ScholarWorks
ScholarWorks
Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection2020
Exploring a Pathway Out of Poverty Using the Welfare System
Exploring a Pathway Out of Poverty Using the Welfare System
Cadarrall A. Eddings Walden University
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations
Part of the Public Policy Commons
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected].
Walden University
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by
Cadarrall Eddings
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Gregory Campbell, Committee Chairperson, Public Policy and Administration Faculty Dr. Victoria Landu-Adams, Committee Member,
Public Policy and Administration Faculty Dr. Lydia Forsythe, University Reviewer, Public Policy and Administration Faculty
Chief Academic Officer and Provost Sue Subocz, Ph.D.
Walden University 2020
Abstract
Exploring a Pathway Out of Poverty Using the Welfare System by
Cadarrall Eddings
MA, Liberty University, 2015 BS, University of West Alabama, 2005
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Public Policy and Administration – Global Leadership
Walden University November 2020
Individuals dependent on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) encounter multiple contributors that impede economic empowerment and a pathway out of poverty that leads to self – sufficiency. Previous research has not been fully clarified as to why TANF has not been successful in moving recipients out of dependency and into lasting economic success. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study was to conduct a comparative analysis between two administrations, namely the Obama and Trump administrations, concerning welfare policies. The human capital theory provided the theoretical framework for the study. This study explored the lived experiences of TANF recipients related to cognitive preparedness and skill-based training as a pathway out of poverty leading to lasting economic success. A purposive, homogenous sampling method was utilized to select six TANF recipients to participate in this study. Only recipients during the Obama and Trump administrations were considered for participation in this study. A validated, semi structured interview questionnaire was utilized. An inductive, In Vivo coding technique indicated that there are barriers within the TANF program, and the program did not engage in the holistic development involving both skill-based and cognitive training to lead to self – sufficiency and lasting economic change. As a result of research findings, further critical research needs to be done specifically towards the TANF workfare program to assess its effective approach in provoking high – wage employment. Findings may be used to influence individuals receiving welfare assistance to provide a pathway out of poverty through economic empowerment, training, and new policies, leading to positive social change.
Exploring a Pathway Out of Poverty Using the Welfare System by
Cadarrall Eddings
MA, Liberty University, 2015 BS, University of West Alabama, 2005
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Public Policy and Administration – Global Leadership
Walden University November 2020
Dedication
First, I want to dedicate this dissertation to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. This has been a rigorous process and without Him, I would have given up. This achievement would not have been possible if it had been for His grace. Secondly, I would like to dedicate this lifetime achievement to my mother and father, Dwight and Renee Eddings. Since birth, they have always been there for me. I can honestly say that they raised me and my siblings the right way. Their support and guidance have steered me in the right direction. I am proud to say that what they have invested and instilled in me throughout the years has not been in vain.
I dedicate this achievement to my daughters, Imani Grace Eddings and Abigail Joy Eddings. We did it! This successful achievement is evidence that all things are possible through Christ who strengthens us. You can do anything that you put your mind to do; you can be anything that you desire to be. I pray that this success is a pattern for you to pursue and fulfill your goals and dreams.
To my wife, Karla Eddings, this achievement is a result of your continuous support and sacrifice through my academic journey. You have been there for me to cheer me on the whole way and for that I thank you.
Last but not least, to all the individuals who encouraged me throughout this process, it was not in vain. It was your encouragement that helped me through the tough times.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for giving me the ability and grace to survive and successfully finish my dissertation. This would not have been possible without Him. I want to send a special shout out to my lovely daughters, Imani Grace Eddings and Abigail Joy Eddings as well as my beautiful wife, Karla Eddings for enduring the process with me. The sacrifices that you have endured for me to finish my dissertation are greatly appreciated. Special thanks to my brother, Edwond Eddings and my sister, Amber Eddings, for believing in me and loving me as your big brother. I would like to thank my mother, Renee Eddings, and my father, Dwight Eddings, for being amazing parents throughout my life and setting the example for me to follow. I would also like to thank my in – laws, Bobbie Robinson and Willie Robinson, for their continuous support throughout my dissertation journey. To my auntie, Dr. Karen Brown and uncles, Greg Brown and Crandall Brown, thank you for all of your advice, push, and support to get me through the tough times. I would also like to thank my grandmother, Lorreanner Brown, and the late, Hilmer Brown, for who you both have been to me. I love you dearly grandpa. To my friends, Dr. Donyea Hargrove, Lindsey Hargrove and their lovely family, to Apostle Brandon Cornelius and the Glory Revival Center family; thank you for your consistent friendship. To my leadership covering, Bishop RJ
Matthews and Prophetess Cycelia Matthews, thank you for your motivation and prayers throughout the process. I really appreciate it! Last but not least, I would like to extend a special thanks to my dissertation committee, Dr. Gregory Campbell (chair), Dr. Victoria
B. Landu-Adams (2 committee), and Dr. Lydia Forsythe (URR) for walking me through the dissertation process and challenging me to be the best that I could be. We did it!
