Effects of Global warming on wildlife:Review Jennifer K. Cooper and Isabella M. Cattadori School of Education and Social Sciences, Cavendish University, Zambia.

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International Digital Organization for Scientific Research ISSN: 2579-0773 IDOSR JOURNAL OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES 5(1): 59-67, 2020.

Effects of Global warming on wildlife:Review Jennifer K. Cooper and Isabella M. Cattadori

School of Education and Social Sciences, Cavendish University, Zambia.

ABSTRACT

Over the past 50 years, the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. And experts see the trend is accelerating: All but one of the 16 hottest years in NASA’s 134-year record have occurred since 2000. Environmental change has negatively affected most biological systems on our planet and is becoming of increasing concern for the well-being and survival of many species. Here, we outline the roles of greenhouse effect on global warming, causes of global warming, relationship between global warming and extreme weather condition, effects of global warming, and most advance preventive measures of Global Warming in the society today.

Keywords: Wildlife, Global warming and environmental change.

INTRODUCTION Our planet is currently suffering a

staggering rate of dramatic environmental change. Around the world, ecosystems are increasingly subjected to the negative effects of human population growth and its expanding ecological footprint [1]. Be it in the form of habitat loss or alteration, the introduction of invasive species, pathogen spill-over, accumulation of persistent pollutants, climate change or stratospheric ozone depletion, global environmental change has altered physical and biological systems and is becoming of increasing concern for the well-being and survival of many species [2]. Predicting the consequences of global environmental change on biodiversity is a complex task mainly because the effects encompass multiple and complex dynamic processes that rarely have single and clear-cut actions. Rather, the effects appear to interact and can even have additive costs, and these can manifest at several levels. For instance, habitat degradation and fragmentation not only may decrease food availability and restrict the movement of animals, thus impairing nutritional status and limiting gene flow, but also may increase the opportunity for contact among humans, domestic livestock and wildlife, potentially enhancing disease

transmission rates [3]. Furthermore, pollutants can alter habitat quality, reduce nutrient availability and encourage toxic algae blooms along coastlines, all of which can indirectly affect the survival of sensitive species; furthermore, pollutants can directly impact reproductive parameters, sex ratios and immune competence [4]. Because of this very complexity, environmental change is likely to seriously impair the viability of wildlife. It could be argued that living organisms have long been subject to a myriad of evolutionary pressures arising from the environment and are consequently well adapted to respond to such pressures. However, the current pace of environmental change is unprecedented and it is unknown whether the capacity of species to adapt to such changes and counteract their harmful and often combined effects may be exceeded.

Regrettably, published data on this subject are still extremely limited, making it difficult to understand the full extent of the effects of environmental change on wildlife health [5].

Roles of greenhouse effect on Global Warming

The main driver of today's warming is the combustion of fossil fuels. These hydrocarbons heat up the planet via the

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60 greenhouse effect, which is caused by the interaction between Earth's atmosphere and incoming radiation from the sun [6].

"The basic physics of the greenhouse effect were figured out more than a hundred years ago by a smart guy using only pencil and paper," Josef Werne, a professor of geology and environmental science at the University of Pittsburgh, told Live Science. That "smart guy" was Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist and eventual Nobel Prize winner. Simply put, solar radiation hits Earth's surface and then bounces back toward the atmosphere as heat. Gases in the atmosphere trap this heat, preventing it from escaping into the void of space (good news for life on the planet) [7]. In a paper presented in 1895, Arrhenius figured out that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide could trap heat close to the Earth's surface, and that small changes in the amount of those gases could make a big difference in how much heat was trapped [8].

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, humans have been rapidly changing the balance of gases in the atmosphere. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil releases water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone and nitrous oxide (N2O), the primary greenhouse gases [9]. Carbon dioxide is the most common greenhouse gas.

