BIA EDUCATION RESEARCH BULLETIN, YEAR1974
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 1974
Cultural Studies in Indian Education 1
Dave Warren
Indian Unemployment and Underemployment, Bureau of Indian 13 Affairs
Community Child Development, Akiachak, Alaska, Bethel Agency 15
Child Welfare Demonstration, Rosebud Sioux Indian Tribe 18 Word-Day Care project
Barbara McDonald
Dissertation Abstracts
Problem of Determining How Administration in Schools Serving 23 American Indian Children Perceived Their Role and the Role of Their
School in Educating these Children Samuel Billison
Student Assessment As a Means of Curriculum Adjustment At 24 Intermountain Indian School
Jerry L. Jaeger
Vol. 2, No. 2, May 1974
Group Differentiation of Teachers on the Papago Reservation: 25 A comparison of BIA and County Teachers
Larry Shafer
Student Dropout Study of Ft. Wingate High School 37 James M. Horton and Donald J. Annalora
Cultural Difference as a Basis for Creative Expression and 44 Educational Development
Lloyd H. New
Pine Ridge Reservation: Assessment of Educational Needs 48 Beverly L. Anderson
Dissertation Abstract
Teacher Perceptions Which Help Determine Educational Exceptionality in a Bisocial Setting
Robert E. Hall
Vol. 2, No. 3, September, 1974
Developments in Indian Education 60
Clennon E. Sockey
A National Action for Special Needs of Indian Children program 66 North American Indian Women’s Association
Teaching Oral Communication Skills to Indian Children 74 Clifton O. Johnson
Career Education in Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools 69 Frank Hall
We Can Do it: Academic Summer Program 80
CULTURAL STUDIES IN INDIAN EDUCATION
Dave Warren
An Overview Impression
From physical heights, whether Macchu Pichu, Xochicalco, the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, the Caracol at Chichen Itza, Puye, Tsikomo or Blue Lake, Indian cultural development can be seen in terms of change and yet continuity: language continues, structures in which ceremony takes place, socio-religious systems persist and sustain. In this manner one realizes how the past lives subtly in present expressions of individual and community life. At the same time, one sees the conjunction of many forces and trends that represent time line intersections where new directions may bgin to be taken but not severed from past paths.
While we cannot turn back to a previous time and revive all of the cultural features intact, much of the past can be understood and serve us in the use of traditional values, institutions, and other features of a legacy in the present and future. This realization how-ever, depends on how we understand the systems and values as functional in certain other times, with certain support features, still able to function in a later time. The form may change, but the content remains relatively unaltered.
To know the use of tradition in a later time we must know much about the forces that affect us as human beings generally and as part of unique cultural groups. We must comprehend the implications of culture as an evolving dynamic force highly adaptive and subject to countless internal and external forces constantly affecting modification and yet providing the flexibility for change.
Cultural Studies in Indian Education
For purposes of this discussion a very broad interpretation of "cultural studies" is necessary. One must not only consider the reason(s) why an emphasis on ethnic/cultural studies has occurred but, and perhaps most important, it is essential to understand how these studies must be applied in contexts of personal and community need. Further, if maximum benefit is to be realized from cultural studies and associated programs, there must be impact and meaning through such efforts in new approaches to educational programs at all levels of instruction. Cultural studies must be capable of providing insight and appreciation for cultural diversity between Indian and non-Indian, as well as among the American Indian people themselves. In line with these remarks, the following outline will serve as a general guide to the discussion: (1) cultural pluralism and its application in American Indian education; (2) response to cultural pluralism—programs and activities in the Indian community.
Concepts of Cultural Pluralism and its application in American Indian Education
curriculum must not be standardized.' The text books must not be prescribed. The teacher must be free to gather material from the life of the Indians about her, so that the little children may proceed from the known to the unknown and not be plunged into a world where all is unknown and unfamiliar. The little desert Indian in an early grade who is required to read in English from a standard school reader about the ship that sails has no mental background to understand what it is all about and the task of the teacher is rendered almost impossible. The material, particularly the early material, must come from local Indian life, or at least be within the scope of the child's experience (Ibid: 33).
Both the government and the missionaries have often failed to study, understand, and take a sympathetic attitude toward Indian ways, Indian ethics, and Indian religion. The exceptional government worker ... [has] demonstrated what can be done by building on what is sound in the Indian's own life (Ibid: 16).
The methods must be adapted to individual abilities, interests, and needs. Indian tribes and individual Indians within the tribes vary so greatly that a standard content and method of education, no matter how carefully they might be prepared, would be worse than futile (Ibid: 32).
The missionaries need to have a better understanding of the Indian point of view of the Indian's religion and ethics, in order to start from what is good in them as a foundation. Too frequently, they have made the mistake of attempting to destroy the existing structure and to substitute something else without apparently realizing that much in the old has its place in the new (Ibid: 50).
The foregoing remarks are found in the Meriam Report of 1928 and referred to studies conducted in Indian program administration, a situation that had become critical by the 1920s. A quick survey of recent recommendations as the Havinghurst, Kennedy Sub-Committee Hearings and other studies of Indian education will have an ironical familiarity with these passages. The Meriam Report resulted from an issues and concerns that many expressed over the manner in which Indian programs were administered; especially education. That issue had its origins institutionally and in policy beginning about 1867 when the Indian Peace Commission recommended to Congress certain measures for reducing Indian hostilities along the advancing frontier in the Western United States. Recommendations included programs that would replace Indian languages with English. Probably traditional institutions and culture identification were maintained through such language programs. Day schools, and by 1879, Carlisle Indian School, soon replaced mission school systems The off-reservation school system was established. With that system came maximum government control over education of the Indian. Contemporary and corollary events in socio-political areas were manifest in the 1887 Dawes Severalty Act which fragmented Indian land holding patterns, shifting from communal, tribal ownership to individual title holding patterns. The interpretation of motivations behind actions of those who saw these measures as necessary to bring Indian people into the greater society and those who were pragmatic politicians and/or militarists continues as the subject of great debate. However, for our purposes, the outcome was the same. Indian culture, language, traditions and strong sinews of connection with family or tribal traditions were either cut or severely altered by these acts.
the manner in which indigenous civilizations of America have been portrayed and considered as subjects of study in history, anthropology, behaviroal sciences, and other academic disciplines. These and other disciplines have done much to influence the development of textbooks, teacher training and other education programs. To a certain extent policies underlying programs dealing with the Indian people also have been affected by academic studies.