i
Table of Contents
List of Tables………...v
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study...1
Background of the Study...3
Problem Statement...5
Purpose of the Study...7
Research Questions...8
Theoretical Framework...8
Nature of the Study...9
Definitions...10
Assumptions...11
Scope and Delimitations...12
Limitations...12
Significance of the Study...13
Summary...14
Chapter 2: Literature Review...17
Literature Search Strategy...18
Theoretical Foundation...19
Human Capital Theory Conceptualization...20
Marketable Human Capital...21
Historical Background of Welfare in America...22
ii
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act...24
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)...25
Welfare to Work Policies...28
Behavioral Health Policies...29
Educational Policies...31
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)...33
Contributors to Welfare Dependency...34
Causes of Dependency...35
Effects of Dependency...39
Millennial Administrative Efforts to Combat Welfare (National)...43
Obama Administrative Efforts...44
Controversial Efforts...49
Trump Administrative Efforts...51
Optimal Welfare-Based Policy/Administration...54
Mississippi Welfare/TANF Laws and Policies...58
Strategic Approaches to Self-Sufficiency...58
Mississippi Welfare Approaches-TANF...60
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)...61
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)...62
Skill-based training...63
iii
Gaps in Research...64
Summary...66
Chapter 3: Research Method...68
Research Design and Rationale...68
Research Design...68
Research Questions...69
Research Tradition...70
Rationale...72
Role of the researcher...72
Methodology...74
Participation Selection Logic...74
Instrumentation...76
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection...78
Data Analysis Plan...80
Issues of Trustworthiness...82 Ethical Procedures...83 Summary...85 Chapter 4: Results………..87 Research Setting……….88 Demographics………89 Data Collection………..90 Data Analysis……….91
iv
Evidence of Trustworthiness………..92
Results………93
Lack of Personal Involvement Theme………...94
Lack of Effective System Processes Theme………..95
Lack of Holistic, Skill-Based and Cognitive, Empowerment Theme……96
Summary………98
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations………99
Introduction………..99 Interpretation of Findings………100 Research Finding # 1………...101 Research Finding # 2………...101 Research Finding # 3………...102 Summary of Findings………...103
Limitations of the Study………...103
Recommendations………105
Implications………..106
Conclusion………...107
References………109
Appendix A: Informed Consent Form……….140
Appendix B: Modified Validated Research Questionnaire……….144
Appendix C: Approved Letter of Validated Interview Questionnaire………148
v
Appendix E: Invitation to Study Participation……….151
vi List of Tables
Table 1. Participant Demographics………89
Table 2. Theme 1 Table……….94
Table 3. Theme 2 Table……….96
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
For decades, the welfare system has been an established government institution whereby individuals and families rely on its assistance for provisional needs. It has been in times of economic instability and uncertainty, especially in the 21st century era, where the poverty epidemic continues to be a threat to society which causes the welfare system to be under immense pressure and scrutiny to make changes that address ongoing
challenges. One of the most significant changes in the welfare system happened when former President Bill Clinton enacted a reformative measure within welfare that marked a radical shift by creating and signing the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) (Hammond, 2017). It was during this shift in welfare reform that the transition was made from dependency on welfare assistance to personal responsibility (Williams, 2017). The implementation of the PRWORA paved the way for a program to be designed named the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) utilized to transform a broken system that confronted dependence and that emphasized work and independence (Greene, 2017). Since the implementation, accountability and responsibility have been a major priority to help eliminate dependency.
