test plant. The authors re-

ported that in general, the green-

house evaluation of fertility cor-

related fairly well with field es-

timation of the natural vegeta-

tive cover. Mondrzak-Rosenberg

(1958)) using the method of

Jenny et

al.

(1959), published

the results of pot-fertility trials

on Israel soils.

(18)

Table 1. Descripfion of study sites

- Annual

Precipi- Revege-

Eleva- tation tation

Site tion (inches) results

Smith Valley 4,750 7 5-6 tons of

hay per year

Dog Valley 6,300 15* Fair

MOUNTAIN RANGELAND SOILS 185

Sweetwater

Flat 7,200 12*

Border Ruffian 8,200 25*

Galena Creek 9,700 40”

Fair

Poor

*Estimated precipitation

fertility studies. Alfalfa and millet were the test plants. These workers concluded that for alfalfa and probably for a number of other plants, greenhouse fertility trials could be conducted in l- to S-gallon containers as ac- curately as in larger ones. Ter- man (1959) made a statistical

study of 141 greenhouse pot

teds. Corn, oats, wheat, red clover, millet, ryegrass, and su- dangrass were the test plants. Coefficients of variations were found to decrease with increase in yield. Three replications were found to be sufficient from the standpoint of accuracy. Statisti- cal relationships were similar whether a-gallon pots or No. 10 cans were used.

Methods and Materials Soil from each of four mountain sites was selected for study. Artificial revegetation had been attempted at each. In addition, one productive cultivated soil was included in the study as a basis for comparison. The five sites are described in Table 1.

Various chemical characteris- tics of the soils are given in Table 2. The pH of a saturated paste was obtained by a glass- electrode meter (method 21b of the U. S. Salinity Laboratory)

(1954). Electrical conductivity

Native vegetation (Reseedings in the timber

type

were in the brushy

barren openings) or

Artemisia tridentata (cropped since 1950)

Pinus jejjreyi, Ceanothus vel- utinus, Arctostaphylos pat&a, Artemisia tridentata

Artemisia tridentata, Chryso- thamnus viscidijlorus, Prunus and ersonii

Pinus contorta, Abies con- color, Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus spp., Lupinus spp., Pinus al bicaulis, Pinus contorta

_

of a saturation extract was used to appraise the soluble-salt content of the soils (methods 3a and 4b.) The organic-matter content of the soil was determined by the Walkley-Black method, total nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method,

cation-exchange capacity by the

ammonium acetate method, to-

tal-extractable calcium and potassium by the flame photometer method, and phosphorus by the sodium bicarbonate method, all as outlined by the Oregon State College Soil Testing Laboratory

(1954). Aluminum was evalu-

ated by the LaMotte method

(1952).

The pot fertility procedures used were adapted from those described by Jenny et al. (1950).

A sample of the surface 6 inches of soil was passed through a Y&inch mesh screen and 1600 grams of air-dry soil placed in 6-inch clay pots. These pots had been coated inside and outside with two layers of clear plastic. The ten treatments included in this experiment were replicated three times in a randomized- block design. The various treatment combinations are presented in Table 3.

Lime was added as hydroxide of lime; manure was processed

steer manure. Nitrogen was

added as ammonium nitrate,

P,O, as calcium dihydrogen phosphate, and K,O as potassium sulfate.

Lime, manure, and sulfur were mixed with dry soil. All other chemicals or mixture of chemicals were dissolved in water and the aqueous solution was mixed with the dry soil.

On May 14, 1956, five pre- soaked, sprouting Frontier bar- ley seeds were transplanted to one series of pots and one Ro- maine lettuce plant was transplanted to a second series of pots. Pots were weighed daily and sufficient water added to bring the soil to approximate field capacity. Any excess water was caught and used in the fol- lowing irrigation of the respec- tive pots. All pots were sprayed with malathion every 5-7 days for mite and aphid control. Each