Between about 800,000 years ago and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, CO2's presence in the atmosphere amounted to about 280 parts per million (ppm, meaning there were about 208 molecules of CO2 in the air per every million air molecules). As of 2018 (the last year when full data are available), the average CO2 in the atmosphere was 407.4 ppm, according to the National Centers for Environmental Information [10]. That may not sound like much, but according to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, levels of CO2 haven't been that high since the Pliocene epoch, which occurred between 3 million and 5 million years ago. At that time, the Arctic was ice- free at least part of the year and significantly warmer than it is today, according to 2013 research published in the journal Science [11]. In 2016, CO2

accounted for 81.6% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, according to an analysis from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [12]. "We know through high-accuracy instrumental measurements that there is an unprecedented increase in CO2 in the atmosphere. We know that CO2 absorbs infrared radiation [heat] and the global mean temperature is increasing," Keith Peterman, a professor of chemistry at York College of Pennsylvania, and his research partner, Gregory Foy, an associate professor of chemistry at York College of Pennsylvania, told Live Science in a joint email message. CO2 makes its way into the atmosphere through a variety of routes. Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 and is, by far, the biggest U.S. contribution to emissions that warm the globe [13]. According to the 2018 EPA report, U.S. fossil fuel combustion, including electricity generation, released just over 5.8 billion tons (5.3 billion metric tons) of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2016 [14]. Other processes such as non energy use of fuels, iron and steel production, cement production, and waste incineration boost the total annual CO2 release in the U.S. to 7 billion tons (6.5 billion metric tons) [15].

Deforestation is also a large contributor to excess CO2 in the atmosphere. In fact, deforestation is the second largest anthropogenic (human-made) source of carbon dioxide, according to research published by Duke University. After trees die, they release the carbon they have stored during photosynthesis. According to the 2010 Global Forest Resources Assessment, deforestation releases nearly a billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere per year [16]. Globally, methane is the second most common greenhouse gas, but it is the most efficient at trapping heat. The EPA reports that methane is 25 times more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide [17]. In 2016, the gas accounted for about 10% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, according to the EPA. Methane can come from many natural sources, but humans cause a large portion of methane emissions through mining, the use of

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61 natural gas, the mass raising of livestock and the use of landfills. Cattle constitute the largest single source of methane in the U.S., according to the EPA, with the animals producing nearly 26% of total methane emissions. There are some hopeful trends in the numbers for U.S.

greenhouse gas emissions. According to the 2018 EPA report, these emissions rose 2.4% between 1990 and 2016 but declined by 1.9% between 2015 and 2016 [18]. Part of that decline was driven by a warm winter in 2016, which required less heating fuel than usual. But another significant reason for this recent decline is the replacement of coal with natural gas, according to the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions [19]. The U.S. is also transitioning from a manufacturing-based economy to a less carbon-intensive service economy. Fuel-efficient vehicles and energy-efficiency standards for buildings have also improved emissions, according to the EPA.

Causes of Global Warming

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space but these pollutants, which can last for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter [20].

That's what's known as the greenhouse effect. In the United States, the burning of fossil fuels to make electricity is the largest source of heat-trapping pollution, producing about two billion tons of CO2 every year. Coal-burning power plants are by far the biggest polluters. The country’s second-largest source of carbon pollution is the transportation sector, which generates about 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emissions a year. Curbing dangerous climate change requires very deep cuts in emissions, as well as the use of alternatives to fossil fuels worldwide [21].

Relationship between global warming and extreme weather condition.

Scientists agree that the earth’s rising temperatures are fueling longer and hotter heat waves, more frequent

droughts, heavier rainfall, and more powerful hurricanes. In 2015, for example, scientists said that an ongoing drought in California the state’s worst water shortage in 1,200 years had been intensified by 15 percent to 20 percent by global warming. They also said the odds of similar droughts happening in the future had roughly doubled over the past century [22]. And in 2016, the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine announced that it’s now possible to confidently attribute certain weather events, like some heat waves, directly to climate change. The earth’s ocean temperatures are getting warmer, too which means that tropical storms can pick up more energy. So global warming could turn, say, a category 3 storm into a more dangerous category 4 storm. In fact, scientists have found that the frequency of North Atlantic hurricanes has increased since the early 1980s, as well as the number of storms that reach categories 4 and 5 [23]. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina the costliest hurricane in U.S. history struck New Orleans; the second-costliest, Hurricane Sandy, hit the East Coast in 2012. The impacts of global warming are being felt across the globe. Extreme heat waves have caused tens of thousands of deaths around the world in recent years.