To understand this development of theory, one authority and his work may illustrate the character of study that marked early research and writing about American Indians.
The noted anthropologist, Paul Radin wrote in 1927 (interestingly coincidental to the Meriam Report):
"When a modern historian desires to study the civilization of any people, he regards it as a necessary preliminary that he divest himself, as far as possible, of all prejudice and bias. He realizes that differences between cultures exist, but does not feel that it is necessarily a sign of inferiority that a people differs in custom from his own. There seems, however, to be a limit to what an historian treats as legitimate difference, a limit not always easy to determine (Radin, 1957: ix) [emphasis added].”
The term `uncivilized' is a very vague one, and it is spread over a vast medley of peoples, some of whom have comparatively simple customs'and other extremely complicated ones (loc cit)."
Radin went on to discuss the importance of social Darwinism, combined with a certain amount of romanticism, that often distorted the concepts of culture.
"Within one hundred years of the discovery of America, it had become an ineradicably established tradition that all the aborigines encountered by the Europeans were simple, untutored savages from whom little more could be expected than from ... children, individuals who were ... slaves of their passions, of which the dominate one was hatred. Much of this tradition ... has persisted to the present day [i.e., 1927] (Ibid: x). The fundamental position taken during these years was based on the doctrine that ...primitive peoples represent an early stage in the history of the evolution of culture (loc cit)."
Radin was occupied with the philosophical thought of primitive man. In this investigation he presented a principle that remains near axiomatic as one considers basic characteristics necessary in the evaluation of any "civilization". Radin considered legitimate philosophical systems did indeed function in all societies; to a great extent the issue was irrelevant to matters of complexity or primitiveness of society. "Complexity of civilization has . . . comparatively little to do with the existence of such formulations [language, systemic categories, etc.]. Indeed a complex civilization may very well stifle the urge to philosophize where it does not actually prohibit it (Radin, 1952: xxiv)."
which began in Western Europe with Plato and Aristotle (Ibid: xxv)." Finally, he com-mented: "At the bottom of all these theorists as well as many of the ethnologists whose data they have used, whether they admit it to themselves or not, predicate a special kind of mentality for all but the Greeks and their cultural descendants (Ibid: xvi)."1
While these statements tend to oversimplify a highly complex subject, we should be able to agree that pragmatic and scientific forces have combined to form a collective set of limiting factors in considering the status, role and vitality of American Indian cultures. From such forces and influences emerge unfortunate limitations on the appreciation of Indian cultures, history and society.
From premises patently stated or tacitly understood, a host of qualifying factors enter the consideration of American Indian society and its place in national or world civilization. The result is myopic and destructive not only to the concerns of Indian community but to the greater society which loses much of the enrichment and perspective that comes from acceptance of pluralism that includes Indian contributions in society and cultural development.
Interestingly, some of the great achievements in European culture set up fundamental propositions which later conflicted with the institutions and ethics of the American Indians. The Enlightenment is significant for the reversal of medieval orientations of mortal man and temporal society to religion. From the Middle Ages, dominated by the church, all events in human existence were ultimately interpreted in terms of man's rewards or punishments in the eyes of God. With scientific discoveries and accompanying philosophical treatise of the Age of Reason, man became the center of the universe and the manipulator of all natural forces. Later, the Protestant Ethic, the consideration of salvation by determination through the "elect", often measured by accumulation of material wealth, established the foundation for colonial societal attitudes toward the Indian. Issues were immediately defined which would separate the two peoples. Use and "ownership" of land; concepts of justice and due process, religious matters, race, other factors which ultimately emerged as qualifications for membership in the family of man, much less nations, developed.2
The legacy of those historical forces resulted in myth of the "melting pot" as the ideal for American Society. The melting pot was never recognized as antithetical to a more
realistic and healthy acceptance of pluralism in our society. Part of that ideal was the value judgment that all institutional and cultural development of the United States, or for that
1
For an important discussion on evaluation of culture see Keith H. Basso and Ned Anderson, "A Western. Apache Writing System: The Symbols of Silas John," Science Vol. 180 (June 1973), pp. 1013-1022 and Edward H. Spicer, Raymond H. Thompson, eds. Plural Society in the Southwest (New York, 1972).
2 For a thorough analysis of European thought, scientific and philisophical, on the New World see, Antonello
matter, the Western Hemisphere, must come directly and lineally from Wetern European historical tradition. Serious, sensitive but specialized scholars have long maintained that the formula for deciding the validity of American civilization is not exclusively determined by linkage with European or Western heritage. These students consistently recognized the unique characteristics of individual cultures and the greater need to study, in depth, the inter-action of all groups to better understand their significance in a broader scope of national growth. Until recently the greater study of effects of contact between European and American Indian civilizations has been conducted in Latin American history and
anthropology. Various reasons may exist for this characteristic of research and publication. More extensive interdisciplinary investigation such as the early work of the Carnegie
Institution in Maya studies brought history, anthropology and other disciplines into mutually acceptable and profitable relationships. Many archeological investigations were significantly assisted by archival research. Further, from the outset there seems to be more concern with Iberian institutions, social, political, legal, religious, with the Indian cultural systems encountered. (In this regard, literature based on native historical tradition and utilizing human resources directly related to the native community.) In short, more of the
ethnohistorical approach seems to mark Latin American history as it is related to American Indian life.3 The ideas and statements of these men somehow were lost enroute to writing materials for a general reading or publication of survey texts and for use in teacher training. With few exceptions, the universal society theme continued to dominate concepts and formats of writing on American history.
Response to Cultural Pluralism: Programs and Activities in the Indian Community
In 1968, the National Congress of American Indians, meeting in Omaha, Nebraska, passed Resolution 17 which urged all educational agencies and organizations to remove materials that were prejudicial to Indian culture. Further, the NCAI recommended that there be a strong effort to replace such information with valid materials that:
"represents Indians as they actually were and are, knowing ... that such materials will improve public reactions to Indians and create an increasing sense of pride in the Indian people themselves."
