Philanthropic Mirroring in Practice: Ethical
Considerations for Alumni Engagement in Higher
Education Fundraising
Elizabeth Poindexter
elizabeth_poindexter@med.unc.edu Thesis Project
Introduction
Fundraising and charitable giving have long been important value-laden activities
for people who live in the United States; they are seen as supporting the public good
and are strongly embedded within United States culture (Rau, 2014). Private charitable
giving exceeded $290 billion between 2000 and 2010, and the number of public
charities and foundations grew (Khodakarami, Petersen, & Venkatesan, 2015). Perhaps
not surprisingly, issues related to fundraising and finances are among the most pressing
for institutions of higher education (Lucka, 2015). The world of higher education,
particularly public universities, greatly depends on its donors, especially in times of a
decrease in public funds from the state and federal level (Drezner, 2018; Khodakarami
et al., 2015; Lucka, 2015; Rau, 2014).
To increase financial support, many public universities employ fundraising staff
who use communications strategies to appeal to their prospect base, including to
alumni. These messages have been largely static and unchanged, despite the changing
makeup of the student body and alumni at public universities in the United States
(Lucka, 2015). Recent alumni (those ten or fewer years from graduation), for instance,
are demographically diverse audiences with growing purchasing power (Drezner, 2018;
Gasman & Bowman, 2013).
The need to re-examine fundraising practices to better equip fundraising staff to
effectively and ethically communicate with diverse, young audiences is crucial, as many
universities lack a true understanding of the diversity of their donor base and perceive a
lack of potential giving in alumni donors (Lucka, 2015). Scholars in psychology and
role of identity and alumni engagement with an alma mater, particularly through
philanthropic giving (Drezner, 2018). This presents an issue: diverse, young alumni are
graduating from institutions of high education but how they identify as prospective
donors is under-researched.
As the need for fundraising staff to communicate with diverse, young alumni has
grown, Noah Drezner (2018), a Columbia University scholar whose expertise is in the
psychology of fundraising in higher education, has developed a theoretical framework
he labels philanthropic mirroring. Philanthropic mirroring is an identity-based motivation
model that incorporates aspects of the concepts of empathy and social distance. This
framework posits that donors’ marginalized identities, including race and ethnicity, are a
major factor in their philanthropic behavior and in their determination of the importance
of the cause for which they are being solicited. His research indicates that alumni from
marginalized populations respond more favorably to philanthropic appeals that include
some reference to that same population or identity.
In addition to developing the most-effective ways for institutions of higher
education to fundraise, there is a need to consider the ethics of the philanthropic
mirroring approach. The concept of marketing to ethnically and racially diverse
populations is not new, but it is an under-researched area fraught with ethical
considerations and an exploitive history. Historically, some advertisements during the
Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s began to feature racially mixed groups of individuals
after studies found that minorities perceived these integrated campaigns to be ethical
(Chebat, 2015). This approach, however, sometimes resulted in the addition of a token
because such figures were often bereft of culturally relevant characteristics (Cui, 2001).
Specifically within the field of higher education marketing, ethical considerations also
include the perpetuation of cultural stereotypes and the misrepresentation of ethnicities
in marketing materials (Chebat, 2015; Cui, 2001). Marketing to minority populations can
benefit both fundraising staff in higher education and their increasingly diverse alumni
base; fundraising staff are able to raise capital, and minority populations can feel more
connected to the cause. However, it is imperative that these strategies are ethical and
do not manipulate or exploit people who come from underrepresented backgrounds.
Given the complicated and often exploitive history of race-based marketing
practices, what feedback are underrepresented young alumni able to provide regarding
the ethics of philanthropic mirroring as a communication tactic? In this mixed-methods
thesis project, I attempt to answer this question by creating two annual appeal
templates based on a philanthropic mirroring model exploring race. After reviewing
these materials, African American and Latinx alumni who have graduated from a public
university between 2009 and 2019 completed an initial quantitative survey indicating the
extent to which they deemed the content of appeal letters to be ethical. Following the
survey, the participants took part in an optional, semi-structured interview in order to
provide in-depth, qualitative feedback regarding the annual appeal templates they
reviewed. Based on the survey and follow-up interviews, my final deliverable includes a
write-up of the findings, a list of best practices, and two evidence-based annual appeal
Literature Review
The first half of this literature review will detail how fundraising staff operate in the
realm of higher education, discuss the state of fundraising in higher education, and
provide insight into fundraising among minorities. It will discuss ways that fundraising in
higher education has changed and why fundraising staff must continue to adapt. The
second half of this literature review will address aspects of social psychology that are
applicable to fundraising. It will also examine the ethics of fundraising and in particular,
marketing to underrepresented populations within the realm of higher education.
Methodology and deliverables follow the literature review.
Structure of fundraising staff within higher education
Universities have drawn from best practices from the corporate world, namely
integrating sales and marketing, to boost fundraising efforts. Specifically, they rely on
customer relationship management (CRM) tools to manage donor databases, which
help fundraising staff maintain relationships and anticipate donor needs, leverage
shared data, and provide a customer-centric approach to fundraising (Stevick, 2010).
To successfully follow the lead of the corporate world when executing a
university fundraising strategy, it is essential to have top-level support. The role of
fundraising staff, if supported by top university leadership, can succeed when paired
with interdisciplinary teams that collaborate to create content to fully execute
communication strategies (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). These teams, comprised of
front-line fundraising staff who interact with donors, often do not reflect the university’s
constituent base (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). Simply put, fundraising staff are often not
members in higher education were individuals of color. But minority donors look to
support institutes of higher education that are committed to diversity and inclusion
efforts as they hope to find a mirror of their own culture in fundraising staff and
university leadership (Lucka, 2015). Communications written by fundraising staff are
largely still tailored to a homogenous audience of white males, the longtime majority
demographic of alumni databases (Lucka, 2015). The one-size-fits-all fundraising
communication strategy hasn’t been effective for some time, and fundraising staff
should rely more on personalized communications, such as referencing the donor’s
name and interests in communications; they should also hire additional diverse staff
members who better understand the constituent base (Gasman & Bowman, 2013;
Lucka, 2015).