The welfare system has been a concern for policymakers and citizenry in general for some time. Thorough examination and analysis on the history of the welfare system have been problematic for our country because of the strain of an already stressed American budget and the facilitation of codependency through the creation of “lazy
Americans” (Fast, O’Brian, & Block, 2017). Additionally, the TANF program, the second largest federal needs-based poverty program, did not address the problem of the poverty epidemic but clearly contributed to the problem by allowing poverty to remain unresolved according to statistics (Crawford & Crawford, 2017). In 1975, 12.3% of the population in the U.S. lived below the poverty line but by 2014, 14.8% of the U.S. population lived below the poverty line (Crawford & Crawford, 2017). The apparent increase of the individuals living under the poverty line amidst welfare reform and modifications speaks to the ineffectiveness of welfare and the need for critical analysis and intense research to help restore a system that is need of it.
The controversy around the topic of welfare dependency in our modern era has raised levels of uncertainty and a lack of confidence in welfare assistance. Moreover, what was established as a strategy for poverty reduction has become a means that cripples the economy and victimizes those individuals that depend on its assistance. With the implementation of the TANF program, strategic efforts have been made to firmly
establish a work – based safety net by increasing employment (Berger et al., 2018). Even with those efforts, there were limited improvements made for economic well – being; this may have deepened poverty for those not able to find steady and sufficient work through program initiatives (Berger et al., 2018). Furthermore, the role that welfare assistance including TANF, plays in the financial security and independence of low – income families/individuals are vital and must continuously be investigated for better
understanding of long – term benefits and welfare assistance leading to self – sufficiency (Kyoung & Wilmarth, 2017). Ultimately, systematic reform of welfare assistance
programs and policies that lead to self – sufficiency is gradually evolving especially with continued efforts and aggressiveness.
Welfare reform and the programs involved in the process, such as TANF, are instrumental in successfully addressing the ongoing poverty epidemic. Furthermore, although progress continues to be made; more strategic and innovative work needs to be done for recipients of welfare to obtain work whether it be training, more discriminating work requirements, better child care for working mothers, and other forms of
employment assistance (Moffitt, 2015). A review of the literature indicated that to help successfully move individuals out of poverty, policymakers believe it is important and useful to make the exploration of strategic alternatives that represent new approaches and significant innovations to welfare existing policies and programs (Berger, Cancian, & Magnuson, 2018). Ultimately, the findings of this study should increase the
understanding of policies, trainings, and strategies that help lead to a path out of poverty using the welfare system.
In this chapter, I begin with a brief introduction to the study that provides a description of the research topic of study and why the research study is important to conduct, a brief historical background, and implications for social change. I then
transition to the problem statement that describes the reasons behind and the goals of the research study. To collect the data to understand the lived experience of TANF recipients in the welfare system, I used a phenomenological qualitative method was used.
Today, poverty continues to be a growing epidemic that negatively affect a plethora of individuals around the world, let alone the United States. Moreover, the complexities of the poverty epidemic that has affected so many lives have induced
throughout history the creation of policies and programs in welfare assistance that remain to be developed and reformed. Thus, to examine the historical background of the welfare state, the welfare administration began in the early 1930’s with the creation of the Social Security Act (SSA) whose responsibility was to transform poverty relief efforts both nationally and locally along with private charity into a centralized system for the rise of a free and independent citizenry (Michelmore, 2017). Unfortunately, the inability of the SSA to uphold its standard to modernize relief of the poor sparked the beginnings of major reforms within the system.
The creation of the PRWORA and the developing of the TANF program as a result initiated a hope in the economic landscape as the motivation that undergirded the act to end welfare dependency. Moreover, breakthrough in welfare reform began with the passing and implementation of the PRWORA in 1996 that represented a significant redirection for anti – poverty policy (Berger et al., 2018). Notably, the PRWORA eliminated cash entitlement to welfare recipients that was provided by the AFDC and transitioned welfare into a time – delimited benefit contingent on meeting work
requirements by establishing the TANF program (Berger et al., 2018). It was under the TANF program where welfare reform began to take on a new identity as opposed from the previous program that it replaced known as the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). For instance, the AFDC entitled recipients to cash assistance with little
restrictions while TANF imposed strict regulations that put a demand on recipients to work (Greene, 2017). However, though the transition to TANF yielded great expectation to fulfill its responsibility in provoking economic independence and self – sustainability, the TANF program strives to attain program requirements, holistic empowerment, and development amidst diversities and complexities within.