NCAI concern and recommendations were not new. As early as 1928 (again, contemporary to the Meriam Report), the Grand Council Fire of American Indians, formed
3
For illustration of these remarks, some recommended examples of works include: H H. Bancroft, Native Races (5 vols. 1882-1883), History of Mexico (6 vols., 1884-1888); Edward Spicer, Cycles of Conquest (1962); Zelia Nuttal, The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilization (1901); George Foster, Culture and Conquest (1960); France V. Scholes and Ralph Roys, The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel (1948, 1968): Miguel Leon-Portilla. La filosofia Nahuatl (1959); Angel Maria Garibay, Historia de la literature Nahuatl (2 vols., 1954); Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule ... 1518-1810 (1964); Benjamin Keen, The Aztec Image in Western Thought (1972); Alfred Tozzer. Landa's Relation de las cosas de Yucatan (1961); an interesting article has appeared recently also, Colin Mac-Lachlan, "The Indian Directorate: Forced
by Indian persons living in Chicago, criticized the educational literature used in the city schools as less than accurate or fair. More recently, Congress has heard familiar criticism and old issues raised. In 1969, the Report of the Committee on Labor and Public. Welfare, U. S. Senate, in its Special Subcommittee on Indian Education, intoned again the Meriam Report pointing to the failure of textbooks to deal adequately with American Indian history and culture. The Havighurst Report continues these concerns and recommendations. The American Indian Historical Society, an organization entirely administered by Indian people, published a comprehensive study on the inadequacy of current texts in dealing with Indian history. This study, Textbooks and the American Indian, includes 270 pages of evaluations, recommended readings and other pertinent data on selection and appraisal of the literature. Under the guidance of Will and Lee Antell, the Department of Indian Education, State of Minnesota, in conjunction with the University of Minnesota published a key document, American Indians, An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Library Resources, 1970, which combines criteria for materials (all media) evaluation, with resource information (bibliographies, filmographies, etc.) and the human resources of the State of Minnesota and support agencies that can provide funding or other consultant assistance for educational programs that recognize cultural needs in teacher training, curriculum development and materials development. It is a definitive model for resource guides and evaluation.
More recently, achievements have been made in further development of culturally pertinent instructional material. While quite numerous, we can select a few of these projects as the representative of the trend now gaining momentum through the nation.
Local/Community Projects
Beginning with early projects such as the Montana Reading Center series, under John Woodenlegs, Northern Cheyenne culture has been disseminated more broadly to all communities in a literature series. Similar efforts have taken place among the Cherokee who have produced stories and legends for publication fot a number of years. Combined efforts of the Western History Center, University of Utah, the Uintah Ouray Tribe and the Uintah School District, led to the publication of a textbook, Ute People, An Historical Study, in 1970. This project demonstrated the manner in which university, public school, tribal authorities, parents and pupils could cooperate in a major undertaking for the betterment of education information about Indian culture, in this case, the Ute people.
Through the assistance of the Doris Duke Oral History Centers (Utah, Oklahoma and Arizona Universities, principally), the Bureau of Indian Affairs has worked with the Zuni, Southern Ute, Nez Perce, Cheyenne-Arapaho and Paiute-Shoshone in the publication of texts on the history and/or literature of these peoples.4
While the immediate objective of the publications programs is to bring about new and more representative literature for study of American Indian culture and history, a larger, more significant goal also exists: through a survey of the existing literature about themselves,
4
complemented and enriched by materials being derived through such publications projects, each tribe rightfully should become the expert about its history and culture. Through experiences of research, writing, editing and publication, the tribes develop a community expertise that serves in educational leadership and consultant roles for teacher training, curriculum development and continuing projects in education materials production. The Library Project of the National Indian Education Association achieves similar results in developing community level expertise and definitions of programs, including culturally relevant materials in resource centers.
Regional/State Programs
Efforts of Indian communities in cultural programs include those of the Yakima Education Consortium, Lummi Tribal History Project, Intertribal Council of Nevada History and Culture program. Similar achievements in developing materials and organizing programs to implement cultural resources are found at: Fort Apache Cultural Center; Hopi Culture Center, Second Mesa, Arizona; Tewa Language Program, San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico; the Northern Cheyenne Research and Human Development Asociation, Ashland, Montana; United Tribes of North Dakota Development Corporation and many others. Individuals such as Mr. Isadore Tom, Mr. Tom Shakespear and others have written tribal histories and other materials representing the continuing and growing movement in resource materials development among the Indian people of the United States. The Navajo Curriculum Center has long engaged in production of materials. They have available a list of numerous publications. The subjects include linguistic manuals, a two volume history of the Navajo tribe, and a volume of biographies of famous outstanding Navajo leaders. Instructional materials and training programs are concommitants of the publications activity.
A comprehensive listing of these projects and programs is beyond the requirements and scope of this paper. It is sufficient to cite these few examples which can be duplicated many times more in Indian publications, and other cultural studies projects. Complementing these achievements are programs including American Indian Historical Society, Ford Foundation program with American Indian Organization, Center for Study of American Indian History (Newberry Library) and others. Works by Indian authors, including Pulitzer Prize Winner, N. Scott Momaday, Vine Deloria, Alfonso Ortiz, D'Arcy McNickle, and others highlight the literary activity now commonplace among the Indian community.
Community Centers
facilities to active publications houses or similar programs which continue to build on the almost limitless human and material resources of the community.
The final results of community and regional programs as those briefly outlined above are impossible to forecast; however, based on the development of organized cultural materials programs such as these projects demonstrate some of the programs that could evolve include:
1. Writing of original histories, studies on value systems. The Inter-American Indian
Institute of Mexico publishes a series entitled, "Legacy of the Americas" (El Legado de las Americas). It covers the philosophical thought of Mexican and South American Indian civilizations before and after the Spanish contact. The series offers insight into the Indian mind and consideration of the "other side" of an historical development. It is hoped we can establish a major publication counterpart to that series in our country.
2. Studies on Indian government, legal systems. To understand recent issues involving
Pueblo Indians' desires to be exempted from the 1968 Civil Rights legislation (Public Law 90-284, Title II), one must study the legal philosophy and traditional institutions of Pueblo government to comprehend what the Civil Rights legislation can mean to the survival of basic institutions that sustain Pueblo culture. One need only read tribal testimony given before subcommittee hearings on this issue to realize how serious Federal legislation threatens a total way of life. It is also clear from these tribal statements that the Pueblo people can eloquently speak on the issues. Records and use of such material serve both Indian and non-Indian in evaluating current Indian culture. Cultural interpretions of legal treatises such as Felix Cohen's Handbook on Federal Indian Law would be facilitated through thoughts expressed in such testimony.