Relationship building in fundraising
Relationship building is essential to fundraising staff, particularly when they are
focused on acquiring major gifts and establishing quality contacts for their respective
universities (Stevick, 2010). The corporate sphere provides some guidance as to how
this might be done, although applying corporate tactics to philanthropy comes with
limitations. If institutions of higher education treat prospective donors as customers,
relationships between fundraising staff and donors can be strengthened over time
(Khodakarami et al., 2015). However, a fundraising approach rooted in a corporate
model must also consider donor motivations to give because those motivations can vary
drastically when compared to a customer’s motivation to purchase a product
(Khodakarami et al., 2015). A corporate model also lends itself to treating students and
transactional than relational. This type of relationship could prioritize the financial return
from that student or alumnus, thereby hindering fundraising staffs efforts by limiting an
opportunity to grow a trusted relationship (Lucka, 2015). Fundraising staff should focus
on the quality and authenticity of their relationships with donors; such an approach can
meets donors’ interests and is likely to enhance their generosity over time
(Khodakarami et al., 2015; Lucka, 2015).
Pathways to acquiring initial and subsequent gifts from alumni donors
Relationship building is a crucial first step to develop a robust donor database, as
it opens an avenue to future giving. The lack of effective relationship building in
fundraising communication is evident by the decrease in alumni giving nationwide,
despite an increase in the depth and breadth of alumni records in databases at
institutions of higher education (Lucka, 2015). To remedy low or no giving among both
non-donors and donors, fundraising staff often solicit funds for an annual gift (Rau,
2014). Annual funds are considered to be building blocks of support, often contributing
to a pot of unrestricted funds for use at the discretion of leadership (Drezner, 2018; Rau,
2014). These solicitations often target young alumni and are an initial tactic used by
fundraising staff to establish and foster long-term philanthropic giving. The fundraising
staff is tasked with building sustainable relationships to develop trust with constituents
over time, subsequently creating a donor base from which they can solicit future
donations. This can be done by an annual appeal solicitation, thereby initiating
The need to collect more diversity-related donor data for fundraising efforts
Often, due to insufficient data collection, fundraising staff at some universities in
the United States know little about alumni who comes from underrepresented
backgrounds (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). Fundraising staff typically gather
demographic data such as whether someone is a donor or non-donor, class year,
major, job title, and their address. However, demographic information such as race or
ethnicity is collected far less often (Drezner, 2018). Research suggests that, if allowed
by law and institution policies, universities should attempt to collect data on alumni race
and ethnicity (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). A failure to do so can hinder efforts of
fundraising staff, particularly in the case of reaching out to a first-time donor with a
solicitation to an annual fund (Drezner, 2018). This lack of information has resulted in a
lack of knowledge surrounding levels of cultural wealth for underrepresented minorities,
which is an indicator of future giving behavior (Gasman & Bowman, 2013; Lucka, 2015).
Cultural wealth is primarily concerned with how income is derived and refers to
intergenerational support such as gifts, informal loans, and inheritances. Members of
some minority groups often have less cultural wealth than their white counterparts, and
fundraising staffs’ lack of understanding of wealth for diverse, young alumni may hinder
their efforts (Drezner, 2018; Gasman & Bowman, 2013).
The influence of immigration and migration in higher education
Considering cultural wealth is of importance to fundraising staff, particularly as
demographics in the United States continue to change. Patterns of migration and
immigration play large roles in the demographics of students who head to university.
and adapt to these audience changes. For example, by 2050, the United States is
projected to be majority minority, with racial and ethnic minorities making up more than
half of the population. As of July 2018, African Americans comprise more than 13.4
percent of the U.S. population, according to U.S. Census updates. They have had an
increased presence on university campuses since the passage and implementation of
the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). During the first two decades of
the 20th century, institutions of higher education were considered “separate but equal”
and segregated students by race and gender; in 1968, 80 percent of African American
students earned their degree from historically black colleges and universities, or HBCUs
(Karakouti, 2016). Between 1984 and 2009, non-HBCU college campuses saw a 240
percent increase in the number of African American students enrolled (Gasman &
Bowman, 2013). Following integration, between 1986-1996, the enrollment rate of
African American students increased by 74 percent at non-HBCUs (Karakouti, 2016).
The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that by 2050, Latinx individuals will comprise 29.5
percent of the total population, while African Americans will represent 18.6 percent of
the population (Gasman & Bowman, 2013).
Universities will continue to see tremendous growth in these two historically
underrepresented populations, changing the makeup of alumni databases
(Khodakarami et al., 2015). According to the National Center for Education Statistics,
during the 2016-2017 academic year in the United States, there were 2.2 million African
American students and 3.2 million Latinx students enrolled in college.
Nearly one in four schoolchildren in the United States is Latinx, which
of this paper. This group has experienced one of the largest surges in population growth
when compared to other underrepresented groups. Latinx students are projected to be
one-quarter of enrolled schoolchildren by 2025 (Gasman & Bowman, 2013; Zarate &
Burciaga, 2010). In terms of pursuing higher education, from 1984-2009, universities
saw a 546-percent increase in Latinx student enrollment, a trend that was expected to
continue (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). Interestingly, Latinx students made up nearly half
of all community college students in 2010, a pathway often used to eventually obtain a
bachelor’s degree (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Lastly, an emerging issue is the number
of undocumented Latinx students in the United States. Data from the 2010 U.S. Census
estimated there were close to one million undocumented students kindergarten through
twelfth grade enrolled in schools, resulting in approximately 65,000 Latinx high school
undocumented graduates per year (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
Financial clout of Latinx and African American alumni and implications for fundraising staffs
Among underrepresented minority groups in the United States, it is clear that
Latinx and African Americans populations are poised to become a stronghold in alumni
groups nationwide. As these groups continue to grow in number, they are becoming
betterpositioned to financially support institutions of higher education than in previous
years (Gasman & Bowman, 2013).
Historically, African Americans have long faced a disparity in both wealth and
income when compared to whites. This is, in part, a result of historical cultural
oppression, including slavery and Jim Crow legislation. This entrenched oppression is
of this deep-seated discrimination, in 2007, the median white family had wealth assets
worth more than 15 times that of their African American counterparts (Gasman &
Bowman, 2013). Income gaps, when compared to wealth gaps between these two
groups, however, are beginning to shrink. The buying power of African Americans is at
an all-time high of $1.3 trillion, and they are just as likely as whites to make charitable
contributions. In fact, they give more of their money to charity than their white
counterparts (Buying Power of African Americans, 2017). Other key indicators of
financial prosperity include stock market participation and homeownership rates, both of
which have increased steadily in recent years among some African Americans (Gasman
& Bowman, 2013).
A similar story emerges when looking at the Latinx population. They have also
faced cultural repression and have been historically ignored by mainstream
philanthropic efforts (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). However, Latinx individuals have
nearly $1.4 trillion in buying power, a figure that continues to grow (Longo, 2018).