Today, TANF serves as a program that continues to evolve despite the many challenges that it faces to provide as a pathway out of poverty for recipients. It is in the current era where individuals fall into reoccurring cycles of poverty that TANF has the responsibility to meet its standards for implementation by preventing those cycles and moving individuals into self – sufficiency through its policies and programs. TANF policies and programs consist of work requirements that include recipients to be active in job search or enrolled in job training, a time limit on the duration of benefits received, which last up to 5 years, and personal responsibility policies (Groves, 2016). Ultimately, regarding the quality of life and the welfare of humanity, the TANF program plays a pivotal role in providing a pathway out of poverty and into economic independence.
Statement of the Problem
As presidential administrations change, there are generally differences in public policy strategies as it relates to welfare reform and the ongoing efforts to fight against the global issue of poverty. For instance, the Trump administration indicated that success of the welfare system should be measured by how many recipients transition out of poverty into financial independence rather than measures success by program enrollment (Trump, 2018). Alternatively, the Obama administration subverted the 1996 welfare reform law
that allowed states to waive the welfare programs work requirements, which led to increased enrollments (Rector & Menon, 2017). With that, an estimated number of 42 million recipients participated in the welfare program at the end of the Obama
administration while making a significant drop to fewer than 40 million as of May 2018 under the Trump administration (Wegmann, 2018). The problem addressed in this study was the possible factors that contributed to recipients remaining on welfare assistance and the lack of policies within the system that helped understand and reduce the poverty epidemic (Abrar – Ul – Haq, Jali, & Islam, 2016). This study will be needed to better understand what welfare reform policies are needed to aid in proper cognitive and skill – based training for recipients that will enhance the chances of a path out of poverty through economic empowerment. This study’s implication for social change was to impact individuals receiving welfare assistance to provide a path out of poverty through economic empowerment, training, and new policies.
The fight to successfully address welfare dependence not just in the United States, but around the world, has experienced epic failures as well as momentous occasions especially as it relates to participant employability. Despite the numerous efforts by the welfare system to help address the poverty epidemic through its policies and programs, the proper skills and specialized training within has not been clarified as to what is needed to move individuals out of poverty by not just employment, but higher paying employment that leads to self – sustainability (Thomhave, 2017). Simply, employment alone is not enough to provide a path out of poverty and training must be strengthened to hone in on skills both cognitively and skill – based that are adequate for better
employment. Moreover, policymakers are encouraged to help welfare recipients out of poverty by building the skill-based training and acquiring the work experience needed for long term success in today’s employment (Pavetti, 2016). Furthermore, researchers have not fully studied cognitive preparation as needed to help determine whether it reduces poverty and enhances productivity and sustainability (Dalton, Jimenez, & Noussair, 2017). To that extent, there is little to no existing research that has sought to integrate cognitive practice within Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) efforts for recipients who are required for work participation to receive benefits (Booshehri, Dugan, Patel, Bloom, & Chilton, 2018). Overall, welfare system policies and training programs should be further examined to ensure responsibility of empowering recipients to be self sufficient.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to conduct a comparative analysis of two administrations, namely the Obama and Trump administrations, concerning welfare policies. The findings of this study may help inform policy makers on how to strengthen welfare reform in the United States. A comparison of the welfare policies of the two administrations was the intent to help lead to a path out of poverty for welfare recipients through training and economic empowerment policies. A phenomenological, qualitative study was utilized to explore the lived experiences of TANF welfare recipients that assisted to determine policies, strategies, and training that provided the best pathway out of poverty. A thorough analysis of welfare reform policies between the two
questionnaire with recipients further developed an understanding of welfare system policies and programs and its impact on recipients.
Research Questions The following research question was addressed in the study:
1. RQ1: In what ways, if any, have Obama and Trump administration TANF policies and programs influenced the lived experiences of TANF recipients related to cognitive preparedness and skill-based training as a pathway out of poverty leading to lasting economic success?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study was the human capital theory (HCT). The original concept of this theory rests on the idea that education and empowerment increase individual productivity and efficiency by enhancing the cognitive ability to be economically productive, which is a product of the innate abilities and investments made in human beings (Olaniyan & Okemakinde, 2008). The HCT puts emphasis on education and training as key dynamics in the investment made in humans to become viable
resources and commodities that enhance not just the economy, but society. This theory related to the exploration of a pathway out of poverty using the welfare system in that it focused on the intention of the Obama and Trump administrations, though through different methods, to move recipients from a place of dependency to a place where they are self – sustained to help strengthen the economy. The HCT synchronized and aligned with the population, the research design, and the research question in that it
policies and programs to empower individuals holistically to become self – dependent. Furthermore, the framework approach for this research study utilized the comparative analysis between the Obama and Trump administration policies. The qualitative in - depth interview process of six to 10 TANF adult men and women from a southern state helped determine whether participants strengthen human capital through its policies and programs.