3. Linguistic Information. The richness of Indian languages should be placed on tape
and typescript for use by student and teacher. The unique characteristics of an Indian language can give the perceptive teacher some insight into the broad area of psycho-linguistics. Second language instruction may benefit from such information. Need for this type of study and material is also cogently stated by Milton Bluehouse who wrote in the first issue of Contemporary Indian Affairs (Navajo Community College Press, 1970), and in relation to teaching the Navajo language, support for native language programs should be given to meet three objectives (1) dignity and identity, (2) better understanding of child psychology, and (3) practical advantage in daily communication.
4. Indian literature. Such oral and written traditional information may provide a means
for students to hear the legends and history of their people. In the absence of an elder who is no longer able to pass on this information, as in the days of old, such material may be of great value. Content themes which include traditional folk tales, recollections of historical events, intertribal relations, contemporary problems of youth, generation gap, reminiscences of reservation life, oratory, ceremonies, personal life histories all have great significance for the potential Indian novelist, or historian. And for the student, simply motivated by personal interest in his cultural origins. Such material has special importance. One need only read materials such as Can the Red Man Help the White Man? A Denver Conference with the Indian Elders (Sylvester M. Murey, ed., New York, 1970) to appreciate the significance of traditional views on philosophy and values among Indian people.
boards, the next step will be to change curriculum and instructional material to accurately reflect Indian culture. Cultural materials such as represented by oral histories, in finished texts like the Navajo, Ute, Zuni and other series publications, can be provided school districts and teachers. Workshops, sponsored by tribes, state, local boards of education, universities, Bureau of Indian Affairs can be instrumental in effecting change.
New Approaches inherent to these programs will require greater interdisciplinary efforts, suggest basic educational outcomes as:
a. Balanced and accurate representations of Indian culture in American and world history. Mutual respect and understanding between Indian and non-Indian should be based on a recognition of the special nature of societies, religion, governments, and other institutions found in the American Indian world. It is ironic that we sometimes study so-called primitive life to solve crises of modern society. Studies have been funded to study pre-Colombian agricultural techniques in Colombia, Peru, and the Southwestern United States to determine how the early inhabitants conserved the environment. In such studies may rest solutions to ecological problems that face America today. We are beginning to realize the greatness of urban development in ancient America. Few persons, other than specialists, realize there were Indian cities in the most modern sense of the word. At the Mayan site of Dzibilchaltun, dating from the first millennium A.D., grew from a city of 8 sq. km. in 600 B.C. to a metropolis of 125,000 people, covering 20 sq. km. by A.D. 600. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco, had a population of 300,000 at the time of Spanish contact. A virtual "megalopolis" may have existed along the Pajarito Plateau and other Pueblo areas of the Ancient Southwest.
In South America, other urban centers included many similar advanced developments. ChanChan, the capital of Mochica of the Chimu Empire, is the most extensive and best known. It covered over 18 sq. km. and had a population of 50,000 estimated. Adobe walls 9 meters high, 3 meters thick at the base divided the city into 10 large sectors. The city contained houses, pyramids, public buildings, streets, parks, cemeteries and even garden plots and stone-lined reservoirs. The epic proportions of the Inca civilization and Empire are well known. (Meggers, 1972: 85)
The achievements of American Indian civilization in mathematics, science, medicine, social organization, military genius, political organization, architecture, agriculture, oratory, and literature should be more generally and firmly established through new works at the primary, secondary, and higher educational levels. An extremely rich store of literature should be placed in all comparative literature programs.
be considered as part of the total American (Western Hemispliere) culture to understand the people and provide intelligent programs that consider and respect particular values and yet accommodate to present forces of change. Through greater interdisciplinary studies, involving maximum Indian contributions, symbols and parts of the total culture may be better understood. If this is accomplished we may provide a way for educators, legislators, and others to, as Bernard Fontana, University of Arizona, observes, "... understand what human life is rather than promoting a limited view of what [one thinks] Indian lives should be" (Fontana, 1968: 12). In short, an understanding of the value systems that characterize American Indian people can be achieved.
c. Understand cultural value systems and world views: As Dr. Edward Dozier, a Tewa,
observed there are differences in conceptualizing philosophical, religious and other systems that exist among Indian people.
In his discussions, Dr. Dozier contrasted the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona with western man. A lineal "cause and effect" system of knowledge and its structural counterparts in institutions or attitudes marks the western European heritage. Dozier points out the "interrelated wholes", many-faceted, views of life characterize the Pueblo World View. Dualism, in the latter sense, is not so much good versus evil as it is that two correlated elements operate in a balanced universe (moiety systems are classic illustrations of this description of the Pueblo structure in government, social and religion-ceremonial life). Each part is seen as necessary to the other; neither subordinate to the other (Dozier, 1970: 112). Through development of materials derived from the tribal community, one can gain insight and understanding to the basic values of another, non-western thought and philosophical system.
d. Curriculum changes that honor the value of cultural difference and deal with the fact of a pluralistic society in America.
e. Bring about changes in teacher training through preservice and inservice training programs or institutes which utilize the original materials developed by the Indian people. Institutes of this type have been held in increasing numbers throughout the Indian community. The training of aspiring teacher and faculty in university schools of education should be a target of this component.
What may be ultimately achieved by projects and programs of this nature may be better understood by means of an incident reported in the writings of Benjamin Franklin. Franklin referred to an offer made by the Government of Virginia to the Six Nations in 1774. In response to an offer to send six Indian youths to Williamsburg College, the Indian leaders replied:
we decline accepting it; and to show our grateful sense of it, if the Gentlemen of Virginia will send us a dozen of their sons, we will take great care of their education, instruct them in all we know, and make men of them" [quoted in (Adams, 1966)
These remarks have great significance in any development of basic understanding of need and objectives in cultural studies programs. The comprehension of and respect for cultural difference in values and needs must be achieved before programs are initiated. Once the understanding is achieved, a new stage in developing texts, teaching techniques and curriculum may be at hand. If the cultural resources which exist within the Indian community can be brought forth, we may be able to understand and appreciate the observation of the French anthropologist, Claude Levi-Strauss, who wrote:
"The paradox is irresoluble: the less one culture communicates with another, the less likely they are to be corrupted...: but on the other hand, the less likely it is, in such conditions, that the respective emissaries of these cultures will be able to seize the richness and significance of their diversity" (Levi-Strauss, 1964:45).