Sixty-three percent of Latinx households make charitable contributions, and the number of
Latinx households with incomes over $100,000 rose 126 percent since the 1990s,
according to the U.S. Census (Gasman & Bowman, 2013). This rise in income is, in
part, attributed to the fact that 80 percent of Latinx individuals were in the workforce in
2013, compared to 67 percent of the nation’s population overall. Finally, Latinx
individuals give hundreds of millions of dollars to charitable causes each year, including
Motivating factors to give among Latinx individuals and African Americans
As these underrepresented groups gain in buying power and in cultural wealth,
their propensity to support nonprofits, including higher education, has grown. According
to 2013 survey research (Gasman & Bowman, 2013), there are cultural differences to
consider when attempting to understand motivating factors that propel Latinx individuals
and African Americans to make charitable contributions. Each group relies on its unique
cultural and historic considerations when they have an opportunity to support an
organization financially. Because of past historical injustices, African Americans often
seek trusting relationships with organizations before making an initial donation. To this
end, they typically give smaller gifts and increase their giving over time (Gasman &
Bowman, 2013). Gasman and Bowman’s research also found that African Americans
give because they feel a sense of racial commitment and obligation to racial uplift. This
research indicated that new African American donors tend to give more to causes, such
as education or health care, and they are also motivated by their peers and family as
part of a desire to foster racial uplift. With regard to education, philanthropically minded
African Americans tend to donate directly to scholarships because they represent an
immediate step they can take to see more immediate benefits.
When considering Latinx communities, Gasman and Bowman (2013) found that
giving is motivated primarily by personal relationships and face-to-face engagement. It
is most helpful when the fundraising staff or person making the ask comes from within
their own community. This is important for fundraising staff to consider, particularly
since there is more variability among Latinx giving because of cultural differences
to support community-based initiatives, while Puerto Ricans often place more of an
emphasis on volunteerism. Cuban Americans are likely to approach philanthropy from a
more-conservative worldview and want to be seen as a group that contributes to
society’s greater good. Lastly, Latin Americans tend to give to families and communities
outside the United States who match their personal ethnic identity. However, education
is an issue important to the greater Latinx community, regardless of their specific
cultural background, according to Gasman and Bowman’s study. To this end, Latinx
individuals tend to give one-third of their support to educational scholarships as they
can transform lives and impact future generations of students.
The next section of this literature review will examine research relevant to
fundraising staff to underrepresented populations, specifically the benefits of university
branding systems, the role of social identity, and the ethics of targeting messages to
underrepresented minorities.
University branding and engagement with students, donors, and alumni
Branding communication efforts by an institution of higher education can be
regarded as nearly as important as the message itself. This type of communication may
not reap immediate benefits for the communicator in terms of donations, but its power
lies in whether self-identification or how much it resonates with prospects. While there is
scant research in terms of university branding and soliciting donations, particularly in a
digital sphere, people whose self-identity rests in that of the university and its larger
brand feel a sense of belonging and self or group identification (Stephenson & Bell,
Specifically, fundraising branding guides can provide a backbone for
communication initiatives that tap into institutional branding (Whitt, 2015). Institutional
branding, initially drawn from best practices found in the corporate environment,
influences giving by establishing prestige and legitimacy, communicating values,
differentiating the university from other institutions, and facilitating a sense of belonging
(Stephenson & Bell, 2014). By understanding branding psychology, it is clear why this is
a tactic that often works. For example, self-congruity theory, which posits that people
often compare a mental image of themselves to an entity, explains the importance of
branding initiatives in relation to fundraising. This can bolster university fundraising
efforts. If an individual’s self-concept matches that of others they see attending a
particular university, the individual will develop a stronger preference for that university.
The opposite effect is also true; if one’s self-concept no longer matches others they see
supporting an organization, that person will have a lower preference for that
organization, such as a university. Opportunities for students and alumni to engage and
identify with a university brand allows for recognition of a personal identity within a
group identity. Even the act of attending a university or joining a club or organization
allows someone to define themselves in relation to that organization; joining a club can
foster loyalty to a group, cooperation, and sharing of personal interests. Students, for
example, who define themselves in relationship to a university moniker or mascot, such
as “Tar Heel” or “Wolfpack,” have extended their identities to include those who also
consider themselves part of the larger affiliated group.
A university’s branding strategy and methods of engagement with students on
back to the university after they graduate (Rau, 2014). There are several determinants
of giving behavior on which scholars agree. Age, income, satisfaction, and perceived
prestige of the institution all influence charitable giving directly (Stephenson & Bell,
2014). Participation in clubs and organizations, in addition to overall satisfaction with the
university experience, is also positively correlated with willingness to donate (Lucka,
2015; Stephenson & Bell, 2014). In fact, a 2011 Converge Consulting survey of
university alumni revealed that 36 percent of alumni saw it as their duty to support their
alma mater (Lucka, 2015).In sum, having a university or campaign branding guide can
be essential in reaching audiences, crafting messages, and engaging donors; even a
university’s beauty and grounds can influence potential donors (Stephenson & Bell,
2014; Whitt, 2015).
Understanding the concept of identity
The desire to give a financial gift to an institution of higher education is heavily
influenced by one’s understanding the fundamentals of social, or group, identity. Social
identification is “a perception of oneness with a group of persons” and stems from
categorization of individuals, distinctiveness and prestige of groups people hope to
associate with (Ashforth, 1989, p. 20). At its core, social identity theory “conceives that
people classify themselves and others into various categories as a cognitive tool to
provide order in a social environment” (Stephenson & Bell, 2014, p. 181). Further,
individuals create their identities based on groups, which can drive behavior such as
making a donation. When a category of identity is activated, people tend to treat others
who share that identity better than those who have a different identity (Drezner, 2018).
interests (Stephenson & Bell, 2014). Social identity also leads to reflection; a
self-image is shaped from the social categories to which people perceive they belong. Put
more simply, people are more likely to support people who are similar to themselves.
Social identity theory, then, can be effectively used in marketing and
communication endeavors and can play a pivotal role in fundraising efforts, particularly
at institutions of higher education. For instance, this theory would suggest that people
tend to identify with a university mascot or moniker because they see it as a symbol for
the larger community, university, city, or state (Wear et al., 2018). People also identify
strongly with groups they are part of, such as a religious group or a student professional
organization. Conversely, those who have a weak identity with an institution are less
likely to give (Stephenson & Bell, 2014). Creating opportunities to engage with identity
translates well in communicating with alumni from a university; alumni are more
motivated to give money, even to those they have never met, if they see a reflection of
their identity in communication efforts.