Nature of the Study
The nature of this study was a general qualitative method, using a
phenomenological approach. Specifically, a descriptive phenomenological design approach was utilized to analyze the personal experiences of participants and the interpretation of the meanings of phenomena experienced by participants (Padilla-Diaz, 2015). The qualitative research method helps to bring greater understanding of
individuals, people groups, and phenomena that allow for deeper meaning of the lived experiences and the way of life (Ravitch & Carl, 2016). The phenomenological design expressed in the depth of the interviewing process is exploratory in nature. Therefore, only a homogenous, purposive sample number of six to 10 participants were interviewed which is the recommended number of participants for phenomenological studies
(Hagaman & Wutich, 2017). The six to 10 TANF recipients were adult women from a Southern state. A southern city had an above average percentage of residents below the poverty line compared to the state being 27.2% (Welfare Info, 2018). This study’s implication for social change was the intention to help bring greater awareness of the affect of welfare system policies and programs needed to help address contributing
factors that facilitate dependency of assistance. Also, secondary data from the government agencies and Public Policy and Administration databases from Walden University was collected and utilized along with other reliable government websites to conduct the research.
Definitions
The following key terms were defined for this study.
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). A program popularly referred to as welfare in which states were allowed substantial latitude in settling enrollment qualifications (Lands, 2018).
Cognitivetraining. The concept of cognitive training denotes the readiness or mental preparedness of individuals in being able to overcome any dynamic or
unpredictable challenge that may arise (Hagemann & Schatz, 2019).
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA). A major legislative reform measures whose main objective was to get low-income with children 18 and below off welfare and into work (Ho, 2015).
Phenomenological Research. A term defined as the study of lived experience – the world as we immediately experience it (Van-Manen, 2017).
Poverty. Poverty is typically referred to as a lack of economic resources but has been defined more broadly as social exclusion (Berger, 2018).
Skill – Based Training. A measure of preparation used to prepare individuals to acquire the necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills to prosper within a dynamic global economy (Weaver & Habibov, 2017).
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). A welfare reform program funded through block grants utilized to eliminate welfare dependency (Hammond, 2017).
Welfare Recipients. Underprivileged individuals whom live in a culture of poverty that rely on welfare assistance for benefits (Pizzolato & Olson, 2016).
Welfare Reform. Legislative, comprehensive efforts of the welfare system including paradigmatic changes to structural and systematic components designed to eliminate dependency and promote self – sufficiency (Yoshida, 2018).
Assumptions
The research topic was selected to help analyze strategies, programs, and policies that would help lead to a pathway out of poverty through the welfare system. One
assumption was that the comparison of welfare policies and programs between the Obama and Trump administrations helped discover strengths and weaknesses and
enhanced them to eliminate welfare system dependency. An additional assumption was to explore if the lived experiences of welfare recipients involved in the TANF program were transparent enough to provide truthful and accurate responses to interview questions that would help lead to policies and programs being strengthened. A final assumption was that skill – based, cognitive trainings and policies represented contributors that enhanced the welfare system in eliminating dependency and facilitating economic empowerment. As assumptions are key to research acting as a foundation by which they are built upon, the aforementioned assumptions were important to this research study because they helped to enhance the development of the theory stated as well as the research study overall.
The scope of the phenomenological, qualitative study focused on the utilization of a comparative analysis between two Administrations. The scope encompassed the
Obama and Trump administrations to examine welfare system policies and programs that would help lead to a pathway out of poverty. Delimitations included six to 10 adult men and women TANF recipients between the ages of 18 – 35 years from a southern state. A second delimitation of the study was that only recipients that received TANF benefits were included in the study. Also, another delimitation of the study was that only two administrations were utilized to examine policies and programs.
Limitations
There were several limitations in conducting this study that addressed possible factors that provided the best pathways out of poverty through welfare dependency. The first limitation of this study was the comparative analysis between the Trump and Obama administrations that determined the strength of policies. The second limitation was analyzing TANF policies and programs in this study that only addressed the contributing factors of skill – based and cognitive skills needed for economic empowerment of recipients. The third limitation of this study was only critically analyzing the welfare TANF program amidst the multiple arrays of programs and services within welfare assistance.