The next step in the educational process is to educate each other. The future of the American Indian people will be determined to a large extent on the acquisition of skills to live in a rapidly changing technological society. What Indian persons in the days ahead will be depends perhaps more greatly on what we retain as the record of American Indian culture developed and passed on by the Indian people themselves. Through university and more Indian community participation, the record could be a means of establishing better understanding between Indians and non-Indians, and perhaps more important, among the Indian tribes and groups in current American society. The development of materials and programs, based on the information provided by the Indian people can take many forms and be conveyed through many processes such as we have mentioned above. Whatever form or process used in finding, organizing and distributing this information, the oral tradition and its literary-historical contribution to world culture makes possible an approach through which cultural confusion may be somewhat resolved. Established through the investigation and evaluation of these materials and living statements is the clear identity of the American Indian to himself and to others. Such identity can do much to define direction for the future because we have defined origins.
Once again, this issue must be seen in even wider arenas of concern. Our era in many ways is on a threshold of great decision. The acceleration of technology has not brought satisfying resolutions of human issues, indeed we have found perhaps more dehumanization of society as a result of pure technological advance. In the words of a popular best seller today, we are in the midst of the "Advanced Identity Society." This society centers on the identity and interrelationships of individual human beings—which in the final analysis is the case for a fully developed cultural studies research and applied program. It is imperative to realize the full potential of a pluralistic society as the following passage clearly states:
of nature for human benefit... [is] confronted with the challenge of bending culture to his needs. If he is successful, culture, the creator, and man, the created, will become blended; man will be molded by the human conscience. The result will permit man to influence his own biological, social, cultural, and psychological reproduction, and to shape himself by his own plan" (Ribeiro, 1968: 149).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1966 Adams, Donald K. (ed.). Introduction to Education: A Comparative Analysis. Belmont, California.
1970 Dozier, Edward. The Pueblo Indians of North America. Dallas.
1968 Fontana, Bernard L. "Savage Anthropologists and Unvanishing Indians in the American Southwest." Paper read at the 67th Meeting of the American. Anthropological Association. [Unpublished Ms.]
1964 Levi-Strauss, Claude. Tristes Tropiques. Antheneum, New York.
1928 Meriam, Lewis, at al. The Problem of Indian Administration: Summary and Recommendations. Washington, D. C.
1972 Meggers, Betty J. Prehistoric America. Chicago.
1957 Radin, Paul. Primitive Man as a Philosopher. Dover Publication, Inc. [Reprint of
1927 Edition].
COMMUNITY CHILD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
Bethel Agency Akiachak, Alaska
The Community Child Development Program is basically an Early Childhood Education project which is funded through the Bureau of Indian Affairs regular program and the Title III ESEA
program.
The Akiachak project was designed primarily for the purpose of establishing an Early Childhood Demonstration Unit whose activities would be directed to the development of a home-centered educational program which would serve approximately twenty (20) pre-kindergarten children in the two to four year old age group and including their mothers. The ultimate goals of the project are the assurance that each child would be placed in a more advantageous position for later school participation and learning and parental participation would reflect an increase in participation.
The following are the primary objectives of the project:
1. The establishment of a mother-child demonstration unit for two to four year olds. 2. Orientation of the Akiachak Community as to the purposes and functions of an Early
Childhood Demonstration Unit.
3. Orientation and training of project personnel and the Early Childhood Resource
Council in program design, curriculum development and program operation.
4. Develop programs and methods relevant to the Alaskan Native Community which
would contribute to the development of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor growth of the Alaskan Native child.
5. Develop materials and models relevant to the local community which could be used
in the Native home environment.
The initial phase of the program involved the orientation and training of the project personnel relative to human growth and development particularly from zero to five years of age and for the development (particularly from zero to five years of age) and for the development of instructional materials considered relevant to the local community (which would be applicable to the Native environment).
The program places emphasis and supports the premise that the mother as the child's first teacher in the early formative years must be better prepared to perform this necessary and important function.
Lessons are designed to improve the child's ability in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor areas. Among the activities the child will participate in are the following developmental experiences:
1. Language development with teacher, mother and child.
2. Use of sensory modalities in child learning experiences for eidetic recall. 3. Stories and dramatic play in groups in the development of self concepts. 4. Simple and definite routines in care of self that are appropriate to the age level. 5. Psychomotor activities for large muscles in individual and group play.
6. Psychomotor manipulation with form boards, blocks, clay and painting.
Since the early formative years of a child's life are most crucial this project seeks to stimulate an interest and a focus of attention on the early childhood educational needs.
This project has completed two years of operation and has been evaluated and audited. The first evaluation dealt with the project design and training. The second evaluation dealt with the implementation of the project. Evaluation was performed by Dr. Leon Paulson, Reading Research, Monmouth, Oregon, and the audit was conducted by Dr. J. K. Southard, Coordinator of C.D.A. assessment South West Region of the Office of Child Development, Dallas, Texas.
Conclusions and Recommendations of evaluation audit:
1. The training phase of the project has passed into the operational phase for the two and three year old program of the project.
2. The community E.C.R.C. (Early Childhood Resource Council) has been involved in the project at the orientation and dissemination level.
3. The evaluation has progressed according to schedule.
The audit also expressed some needs.
1. Program needs to be developed for four year olds.
2. Project tasks/training need to be developed for junior high school student involvement.
3. Specialized training for staff, diagnosis and programmatic prescriptions need to be
implemented to meet special education requirements of some/all children.
4. Specialized training in nutritional aspects of child rearing needs to be provided for staff.
5. "Daily Guide to Child Life" need to be completed.
6. Special training in policy making functions of an operational board needs to be provided for the E.C.R.C.
7. Research needs to be conducted to more effectively determine programatic effect on
families, children and community.