Thus, cultivating donors could begin as early as a student’s first day on campus,
and that building, maintaining, or repairing a student’s relationship with their university
can ultimately lead to a financial gift. A student’s experience on campus can directly
influence their own sense of group identity on campus; therefore, universities that create
consistent messaging and campus experiences that align with such identification are
more likely to create lifelong relationships that lend themselves to effective fundraising
Internal and external factors and the desire to give
Philanthropy research indicates there are multiple factors that determine donors’
decisions to give money to an institution of higher education. Both external and internal
motivators can influence one’s desire to make a gift. External motivators come from an
outside source and include marketing communications between a nonprofit organization
or foundation and donor; these often take the form of email newsletters, direct mailings,
phonathons, events, and direct-mail solicitations (Khodakarami et al., 2015; Rau, 2014).
Internal motivators, on the other hand, create inherent satisfaction and psychological
enjoyment in the mind of the donor; often, the donor begins to reflect on their personal
experience and life story and is driven to make a gift based on personal motivations
(Khodakarami et al., 2015). Donors’ sense of their own identification is considered to be
an internally motivating factor and can provide clues to fundraising staff who want to
know how donors form connections to various philanthropic causes. This can be
powerful; positive shared experiences with a university can be highly motivating for
donors who rely most on their internal thoughts and feelings before making a donation.
These internal motivators foster feelings that are in alignment with “internal fit,” or how
close the issue or the organization is to their heart—often, donors who have a specific
life experience related to a particular cause are likely to donate to multiple causes
without additional solicitation (Khodakarami et al., 2015). These personal experiences
with a charity, including whether the donor has directly benefited from the charity in the
past or believes he or she will benefit from it in the future, motivates giving
When employed together by fundraising staffs, both internal and external
motivating factors foster trust and long-term relationships with donors. Often, this is
accomplished by solicitation, face-to-face interactions, and storytelling efforts, which
include call to actions in messaging (Gasman & Bowman, 2013; Whitt, 2017b). Internal
and external motivators play distinctive roles in terms of donor acquisition and engaging
with that donor over time. These motivators are important triggers specifically for
diverse, young alumni who may consider making a gift as they reflect on their
experiences at the university (Khodakarami et al., 2015).
Fundraising staff need to understand that internal and external motivating factors
should play distinctive roles in messaging strategy. While they can use messaging that
focuses on internal fit and internal motivators, external motivators ultimately trigger
prospective donors to make a gift. Thus, once fundraising staff establishes an initial
donor relationship, continuing to build on that using strategies centered around external
motivating factors is most beneficial (Khodakarami et al., 2015). Equipping fundraising
staff to use external motivating factors, such as a marketing campaign that aligns with
donors’ internal compass, is a proven strategy to create and to maintain lifelong ties
with donors in the sphere of higher education.
Empathy, prosocial behavior, and the role of social distance
Research indicates that people are more willing to donate money after they are
personally engaged, such as by donating their time volunteering (Olivola & Liu, 2009).
Further, people are more likely to give and to give more money when an emotional
connection between donors and beneficiaries is initiated by an organization—this is
affected (Park & Lee, 2015; Stephenson & Bell, 2014; Whitt, 2017a). For example,
alumni may already have an emotional connection with their university, and universities
have the opportunity to cultivate empathy to enhance those emotional ties. Empathy is
the experience of understanding someone else’s situation or condition from their point
of view, and feelings of empathy are linked to prosocial behaviors, such as philanthropy.
A sense of attachment to others through identity is essential to creating empathy, which
can often spur people to donate. This is because a shared identity creates a sense of
connection, and people are more empathetic to those with whom they can relate
(Drezner, 2018). Additionally, interdependence among social identities can drive
prosocial behaviors (Drezner, 2018; Peñaloza, 2018): “Those who experience the same
misfortunes as beneficiaries tend to feel more empathetic leading to greater donations”
(Park & Lee, 2015, p. 1119). Individuals with marginalized identities are generally
under-asked in university fundraising efforts, yet many of these alumni possess
untapped wealth and a strong desire to donate to and have an impact at their alma
maters—possibly even a stronger desire than their white counterparts (Drezner, 2018).
Understanding social distance and the identifiable victim
Research indicates fundraising staff would also benefit from understanding the
concept of social distance when developing strategies to cultivate relationships with
underrepresented groups. In a seminal work, Bogardus (1925) described social
distance as the gap between different groups in society, where those who are “socially
close are those to whom we feel most close to, and therefore, we feel less kinship
toward those with whom we have more distance” (p. 106). Feelings of empathy can
empathy for potential beneficiaries of their generosity whom they perceive not to be
responsible for their misfortunes (Drezner, 2018). Donors who empathize with recipients
of their financial contributions are also more likely to donate more frequently.
Once feelings of empathy and social identity are established, Drezner (2018)
postulates that social distance between a prospective donor and profiled beneficiary
who will benefit from the donation in a solicitation can be reduced through mirroring a
prospective donor’s social identity with that of a profiled student beneficiary. Feelings of
empathy can be induced people by marketing content through use of what Drezner
terms an “identifiable victim” model, establishing the role of the prospective donor as
helping the so-called victims, or those who directly benefit from philanthropy (p. 266).
Drezner’s research has found that the prospective donor will act in an identity-congruent
fashion and will attach more importance and give more money when social distance is
smaller. This theoretical framework champions reducing social distance between
prospective donors and a profiled student beneficiary through storytelling and student
feature stories. Traditional philanthropic solicitations, Drezner posits, have a greater
amount of social distance between prospective donors and profiled student beneficiary.
By mirroring a prospective donor’s reflection of self in a solicitation, the social distance
between the donor and the profiled scholarship recipient is reduced, thereby spurring
feelings of empathy for the student. As such, the prospective donor will act in an
identity-congruent fashion and deem the solicitation to be of greater importance which
should result in a higher level of philanthropic giving. Scholars have found that giving
underrepresented identity are engaged by university fundraisers. Drezner’s theoretical
framework of philanthropic mirroring stems from these findings.