Furthermore, the challenges for such a study will be considered. One challenge was difficulty of recruiting recipients that were willing to discuss their lived experiences concerning welfare. Another challenge was the measure of recruiting that was strategic and creative in engaging recipients. The last challenge was that participants were willing
to share their experiences freely and transparently for viable information not to mention issues in preserving the confidentiality of recipients. Researcher personal involvement with the welfare system could influence study outcomes. However, researcher biases and assumptions within the research study were addressed by excluding personal welfare experiences to maximize confirmability. This study did not have any barriers that prohibited the conduct of research.
There were also limitations to the qualitative method and the descriptive, phenomenological research design. As there is no universal acceptance among researchers to utilize the phenomenological design, arguments concerning the design varied. One argument that opposes the design by one researcher views the lived-world as made up of phenomena that are best captured by observation rather than the
lived-experiences from participants themselves (Jackson, Vaughan, & Brown, 2018). With that, the main limitations of descriptive phenomenology are the need to thoroughly understand the philosophical nature and the many details related to recognition of being in the world (Jackson, Vaughan, & Brown, 2018). Limitations to qualitative research include the approach leaves out contextual sensitivities by focusing more on meanings and experiences, policy-makers may give low credibility to results from qualitative approach, smaller sample sizes raises the issue of generalizability to the whole population of the research, and data analysis takes a considerable amount of time (Rahman, 2017).
Significance
The significance of this study helped enhance the welfare system by specifically focusing on the welfare system policies, strategies, and training through the Obama and
Trump administrations to develop them to empower welfare recipients both cognitively and skill - based as a strategy to eliminate dependency. In doing so, six to 10 TANF recipients of men and women from a Southern state dependent upon welfare during the Obama and Trump administration eras were interviewed as participants to help
understand how to affect welfare system policies. Hagaman and Wutich (2017) mentioned that six to 10 individuals are the recommended number of participants for phenomenological studies. This study was significant because it further addressed an under researched area within the welfare system that analyzes the behavioral or the cognitive side of poverty referring to a breakdown of critical values that lead to healthy families, stability, and sufficiency (Barany, 2016). Not only that, it addressed the proper skills needed for more than minimum wage work that facilitates at or below poverty level living, but employment that leads to better jobs and long – term economic success. To help determine the validity of using a phenomenological design for this study, I utilized a modified, validate interview questionnaire. A validated semi – structured interview questionnaire with participants was framed as such with questions that not only
acknowledged welfare preparation for employment as it relates to skill - based, but also policies that help shape perception about wealth and mental preparation for economic success.
The results of this study attempted to provide the necessary insight into the programs, procedures, and policies within the welfare system that lacked the needed empowerment mechanisms to eliminate cycles of poverty amongst recipients by
aid government assistance in strengthening policies to advance the welfare of the
impoverished community by promoting economic empowerment that targets recipients in a southern state. Another implication of social change will be the possible reformation of welfare system policies and programs that will acquire the knowledge needed to not only result in the success of individuals, but also the success of an economy.
Summary
Welfare assistance is a complex yet organized established institution that has historically been through various transitions and reforms to eliminate dependency and explore a pathway out of poverty. The reform of welfare has become a critical component throughout the years to address the poverty epidemic and stands to be further scrutinized and analyzed to strengthen policies and programs that would promote economic
empowerment and self – sufficiency. Thus, this study was a phenomenological,
qualitative study that explored the lived experiences of individuals dependent on TANF assistance and the role that it has played in their lives in helping to promote self – sufficiency and economic empowerment. Furthermore, the human capitol theory (HCT) provided as the theoretical base to understand how the dynamic of training programs and education is key to empower individuals to become viable resources that are useful to the economy and in society. Overall, I articulated the gap in the literature that highlights the lack of TANF efforts, both skill – based and cognitive, needed as a path out of poverty for welfare recipients. In Chapter 2, this study explored the depth of the effectiveness and the ineffectiveness of TANF policies and programs through comparative analysis of
two administrations, namely Obama and Trump administrations, and provided a synthesis of current literature that is related to the research problem and the research questions.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to conduct a
comparative analysis of two presidential administrations, namely the Obama and Trump administrations, concerning welfare policies and programs. A comparative study
between the two administrations was performed with the intention to help lead a pathway out of poverty for welfare recipients through training and economic empowerment policies. This research may be used by policymakers and those working in health and human services to better understand the welfare system and its effect on recipients. Welfare reform, especially in the modern-day era, is becoming more aggressive and strategic as an attempt to address cycles of welfare dependency and to pave a
pathway out of poverty for individuals and families. In a nation as wealthy as the United States, the overall economic conditions have cycled between growth and recession, but even the most extensive economic expansion efforts, including welfare support, of the past seventy – five years has failed to lift millions of citizens out of poverty (Berger, Cancian, & Magnuson, 2018). It is through these reformative changes that a response is being made to the poverty epidemic and its role in negatively affecting countless of lives in creating a dependency on welfare assistance. With that, the current study involved utilizing a comparative analysis between the Obama and Trump administrations to analyze strengths and weaknesses of welfare policies and programs to enhance measures that lead to empowerment and self – sufficiency.