And in an alarming sign of events to come, Antarctica has been losing about 134 billion metric tons of ice per year since 2002. This rate could speed up if we keep burning fossil fuels at our current pace, some experts say, causing sea levels to rise several meters over the next 50 to 150 years [24].

Effects of global warming

Global warming doesn't just mean warming, which is why "climate change"

has become the favored term among researchers and policymakers. While the globe is becoming hotter on average, this temperature increase can have paradoxical effects, such as more frequent and severe snowstorms [25].

Climate change can and will affect the globe in several big ways: by melting ice, by drying out already-arid areas, by causing weather extremes and by

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62 disrupting the delicate balance of the oceans.

Melting ice

Perhaps the most visible effect of climate change so far is the melting of glaciers and sea ice. The ice sheets have been retreating since the end of the last ice age, about 11,700 years ago, but the last century's warming has hastened their demise [26]. A 2016 study found that there is a 99% chance that global warming has caused the recent retreat of glaciers;

in fact, the research showed, these rivers of ice retreated 10 to 15 times the distance they would have if the climate had stayed stable. Glacier National Park in Montana had 150 glaciers in the late 1800s. Today, it has 26. The loss of glaciers can cause the loss of human life, when icy dams holding back glacier lakes destabilize and burst or when avalanches caused by unstable ice bury villages [27].

At the North Pole, warming is proceeding twice as quickly as it is at middle latitudes, and the sea ice is showing the strain. Fall and winter ice in the Arctic hit record lows in both 2015 and 2016, meaning the ice expanse did not cover as much of the open sea as previously observed. According to NASA, the 13 smallest values for maximum winter extent of sea ice in the Arctic were all measured in the last 13 years. The ice also forms later in the season and melts more readily in spring. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, January sea ice extent has declined 3.15%

per decade over the past 40 years [28].

Some scientists think the Arctic Ocean will see ice-free summers within 20 or 30 years. In the Antarctic, the picture has been a little less clear. The Western Antarctic Peninsula is warming faster than anywhere else besides some parts of the Arctic, according to the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition. The peninsula is where the Larsen C ice shelf just broke in July 2017, spawning an iceberg the size of Delaware. Now, scientists say that a quarter of West Antarctica's ice is in danger of collapse and the enormous Thwaites and Pine Island glaciers are flowing five times faster than they did in 1992 [29]. The sea ice off Antarctica is

extremely variable, though, and some areas have actually hit record highs in recent years. However, those records could bear the fingerprints of climate change, as they may result from land- based ice moving out to sea as the glaciers melt or from warming-related changes to wind [30]. In 2017, though, this pattern of record-high ice abruptly reversed, with the occurrence of a record low. On March 3, 2017, Antarctic sea ice was measured at an extent of 71,000 square miles (184,000 square kilometers) less than the previous low, from 1997 [31].

Heating up

Global warming will change things between the poles, too. Many already-dry areas are expected to get even drier as the world warms. The southwest and central plains of the United States, for example, are expected to experience decades-long

"megadroughts" harsher than anything else in human memory [32]. "The future of drought in western North America is likely to be worse than anybody has experienced in the history of the United States," Benjamin Cook, a climate scientist at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City who published research in 2015 projecting these droughts, told Live Science. "These are droughts that are so far beyond our contemporary experience that they are almost impossible to even think about."

The study predicted an 85% chance of droughts lasting at least 35 years in the region by 2100. The main driver, the researchers found, is the increasing evaporation of water from hotter and hotter soil [33]. Much of the precipitation that does fall in these arid regions will be lost. Meanwhile, 2014 research found that many areas will likely see less rainfall as the climate warms. Subtropical regions, including the Mediterranean, the Amazon, Central America and Indonesia, will likely be hardest hit, that study found, while South Africa, Mexico, western Australia and California will also dry out.