The identity-based motivation model and philanthropic mirroring
Given the implications of social identity theory and the concepts of empathy and
social distance, Drezner (2018) sought tested his philanthropic mirroring framework by
conducting a quantitative research project. He recruited survey respondents from
Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk), a participant crowdsourcing website for behavioral
scientists. Relying on his previous philanthropy-related research findings, he developed
mock solicitation letters featuring a student profile from one or more underrepresented
backgrounds. Prospective donors were asked to read and respond to these mock
solicitation letters in order to gauge their perception of the cause at hand, willingness to
donate to that cause, and potential giving levels. These solicitation letters went to study
participants who were representative of demographics of the population in the United
States.
Drezner’s (2018) fictitious solicitation letters profiled a student who represented
one of four solicitation frames, varying the level of academic achievement and financial
need. All four frames randomly varied the gender and race/ethnicity of the student to
incorporate a marginalized identity. After reading each fictitious letter, study participants
indicated the degree to which they deemed the cause to be important and the degree to
which they would provide philanthropic support to the featured student. In the letter with
which the respondent shared no shared marginalized identity, only 25 percent of
respondents said they would donate to the cause at hand. However, when a fictitious
number of people committed to donating to the cause jumped to 32 percent—a growth
of eight percentage points simply by inserting a vignette that leverages a marginalized
identity story structure. Respondents who shared more than one marginalized identity
with a student featured in an appeals letter, such as being a gay black man, expressed
higher levels of financial commitment as reflected in self-reported forecasted giving
levels. In terms of recruiting first-time donors, Drezner found that 25 percent of alumni
with marginalized identities who had never given to a college or university said they
would give for the first time. Even if the prospective donor who identified with a
marginalized identity had limited resources, they still ascribe more importance to the
cause than those who do not share that identity. Critically, people who shared at least
one marginalized identity with the student featured were 25 percent more likely to
increase their gift and to become first-time donors.
Moreover, philanthropic mirroring within marginalized populations results in a
greater propensity for donors to support others with marginalized identities, in addition
to supporting those with similar identities. For example, in past research, African
American donors not only supported giving to benefit African American students, but
also to other marginalized populations such as LGBT students (Drezner, 2018).
Furthermore, Drezner’s research indicates that alumni giving increases if aspects of the
graduate’s marginalized identity appear in some form in a communication solicitation,
particularly within the framework of supporting student scholarships.
A perspective that adds weight to Drezner’s (2018) research is that of standpoint
theory, which acknowledges that individuals’ views of the world and lived experiences
1997; Kinefuchi & Orbe, 2008). Individuals have vantage points from which they see the
world, and these vantage points are the result of that person’s experience as defined by
membership in social groups (Kinefuchi & Orbe, 2008). These group experiences
maintain more permanence over time than individualized experiences (Collins, 1997).
This theory helps professionals understand their own world view and how the world can
look different to individuals depending on their social standing and that this standing
(which is determined in large part by gender identity, race, and class) shapes people’s
lives (Collins, 1997). Interestingly, people can develop multiple standpoints shaped by
memberships in traditionally marginalized groups (Kinefuchi & Orbe, 2008). For
example, a white man who may not see the world from the standpoint of a racial or
ethnic minority may have cultivated another standpoint based on his sexual orientation
or gender identity. Standpoint theory also could help fundraising staffs understand
power structures and that all people are placed into racial or ethnic groups based on
human-constructed classification systems (Kinefuchi & Orbe, 2008).
Race is regarded as one of the most-powerful lenses through which individuals
see the world, and it permeates peoples’ lives at both a structural and personal level
(Kinefuchi & Orbe, 2008). Standpoint theory is a lens through which we can better
understand race and ethnicity and race-ethnic relations; everyone has a racial location
or “racialized perspective” to which they belong” (p. 86). When applied to race and
ethnicity, standpoint theory helps us understand that racial standpoints “refer to more
than social location, experience, or perspective; it encompasses a critical, oppositional
understanding of how one’s life is shaped by larger social and political forces” (p. 74).
counterparts. By contrast, white people tend to emphasize the universality of human
experience and believe racism to be a largely historic issue.
Given that standpoint theory is an “interpretive framework dedicated to
explicating how knowledge remains central to maintaining and changing unjust systems
of power” the commonality of experience and perspectives can be varied (Collins, 1997,
p. 375). Individuals within the same group identity may interpret an experience in a
different way, and because of this, researchers caution against using the individual
experience as a proxy for a group experience. This stereotyping is a limitation of
standpoint theory. Yet, if the individual experience reflects that of a common human
experience as an example for how group consciousness and decision making occur,
then the individual experience can become a model for comprehending group
processes. This process can lead to reduced conflict within groups when generating
group narratives. Social identity, standpoint theory, and philanthropic mirroring all have
notable implications for fundraising communications. This next section will provide an
overview of ethical considerations that are vital to consider when communicating with
alumni of institutions of higher education who are underrepresented minorities.
The ethics of marketing to underrepresented minority consumers
When crafting messages for underrepresented groups, is important to consider
the ethics of marketing to these populations to avoid inappropriate and ineffective
practices. For example, some companies that sell unwholesome products such as
cigarettes, processed foods, and sugary sodas have marketed those items specifically
to African American, Latinx, and LGBTQIA+ consumers without concern for the
A heightened racial/ethnic consciousness has made underrepresented groups
more attractive marketing prospects; however, it is essential that marketers use relevant
and ethical messages, symbolism, and imagery in communicating with these
customers/donors (Chebet, 2015; Cui, 2001). More than half of Fortune 1000
companies established marketing programs geared toward underrepresented minorities
by the turn of the 21st century (Cui, 2001). Literature indicates that such targeted
programs are considered appropriate because underrepresented minorities, like other
groups, have their own behaviors and media habits, which warrants differentiation in
communication strategy.