In conclusion, the project has a good beginning. The auditor has stated on numerous occasions that of all the projects with which he has been acquainted the Community Child Development Program in Akiachak, Alaska, has the greatest potential to make an impact on education and is the most innovative he has seen in the nation.
CHILD WELFARE DEMONSTRATION
ROSEBUD SIOUX INDIAN TRIBE WORK-DAY CARE PROJECT
Barbara McDonald
Consultant in Early Childhood Education
12,000 Sioux live on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota. The unemployment rate is a whopping 64% and the average income is under $2,000.00 per year. The Rosebud Sioux are a very industrious and dignified people who wish to become self-supporting. They readily explain that they want a better life style for their children—this means employment and education. They have devised a long range plan to create Tribal-owned industries to provide job opportunities together with the desperately needed Day Care for their young children while parents are employed. The Indian people have a beautiful saying, "As the duckling hatches from the egg, it follows anything that moves." This is as relevant today as when first spoken and reveals their own belief in the importance of a child's early childhood education. Thus, they are convinced that employment and quality day care are tied together. What a pleasure to work with families who are vitally interested in both!
So, the Rosebud Sioux Tribe established two tribal-owned factories, Rosebud Electronics and Lakota Wood Products, located geographically close together. People quickly filled the job openings. However, the Factory Managers and the Tribal Leaders soon discovered that they could not expand the small work force or increase productivity for each worker when adequate day care was non-existent. What parent can go to work worrying about his or her child under six years of age? Also, please remember that the South Dakota winter climate is cold and harsh. The Sioux living quarters are spread out widely on this large reservation. Transportation is an ever present problem, especially in the winter. However, the factories had more business potential if expansion were possible. The Tribe planned more businesses but was blocked by lack of day care. At this point, in October of 1972, they called me for consultation and we began our work together which has evolved steadily over the months. I am attaching an original history of the Project which I prepared after our initial community survey and series of meetings with community leaders.
The high unemployment rate is being reduced but there is desperate need for federal funding for the Work-Day Care Plan if the Tribe is to move any further.
We found a large number of children needing day care throughout Rosebud. Parents were very enthusiastic about the Head Start programs but these only serve children on a half-day basis on Rosebud. Families needed and wanted quality child care on an all-half-day basis. We had many subsequent meetings to plan a bicultural, bilingual program with auxiliary services from the community. So many people are willing to help if we only had the necessary fund-ing to move ahead!
My plan was completed, theoretically, to provide Day Care on Rosebud in three parts: Day Care Centers to offer early childhood education and day care for the two to five year old children, Satellite Family Day Care Homes with a maximum of five children in each Home to offer good child care for the children under two years of age and for the children whose families prefer this form of care, and Emergency Homes to offer care for children who become ill during the day and need care until parents can arrive from the factories. A drawing and description are attached. The Staff are to be as well trained in early childhood education and allied fields as possible. The Staff in each type of facility are to be part of the total Rosebud Day Care Services umbrella agency. They are all to receive training and preparation for their work. The Satellite and Emergency Care Mothers are to be paid hourly and supplied with necessary equipment. They are all to feel a part of the Rosebud Day Care Services Staff, attending training sessions, staff meetings, and parent meetings together. South Dakota Licensing Standards and Federal Interagency Day Care Standards are to be met. A Board of Directors representing interested persons in the community, including a parent representative, is to be appointed. Good publicity is to be presented in the community to inform people about the Rosebud Work-Day Care Program. We set up plans with the Public Health Service to provide public health nursing service on a regular basis, visual and audio screening tests, ambulance service in case of emergency, and medical and dietetic consultation. The Bureau of Indian Affairs offered social services to us for referrals— families and children who could benefit from counseling. The Wood Products Factory Manager offered to have some equipment made to our specifications. He also arranged for a land mark service badly needed—a small bus to transport adults and children from their homes to the factories and future day care buildings. With all this help and cooperation, we are determined to make a beginning, but, lack of money was such a problem.
visit their children during the lunch hour. Since we wanted to meet Standards, there is only adequate space for 18 children in the building. We are separating the children into maturity groups with their own teachers. The Two Year Olds are participating in a particularly relaxed development program in very small groups since they are so young, but there was pro-nounced need for Two Year Old inclusion. The emotional atmosphere in this family home building is very pleasant. Mrs. Wagner hired her staff and was able to select those most interested in young children because of the great lack of job availability on Rosebud. We place competency of Staff as first on our priority list, and also hire Staff of Sioux heritage. She also hired a Satellite Family Day Care mother whose home is close by. We worked for a varied selection of basic equipment and the kitchen outfitting. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is helping to fund the food service and kitchen equipment At this point, they have 18 children enrolled in the Day Care Center (capacity full) and the full five children in the Satellite Family Day Care Home, a capable Staff, an attractive building, a minimum of equipment but of a developmental type, a community anxious to enroll more children, and support from the Tribal Council but a depletion of funds.
I was on Rosebud in May, 1973 to teach the first Training Session. I can honestly say that the Staff was so attentive and anxious to learn Child Development principles and teaching techniques that I will always remember them. I prepared an individualized Rosebud Day Care Services Teachers Manual for each Staff Member to use and keep. We shared ideas on bicultural and bilingual teaching methods. They plan to make Sioux Indian dolls and a set of educational slides on the Rosebud program. The Staff also devised a beautiful Sioux symbol for the parent-child joint participation in the Rosebud Day Care Program. Mrs. Wagner worked from the base of my suggested enrollment forms, medical forms, and teacher application forms to devise those which are unique to Rosebud needs. The Staff has written to interpret program aims to parents, to describe activities during the day, and to encourage whole family participation. They all seem to be expressing their own belief in quality day care tailored to suit Rosebud family needs.
PROBLEM OF DETERMINING HOW ADMINISTRATORS IN SCHOOLS SERVING AMERICAN INDIAN CHILDREN PERCEIVED THEIR ROLE AND THE ROLE OF THEIR
SCHOOL IN EDUCATING THESE CHILDREN
Samuel Billison
This investigation was concerned with the problem of determining how administrators in schools serving American Indian children perceived their role and the role of their school in educating these children. The problem arose out of (1) the recognition that the school administrator occupies a crucial position in determining educational policy, and (2) a clear need to provide quality education to all American Indian youth. The latter of these two goals appears not to have been reached, since the American Indians' formal education level is half that of the national average.