Extreme weather

Another impact of global warming:

extreme weather. Hurricanes and typhoons are expected to become more

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63 intense as the planet warms. Hotter oceans evaporate more moisture, which is the engine that drives these storms [34].

The U.N Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that even if the world diversifies its energy sources and transitions to a less fossil-fuel- intensive economy (known as the A1B scenario), tropical cyclones are likely to be up to 11% more intense on average.

That means more wind and water damage on vulnerable coastlines. Paradoxically, climate change may also cause more frequent extreme snowstorms. According to the National Centers for Environmental Information, extreme snowstorms in the eastern United States have become twice as common as they were in the early 1900s [35]. Here again, this change comes because warming ocean temperatures lead to increased evaporation of moisture into the atmosphere. This moisture powers storms that hit the continental United States.

Ocean disruption

Some of the most immediate impacts of global warming are beneath the waves.

Oceans act as carbon sinks, which means they absorb dissolved carbon dioxide [36]. That's not a bad thing for the atmosphere, but it isn't great for the marine ecosystem. When carbon dioxide reacts with seawater, the pH of the water declines (that is, it becomes more acidic), a process known as ocean acidification.

This increased acidity eats away at the calcium carbonate shells and skeletons that many ocean organisms depend on for survival [37]. These creatures include shellfish, pteropods and corals, according

to NOAA. Corals, in particular, are the canary in a coal mine for climate change in the oceans. Marine scientists have observed alarming levels of coral bleaching, events in which coral expel the symbiotic algae that provide the coral with nutrients and give them their vivid colors. Bleaching occurs when corals are stressed, and stressors can include high temperatures [38]. In 2016 and 2017, Australia's Great Barrier Reef experienced back-to-back bleaching events. Coral can survive bleaching, but repeated bleaching events make survival less and less likely [39].

Prevention of Global Warming This can be prevented by making conserving energy a part of your daily routine and your decisions as a consumer [40]. When you shop for new appliances like refrigerators, washers, and dryers, look for products with the government’s Energy Star label; they meet a higher standard for energy efficiency than the minimum federal requirements [41]. When you buy a car, look for one with the highest gas mileage and lowest emissions.

You can also reduce your emissions by taking public transportation or carpooling when possible. And while new federal and state standards are a step in the right direction, much more needs to be done [42]. Voice your support of climate- friendly and climate change preparedness policies, and tell your representatives that transitioning from dirty fossil fuels to clean power should be a top priority because it’s vital to building healthy, more secure communities [43].

CONCLUSION Ecosystems are currently undergoing

rapid rates of change, which have the potential to inflict severe damage on the health of wildlife and humans. According to NASA, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are 412 ppm in 2020, their highest levels in 650,000 years. Average global temperature is up 1.9 degrees F (3.4 degrees C) since 1880. The minimum expanse of Arctic summer sea ice has declined 12.85% per decade since satellite measurements began, in 1979. Land ice has declined at the poles by 413 gigatons

a year since 2002. Global sea level has risen 7 inches (176 millimeters) in the past century. The increasing rates of disease (both infectious and non- infectious) in wildlife is of great concern since disease may be an indication that populations are approaching a state of stress which is negatively affecting immune function, and it is unknown how close this is to the upper limits of their tolerance. When examining the impacts of environmental change on wildlife health, multiple layers of complexity need to be

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64 examined and the interactions between different factors need to be considered.

This is an exciting time in terms of research possibilities. The abundant data and laboratory tools developed for studies of both humans and model organisms can be extremely useful to attempt addressing key questions on wildlife health. This approach, in addition

to the use of a rigorous and

‘environmentally explicit’ framework that considers all levels of environmental change will undoubtedly allow researchers to examine the root causes of existing potential future diseases for wildlife in the context of a rapidly changing environment.

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