Research shows that underrepresented groups are particularly sensitive to
portrayals of their race/ethnicity and seek to understand motivation behind marketing
practices more than their white counterparts (Chebat, 2015). They are responsive to
messages that focus on uplifting and positive aspects of their culture. Marketing and
communications strategies that misfire often do not take into account considerations of
ethnic segmentation; unethical marketing tactics can have long-lasting psychological
effects, such as cultivating feelings of alienation or powerlessness among these
individuals (Chebat, 2015; Cui, 2001). Because segmenting in this way relies upon
unique and salient group characteristics, it is vital that communicators abide by racial
and ethical considerations, including fully understanding and avoiding cultural
stereotypes. The following section will examine key ethical considerations of fundraising
and fundraising communications in general and, more specifically, the ethics of racial
Ethics in fundraising
Fundraising staffs have a responsibility to meet the needs of two stakeholders:
their institution and their donors (Caboni, 2012). Various councils and governing bodies
have crafted fundraising codes of ethics and promote their standards and norms among
fundraising professionals (MacQuillan, 2016). In the United States, for instance, codes
of ethics are set by the Council for Advancement and Support of Education and by the
Association of Fundraising Professionals (Caboni, 2012). While the codes provide
guidance to fundraising staff, they lack examples of practical application of these ethical
standards (MacQuillin, 2016). By comparison, similar organizations in the United
Kingdom lack a code of ethics but instead use a Code of Practice, an initiative of British
organization Fundraising Regulator. This Code of Practice is more proscriptive in nature
and includes directives regarding communications that occur between fundraisers and
donors, such as direct mail, telephone calls, and events. Despite these codes,
fundraising organizations around the world still face ethical grey areas and must rely on
professional judgments, codes, and/or norms to guide decision-making processes as
they aim to meet fundraising targets (Dean & Wood, 2017; MacQuillin, 2016).
The definition of ethics is two-fold. First, it is the “philosophical study of the moral
value of human conduct and of the rules and principles that ought to govern it”
(MacQuillin, 2016, p. 6). Ethics also manifest as “social, religious, or civil” codes of
behavior considered to be correct, with particular regard to group, profession, or
individual (p. 6). Normative ethics, or that which is concerned with the “content of moral
application of normative theory to specific issues, such as racial equality. With regard to
communication, scholars of applied ethics in fundraising generally agree that all
solicitation and communication materials should be accurate and reflect the
organization’s mission and use of solicited funds. Organizations are expected to
ethically protect the public trust, manage relationships, serve donors and their needs,
and provide an avenue for philanthropy. Of these, relationship management is the only
one that has been formally articulated as part of a normative theory of fundraising.
Drawing on the work of public relations scholar James Grunig (1992), fundraising expert
Kathleen S. Kelly concludes that the purpose of fundraising is managing relationships
and that raising money for a cause is a byproduct of having successfully managed
those relationships (Kelly, 1998; MacQuillin, 2016).
In public relations, a “two-way symmetrical approach” is focused on making sure
that an organization’s decisions are mutually beneficial for both itself and its audiences;
public relations practitioners should serve as a liaison between the organization and key
publics, rather than merely a persuader (Gruning, 1992). Specifically, Kelly (1998)
posits that the two-way symmetrical approach is the only ethical approach because it
allows for relationship building with donors that are genuine (p. 167). A two-way
symmetrical approach to fundraising cautions against persuasion and manipulation of
people. Instead, it promotes public relations as a mediator to resolve conflict and
promotes mutual understanding among stakeholders (MacQuillin, 2016). This is in
comparison to a “two-way asymmetrical approach” which uses research to drive donor
behavior; Kelly (1998) posits that this approach is unbalanced because it does not help
behave as the organization wished (i.e., persuade them to give)” (p. 165). Kelly deems
this to be a less-ethical tactic if it does not produce genuine relationships between the
donor and the organization.
The ethics of fundraising communications
Fundraising communications often rely on eliciting emotions, such as hope, guilt,
and fear, all of which are powerful tools that can be deployed strategically to elicit
donations from prospects. Fundraising for a cause is inherently emotional work, and
professionals rely on two primary tactics to solicit donations: the use of positive imagery
and descriptions of impact versus negative imagery and descriptions of need. Often,
fundraising staffs find themselves with a need to balance these two tactics. For
instance, people experiencing homelessness felt misrepresented by stereotypical
images of homelessness, yet they were more accepting of these portrayals if donations
to a cause supporting their situation were maximized as a result. For fundraising staffs,
such a tactic is seen as a “risky short-cut” because it does not engage in a two-way
dialogue with the goal of relationship building (Dean & Wood, 2017, p. 2). However,
these negative communications have traditionally been more successful than positive
communications in terms of meeting fundraising goals. For fundraising staff who must
use their own trained and professional judgment to meet fundraising goals, eliciting
feelings of negative emotions (such as guilt) can be a successful, yet ethically murky,
tactic to apply in communications. Further, eliciting either positive or negative emotions
is subjective to one’s experience and interpretation of the communication; one’s
behaviorally to the appeal. Codes suggest relying on the context of individual situations
to balance these ethical considerations.
The ethics of marketing to underrepresented minority groups in higher education There are several ethical considerations in higher education marketing that can
be applied to the sphere of fundraising. If an institution’s goal is to develop strong
emotional ties with prospective donors, often storytelling is a tactic employed by
communicators (VanDeCarr, 2014). Use of stories to engender emotion comes with
ethical questions the communicator must consider, particularly in the realm of
fundraising. For instance, getting the person’s permission first is recommended before
sharing personal stories for fundraising purposes (VanDeCarr, 2014). Further, if there is
a greater need for privacy, perhaps a story could be re-focused, or a composite
character (with key identifiers changed) could be developed. It is also essential to
consider who is telling the story and if it is an accurate representation of what
transpired.
In higher education, visual rhetoric and imagery are tools often used to create a
positive impression among prospective students, as the photographic portrayal of racial
diversity can influence campus perception (Pippert et al., 2013). These pressures to
appear diverse have led some universities to unethically edit photographs to appear to
have a more-diverse student body than they actually do. In other cases, some
universities have unethically incorporated the number of non-white international
students among diversity enrollment statistics to appear more racially and ethnically
diverse. Most often, this is seen in recruitment materials; having ethnically diverse
American Council on Education (DelVecchio, 2017). Misleading imagery of racial/ethnic
diversity can lead to a visual overrepresentation of minorities when compared to
demographics of student bodies. Other non-ethical practices including using imagery of
racial minorities in deferential or passive positions, such as taking direction from a white
person or with the minority not being the main person in the featured image. Use of
racially ambiguous figures is another strategy used in visual marketing in higher
education; one’s own predispositions can influence conclusions drawn as to what race
is depicted if the image is ambiguous. Use of authentic photos instead of staged or
stock images, regardless of race or ethnicity, can foster feelings of trust and
genuineness (DelVecchio, 2017). There are multiple ethical considerations that are
most important for this project, including storytelling appropriation and ensuring ethical
use of a story in a fundraising communication, which directly speak to the identity of the
featured student. Other ethical concerns, including visual rhetoric and imagery, are of
secondary concern for purposes of this paper. Accurate and truthful visual
representation, storytelling, and securing permission as to how a story may be used are
steps fundraising staff can take to ensure communications are ethical and to adhere to
industry standards and norms to protect both the donor and the institution (Caboni,
2012).