The problem was subdivided into a series of six related questions. These included: (1) What was the belief system of administrators concerning the nature of American Indians? (2) What motivated the administrators to want to administer in schools serving American Indians? (3) Did the professional preparation of school administrators affect their perception of Indian education? (4) How much opportunity did school administrators provide for Indian participation in school decisions? (5) What changes in school programs serving Indian children did school administrators feel were necessary? and (6) What did the school administrators feel the goal of American Indian education to be?
The investigation was conducted during the academic year 1968-69 and involved fifty-two administrators of schools serving American Indians in eight states. The instrument used in gathering the data was an open-ended interview schedule of twenty-three questions. The content of the schedule was derived from the six sub-questions of the problem and was administered personally by the interviewers. A model was constructed, based on the six sub-questions in order to better organize the interview schedule and to make an analysis of the data from these interviews. This model was useful in organizing and demonstrating the interaction of the various administrators' perceptions.
The belief systems of a significant majority of the administrators of schools serving American Indians were grounded on very limited specific knowledge of Indian tribal groups. The study indicated that the prime motivation of administrators in these schools was to improve their economic and professional status rather than to serve American Indians.
Nearly one-third of the administrators did not perceive Indian participation as being significant; however, the other two-thirds felt that it was significant and suggested plans for participation.
Approximately 54 percent of the administrators perceived the goal of American Indian education as assimilation within, the dominant society, while 46 percent tended toward some type of cross-cultural training. Only 12 percent of the administrators indicated that the goal should be cultural pluralism.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT AS A MEANS OF CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT AT INTERMOUNTAIN INDIAN SCHOOL
Jerry L. Jaeger
This study was made at Intermountain Indian School which is located in Brigham City, Utah. It has an authorized enrollment of 1,500 and is one of the largest coeducational boarding schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It is an off-reservation school which operates under the jurisdiction of the Navajo Area at Window Rock, Arizona. The students, all Navajo, vary in age from thirteen to twenty-one.
The purpose of the study was to develop criteria for curriculum evaluation, revision, and modification through student assessment. Students were assessed by standardized psychometric techniques emphasizing intra and inter student measurement variables.
The primary objective of the study was to assess student behavior in each of the following test areas: California Psychological Inventory, Tennessee Self-Concept, California Test of Mental Maturity, Metropolitan Achievement Test, and Gates-MacGinitie. The second objective was to implement this assessment for curriculum evaluation, revision, and modification.
The cultural bias of standardized tests is well known. The test instruments used did not approach the 50% criterion level and, therefore, they were inappropriate to the population assessed. However, certain implications appear to be valid and can be used as a starting point for curriculum evaluation.
The fact that the accuracy index is well below the first quartile implies the need for the establishment of local norms or the development of appropriate culture-free instruments.
GROUP DIFFERENTIATION OF TEACHERS ON THE PAPAGO RESERVATION: A Comparison of BIA and County Teachers*
Lary Shafer
Introduction: Teachers who teach on Indian reservations or in Indian communities represent a specific homogeneous group in the sense that they are teaching the same minority group, are living in a specific, often different area, and are functioning in a cross-cultural situation. Yet within this homogeneous group there is a great diversity and important differences in training, attitudes, age, employees, acceptance of and by the local community, commitment to job, etc.
The purpose of this study is to look at the teachers of the Papago reservations and delineate the differences between them and attempt to ascertain the nature of these differences and how they become manifest in the social organization of the teachers. For conveniences sake the obvious difference of who they are employed by will be used as a basis for comparison. The two groups then are the Bureau of Indian Affairs teachers and the Indian Oasis School District. The attempt will be to give a profile of each group and of all the teachers as a whole insofar as the data can be interpreted.
The objectives of this study are twofold: First, to contribute to that small body of literature about teachers of Indian children with a special interest in developing more viable and relevant teacher training and orientation programs which could help alleviate some of the many problems associated with Indian education. Secondly, attempt to illustrate important differences that could be formulated into important questions for further study. This is only a pilot study to further the above two objectives.
It should be stressed here that there is an implication that the problem of Indian education are directly related to teachers. On the contrary, the roots to these problems go far beyond the teaching aspect, and we have to search for answers in the historical, political, economic, legal and social structures of our total society. No one is immune to having to bear part of the responsibility of the injustices done to Indian children, including the Indian
himself.
Basically, we are investigating a defined group of people who have moved into a different ethnic community and their behavior and attitude patterns in relation to that community. It is important to remember that although the teachers are a minority in the setting, they are the representatives of a strong dominant White culture. This fact is important in terms of their responses to the questionnaire.
Background and Review of the Literature: It will be noted immediately by the reader that there is no support literature or information in this paper. This is an obvious weakness of the paper. Works dealing with teachers of Indians are indeed rare, with the exception of Havinghurst Report on the National Study of American Indian Education published at the
*
University of Minnesota. However, the information in this material was not considered relevant or necessary for inclusion in this report.
There is, however, ample research on teacher attitudes in general and with those working with other minority groups. A summary of this data would have at least provided a backboard with which this study conclusion could be compared.
Theoretical Orientation: The hypothesis on which this study is based and on which it was tested came almost entirely from arm chair theorizing. The author was almost completely ignorant of the social, political and environmental makeup of the Papago reservation situation. The questions raised were based on the authors past experiences of working with teacher training programs and other areas of Indian education in Alaska. From the general overall impressions of the Alaskan situation, similar hypothesis were applied to the Papago reservation teachers to see if there is some similarity between them. However, the comparison of the Alaskan situation and the Papago reservation is not a part of this paper.
The bureaucratic nature of the Bureau of Indian Affairs makes for better job security and lower turnover rates than the Indian Oasis teachers.
It was hypothesized that the Bureau teachers would be an older group of teachers with differences in attitudes about their work. It was also thought that the Bureau teachers, being older, would not have the more recently offered special courses dealing with teaching minority groups and would be less professionally prepared to work with Indians. The Indian Oasis teachers would be better trained, more committed and because of this would have a higher turnover and more conflict with the administration. The Indian Oasis teachers would also have more positive attitudes and behavior concerning the Indian than would the Bureau.