It is clear from the literature reviewed thus far on fundraising and identity,
including Drezner’s (2018) theoretical framework, that there are myriad implications for
philanthropic communication. Drezner’s quantitative research has identified a pathway
through which social identity theories and concepts can be applied when addressing
philanthropic mirroring framework, fundraising staffs can develop strategies for new
donor recruitment in an effort to engage with an emerging diverse alumni base through
appeals letters to successfully fundraise. While Drezner has created sample solicitation
letters and provided quantitative research showing the letters’ effectiveness, there is a
lack of understanding as to how communicators can best implement this in practice
from an ethical standpoint. This exploratory project was designed to help fill that gap.
The following research questions guided this study:
What are ethical concerns of applying philanthropic mirroring in practice?
What feedback are young Latinx and African American alumni able to provide about the effectiveness and ethical viability of philanthropic
Method
For this project, I used a mixed-methods approach to investigate my proposed
research questions and to expand upon current research. To do this, I conducted
quantitative and qualitative research through an online survey tool and through
interviews over the phone. This approach allowed me to explore and evaluate
perceptions of both the effectiveness and ethics of fundraising appeals that use
philanthropic mirroring within the context of higher education. This project received IRB
approval from the Office of Human Research Ethics from the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Deliverables
The deliverable for this project is two-fold. First, it includes a thesis project report
(introduction, literature review, method, and results). Second, it includes a list of best
practices for higher education fundraising staffs regarding the ethical deployment of
philanthropic mirroring and two examples of an annual appeal letter template based in
best practices developed from research findings. Fundraising staffs at public institutions
of higher education will be able to use this information to develop ethically sound
solicitation strategies that speak to and engage with Latinx and African American
alumni.
Project Participants and Recruitment
I recruited survey participants from African American and Latinx alumni affiliation
groups from the largest public university in North Carolina: the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH). Desired survey participants included alumni who
alumni according to the UNC-CH alumni association. At UNC-CH, I worked with the
General Alumni Association’s diversity fundraising team to glean names and email
addresses for African American and Latinx UNC-CH alumni. Lastly, I worked with the
UNC-CH diversity and inclusion fundraising team to glean names and email addresses
from the Carolina Latinx Center and the Black Student Movement. These are both
campus organizations at UNC-CH designed to raise awareness of issues facing Latinx
and African American individuals and to provide resources to students, alumni, faculty,
and staff. Additionally, I used snowball sampling to ask that each affiliation group share
survey recruitment materials on their respective social media channels.
Research setting, data collection, and analysis
To execute this project, I created two versions of annual appeal letters that are
based on templates used in Drezner’s (2018) research. These annual appeal letters
featured recently graduated former students (Items 1 and 2). A single-factor
quasi-experimental design delivered through a survey questionnaire resulted in the following
two conditions for templates that incorporate the concept of philanthropic mirroring:
UNC-CH African American female and UNC-CH Latina. All potential respondents were
sent a survey link. Gender was held constant as a marker of identity. In order to best
examine the ethical implications of Drezner’s philanthropic mirroring approach, the
content of the appeal letter was identical for each condition except for the student’s
name, the photograph used, and the race/ethnicity specified. For these templates, the
body copy used Drezner’s (2018) generation frame, which highlights
first-generation students, with a call to action focusing on supporting student scholarships.
designed by Drezner to establish the concept of marginalized identity (p. 270).
Participants were assigned an annual appeal letter template based on the race/ethnicity
that corresponded to the affiliation group from which they were recruited. For example,
those who were selected to participate from the Carolina Latinx Center received the
Latinx UNC-CH template, and those who were selected to participate from the Black
Student Movement received the African American UNC-CH template. The exploratory
survey results, reported simply as frequencies, are not meant to be generalizable but
instead guided the conversation in follow-up interviews with survey respondents.
Procedure
Survey participants were asked to complete a quantitative online survey through
Qualtrics, a cloud-based survey software (appendix A). Ninety-four participants
completed the survey and met survey criteria, rendering their responses valid. By racial/
ethnic designation, there were 62 African American and 32 Latinx respondents who met
these criteria.
Before beginning the questionnaire, participants learned about the purpose of the
survey, eligibility requirements, and their ability to opt out at any point. After giving
consent, participants were first asked to view their assigned annual appeal letter on a
digitally. Participants used a check box to indicate that they understood information on
the research consent form. They then answered a group of closed-ended questions.
The first questions asked for demographic information. Next, using a Likert scale, a
series of questions asked participants to indicate their opinions about the effectiveness
of the letter’s content with regard to fundraising. Lastly, a series of questions relating to
degree to which they felt the letter used emotional manipulation, such as eliciting
feelings of guilt. These final questions corresponded to specific areas of ethical concern
identified by scholars who have examined messages targeted to racial minorities (Dean
& Wood, 2017; Tindall & Waters, 2010).
The survey included an option for participants to indicate their willingness to
complete a follow-up, semi-structured interview designed to solicit qualitative feedback
on the ethics and effectiveness of the annual appeal letter they viewed. These recorded
interviews helped me to better understand the data from the surveys about the
effectiveness and ethical suitability of the philanthropic mirroring approach. Each
participant who agreed to an interview was sent the same appeal letter template link in
advance of the interview and was allowed to reference it during the interview process.
For the second part of this project, I conducted semi-structured interviews with
members of each racial/ethnic group (appendix B). I interviewed six African American
alumni and five Latinx alumni by phone, which I recorded on audio. To analyze the
findings from these in-depth interviews, I identified primary themes relating to the
effectiveness and ethics of the appeal letter (McCracken, 1988). After identifying
patterns and commonalities among the themes and determining their interrelationship, I
developed central themes and sub-themes. From there, I made recommendations for
Results
All ninety-four survey participants indicated they were a graduate of UNC-CH. All
survey participants’ graduation years ranged from 2009 to 2019. Table 1 shows the
demographics of survey participants, including their age range and race/ethnicity.
Table 1
Demographics of Survey Participants
African American Latinx
n 62 32
Age (years)
18-24 11 12
25-34 50 19
35-44 1 1
More survey respondents indicated they had received a scholarship while a
student at UNC-CH; fewer indicated they had donated to the institution. For African
American respondents, 43 percent of survey respondents indicated they had donated
versus 56 percent of Latinx respondents. On the other hand, more than half of survey
respondents indicated they had received a scholarship during their time as a student at
UNC-CH. For African American respondents, 69 percent indicated they had received a
scholarship compared to 65 percent of Latinx respondents. The mean for this question
for African American and Latinx respondents was 3.01 and 3.28 respectively, with
African Americans slightly more inclined to donate. By responding to five-point Likert
scale-style questions indicating likelihood (extremely unlikely-1, moderately unlikely-2,
neither unlikely nor likely-3, moderately likely-4, extremely likely-5), survey participants
university and to support Latinx or African American students based on the content of
the fundraising appeal letter they read. Not surprisingly, using the same scale
measuring feelings of connectedness, both racial/ethnic groups felt connected to the
university after having seen a Latinx or African American student feature, depending on
the template they viewed. The mean for this question reveals for African American
respondents an average response of 3.74 and for Latinx an average of 3.71; a nearly
identical measure of feelings of connectedness. On a similar five-point scale in which
survey participants rated the effectiveness of the use of race and/or ethnicity to tailor
fundraising letters, they indicated it was a moderately effective approach for fundraising
staff to implement; the mean for African Americans for this question was 3.48; for Latinx
it was 3.06. In this case, African Americans felt that the letters were overall more
effective than their Latinx counterparts.
The only question in which Likert-style responses differed based on race/ethnicity
asked survey participants the extent to which they believed it was ethical to use an
underrepresented minority student to persuade minority alumni to donate. Latinx
respondents reported they thought it was neither ethical nor ethical—slightly less ethical
than African American respondents who rated it moderately ethical. In this case, the
means also reflected these results: 3.46 for African American respondents and 3.21 for
Latinx respondents. Survey participants could select from the following scale: extremely
un1, moderately un2, neither unethical nor 3, moderately
ethical-4, extremely ethical-5.
In terms of the letter’s positive and negative attributes, survey participants
reasonable. They felt less strongly that it was insulting, emotionally manipulative,
guilt-based, and exploitive (results can be seen in Table 2). For each of these positive and
negative identifiers, the mode was the same; therefore, only means are reported.
Generally, survey participants believed the templates to be both ethical and effective.
Table 2
Survey Participant Agreement or Disagreement as to Whether Approach of Showcasing Underrepresented Minority Student to Persuade Minority
Alumni to Donate to University is Among the Following:
African American Latinx
n 62 32
Engaging
Mean 3.46 3.78
Acceptable
Mean 3.38 3.93
Uplifting
Mean 3.19 3.75
Reasonable
Mean 3.3 3.81
Insulting
Mean 2.48 2.18
Guilt-based
Mean 2.82 3.03
Emotionally Manipulative
Mean 3.14 2.93
Exploitive
Mean 2.79 2.71
Themes emerging from the in-depth interviews
Overall, during the optional interview portion of my research, most of the
interviewees indicated they felt the student feature vignettes were effective. All 11
interview participants (five Latinx and six African Americans) indicated that philanthropic
mirroring using racial/ethnic designations as conveyed in the student feature vignette
was ethical. Participants also provided feedback about how to best structure this type of
fundraising appeal, which I have condensed into four emerging themes. A theme
emerged if four or more interview participants provided insight into a single topic and
stressed the issue during the follow-up interview. The first two in the bulleted list below
relate to the fundraising letter effectiveness; the last two relate to ethical considerations.
A need for tailored and strategic storytelling: Almost every interview
participant wanted to see more tailored storytelling. They also recommended that
the body copy headline better reflect the story. In terms of more tailored
storytelling, participants recommended body copy more specifically relate to their
personal experience as a student (both racial/ethnic and non-racial/ethnic
activities), so as to elicit feelings more reminiscent of their time in college.
Respondents sought stories that placed them in the mindset of the featured
student, and they desired hearing stories of loyalty and dedication to campus
organizations.
just racial/ethnic lines. These suggestions fell into four categories of identity:
student voice, scholarships status, racial/ethnic-related campus activities, and
non-racial/ethnic-related activities. Four participants mentioned the value of these
thematic categories as a way to better understand the identity of an
underrepresented student and to establish empathy.
Student voice
Three participants recommended the use of the student voice through quotations
within body copy. They said hearing from a first-person perspective would strengthen
feelings of empathy and the ability to relate to the featured student.
Scholarship status
Participants indicated that fact that the student vignette addressed scholarship
status made them reflect on their own scholarship status or that of others they knew
who had received and benefitted from a scholarship. This is useful information for
fundraisers because it provides a moment of reflection for the potential donor.
Racial/ethnic-related activities
Participants recommended highlighting a student’s involvement in
racial/ethnic-related activities to mirror that of the letter recipient’s participation. For Latinx students
at UNC-CH, for example, they recommended featuring students who were involved in a
sorority or fraternity, were interested in bilingual opportunities for students, or were
involved with the Carolina Latinx Center. For African American students, there are
similar opportunities to highlight campus involvement such as the Black Student
Movement, sororities or fraternities, Summer Bridge and involvement with the Carolina
Non-racial/ethnic related markers of identity
Interview participants recommended telling stories of students who may have had
similar internships or first jobs. They also recommended telling stories about students
who came from a variety of backgrounds, including rural locations and socio-economic
statuses such as middle class, in order to provide a wider representation of identity.
They also recommended widening the breadth of the student experience to include
activities that represent both inclusion and diversity. For example, most first-year
students at UNC-CH live on the south side of campus and are involved in clubs that are
not racial/ethnic based, such as film club.
Race and ethnicity-based based photos are valuable Six interview
participants indicated that the student photo appeared to be authentic because it
fostered feelings of empathy toward the students’ success. The photo also
provided immediate visual clarity about whom the funds would support. Three
participants mentioned the student’s positive smile, which brought about feelings
of pride. Interestingly, two participants said if the feature photo was that of a
white student, they would have had no interest in donating.
Be aware of the dangers of stereotyping: More than half of interview participants indicated the template copy felt inauthentic and institutionalized.
Five interview participants cautioned against generalizations and stereotyping of
a racial/ethnic experience. For instance, a total of five Latinx and African
American respondents noted that not every student from their racial/ethnic group
fundraising letters that highlight the first-generation experience be tailored to
students who were, in fact, first-generation students. Four interview participants
also noted that caution should be used when showcasing underrepresented
minority students who need money to attend school, as it implies high levels of
poverty—another stereotype of underrepresented minority students. Similarly,
four participants suggested that the scholarship experience is not universal to
underrepresented minority students. This is useful knowledge for a fundraiser
because it is another way to strategically speak to donors who either received or