The perceptions of the two groups towards the administration and the support they get from them will differ, with the BIA teachers having a more positive attitude about the administration.
The county people were thought to have a higher degree of community integration as shown by social distance indices, where the BIA would be less integrated into the community.
It is only fair to state here that the responses to administrative support is that as is perceived by the teachers. There are other factors and evidence that suggests the reality of the situation may be very different. The reality of the situation could not be determined by this questionnaire and would take much more investigative procedures. However, the teachers perceptions are important as W. I. Thomas stated, if someone perceives a situation as real, then it may be real in its consequences for that person.
only one of many interpretations. The hypothesis of this paper regarding this phenomena is the opposite however, that the county teachers will show a higher positive correlation in attitudes towards Indians.
3 It is for other reasons, such as perceived administrative support, housing, etc., that accounts for higher turnover. There are apparent weaknesses in this kind of reasoning, but if it is considered as a tool with which to test, it can be held as valid. It will be shown later the difficulties this study has dealing with this question.
It is also hypothesized that the group which represented the greatest professional background and experience would respond more realistically to the statement of, "The American Indian has made major contributions to American society," by giving a negative or non-committal answer. The underlying assumption of this statement is that in fact the American Indian has not made major contributions to our society. Defense for this assertion will be in the latter part of this paper in the analysis of data.
Methodology: Initial contacts were made with both the Superintendents of the respective groups and the purpose of the study was explained. Each requested advance knowledge of the questions and censor privileges. There were no major objections and both superintendents approved the questionnaire without any major changes. Helpful criticism was given by both as to rewording for more depth. The superintendents then met with their principals and they too, approved.
The cooperation on the part of the total school system make the project. Everyone was most cooperative and the respondents were great. Out of all the teachers personally contacted, there was only two polite refusals to participate.
One hundred percent of the Bureau was used as a sample and a large representative sample of the county respondents was utilized (90 percent).
There were a small number of questionnaires that were received too late through the mail to be included in the sample, but the number was not significant.
One part of the Indian Oasis sample was deleted from the analysis. The Topowa school has just this year joined the Indian Oasis system, but in the past has been a Catholic mission school. It does in fact represent a third group on the Papago reservation. For the purpose of this two-way comparison, it was thought that using the Topowa teachers would not be valid. This information is recorded however, and at a later date, will be used as a comparison component.
The total number of county teachers employed by the Indian Oasis schools is approximately 43 and the Bureau has approximately 23. About 40 county teachers responded and a sample of 25 was randomly picked from this group. One hundred percent of the Bureau sample was used that was available at that time (18).
Several poorly worded questions were deleted from analysis and some important information was lost.
Originally, use of the computer was considered to correlate, but the inadequacy of the material did not warrant the time and effort of a computer analysis. The data was processed and correlated by hand through a simple coding and tallying technique. This was deemed adequate and most efficient due to small size of the sample.
Most of the subjective answers were interpreted by the author. Where there was room for doubt, answers and questions were put to independent judges and if a decision of two out of three agreed with the authors then it was accepted.
Some of the first categories looked at to delineate differences between was the time dimension. Age was definitely a factor in the differentiation between the two groups. The Bureau, as suspected did have the largest percent (40) in the oldest category (40 plus) and had a low six percent in the 30-40 category. The county by contrast had 20 percent in the oldest category. In the youngest category (20-25), the Bureau had 25 percent where the Indian Oasis had only four percent and in the 25-30 category, the Bureau had 18 percent and the Indian Oasis group had 28 percent.
Generalizing, the results are somewhat at odds with our hypothesis that the Bureau would represent an older group. Although they do have the largest group in the 40 plus category, they also have the largest group of youngest teachers. The Indian Oasis has the bulk of its teachers in the two oldest categories.
Because the Bureau is career oriented, we may be witnessing a stage where a substantial number of its employees are older people and on their way to retirement. They are being replaced by younger teachers. This would account for the large grouping at the two extremes of the age scale. Assuming this data is correct, the hypothesis would then have to be corrected to state that the Bureau is characterized by a large number or grouping of older teachers and a large grouping of younger teachers and that given time, the trend will be for the Bureau to have an overall younger staff, probably in proportion to the rate of retirement of the older teachers. Also, the county teachers would have a tendency to remain in the two oldest categories in relation to the proportion of new young teachers hired.
AGE: 20 - 25 BIA: 25% IOSD: 4%
25-30 18% 28%
30-40 8% 40%
40+ 50% 20%
Unsubstantiated information has revealed that 15 new teachers wil be hired by IOSD for next fall. It would be of interest to this paper to see what the ages of this new group of teachers are.
There are some differences in the individual categories of teaching experience.
YEARS: 1 -2 BIA: 18% IOSD: 12%
3-5 24% 20%
5-8 12% 20%
8-12 12% 28%
12+ 42% 16%
(Teaching Experience)
However, in general categories they are similar enough as not to be significant. The only big difference is in the last category (12 plus) which the Bureau has a large grouping of 42 percent. But considering the last two categories together, the Bureau has 54 percent and the IOSD has 44 percent.
There is also a similarity in the two shortest categories (1-2 and 3-5) with the Bureau having 42 percent and IOSD having 32 percent of their teachers that fit in these two categories.
As was expected, there is a difference in their experiences of teaching Indian youth.
YEARS: 1 BIA: 12% IOSD: 24%
2-3 36% 32%
4-6 6% 28%
6-10 18% 8%
11+ 30% 8%
The Bureau had substantially more teachers with experience in teaching Indians, with 48 percent being in the last two categories (6-10 and 11 plus). The IOSD has only 16 percent in their two categories. However, they are both about the same at the other end of the continuous (first year and 2-3) with the. BIA having 48 percent of its teachers in those categories and the IOSD having 56 percent.
Using this data and the patterns it represents, the hypothesis could be adjusted to state that there is a correlation between age and experience of teaching Indian children with the BIA teachers, that is they have groupings at both ends of the continuum in both categories. There is no such correlation with the IOSD teachers. Although they represent a large grouping of older teachers they have little experience with teaching Indian children. From this it can be deduced that there may be a tendency on the part of the IOSD to hire middle age or older teachers with little experience in teaching Indian children.
Again, data from the records of newly hired teachers would either confirm or refute this hypothesis.
The educational background and preparation of the two groups differed considerably.