Modern trends in welfare reform points in the direction of intense scrutiny to examine strategies and trainings in welfare. This study may help to provide welfare policymakers with the understanding to enhance policies and programs with the tools needed to empower individuals to become self – sustainable. With that, the literature review highlighted a substantial theory to help solidify the study as well as welfare effectiveness through administrative analysis and welfare reform changes and outcomes. In Chapter 2, I present an introduction to the study, a theoretical foundation, and an evolution of welfare assistance. The researcher also provided knowledge of the historical background of welfare in America, reformative measures, and contributors to welfare dependency. Present millennial administrative efforts were also presented to address welfare at the national level. Finally, the researcher discussed strategic welfare approaches to self – sufficiency and concluded the chapter with a summary and an overview of Chapter 3.
Literature Search Strategy
To conduct a relevant and effective research study, the literature review consisted of sources that included peer – reviewed journal articles, dissertations, Federal
government agency websites, and other professional websites. Also, the researcher engaged in an iterative process in searching the following databases through Google Scholar and Walden University databases: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Academic Search Complete, GovInfo, National Bureau of Economic Research, Open Book
Publishers, ProQuest Central, SAGE Journals, and US Department of Health and Human Services. Key words were included such as welfare, welfare reform, TANF, PRWORA,
welfare legislation, Obama Administration welfare policies, Trump Administration welfare policies, TANF recipients, welfare skills – training, welfare cognitive training, TANF cognitive training, and welfare policies and programs. The search strategies produced a number of about 125 related articles, of which approximately 65 or more were actually used.
Human Capitol Theory Foundation
The theoretical basis for the study was the human capitol theory (HCT). To understand the culture of welfare dependency and the welfare policies and programs implemented to help eliminate dependency, the researcher examined the lived
experiences of TANF, welfare recipients grounded in the theory. The theory of human capitol puts emphasis on the investment into individual knowledge and skills to further organizational goals. Furthermore, human capitol is important in that education, proper and effective training, along with human development in adding value to individuals and society (Cooper & Davis, 2017, p. 69). It is the theory of human capitol that supports the idea that empowerment through training and education is essential to lasting economic success.
The idea of investment into human development belongs to an individual named Adam Smith. However, the concept of the theory of human capitol has been utilized and developed since 1961 by T.W. Schulz who believed that all human abilities are either innate or acquired (Lut, 2017). Also, the idea stemmed from the thought that parallels between the entrepreneur’s decision to make the investment into physical capital and the individual’s decision to make investment in education and other productivity – enhancing
skills (Burns, 2018). Since then, major theological developments around the concept have been continued by G. Becker and J. Mincer with Becker being the principal promoter of the theory. Overall, to achieve longstanding positive results, organizations need to be more dynamic and efficient in resource utilization, especially assets that form the intellectual capital (Juarez Domingos, Helio, Selig, & Rogerio, 2017, p. 316). Human capital is intellectual capital’s central element formed by individual competence,
including knowledge, skills, experience, expertise, and capabilities (Juarez Domingos, et al., 2017, p. 316). Thus, the theory is essential to the overall development of individual ability in order to become self – sufficient.
HCT Conceptualization
The conceptualization of Human Capitol created an understanding in the economic world that dramatically shifted mindsets as it relates to creating and
maintaining organizational growth and development. Researchers have discovered the need to assess human capital since in modern conditions such factors as the innovative susceptibility of the economy, intellectual capital, and the quality of human potential vastly impact market growth (Mukhambetova, Turekelova, Iskakova, Nauryzbekov, Kozhakhmetova, 2018). With that, it is imperative to understand the role that the individual plays in society by promoting growth and progressiveness through human resourcefulness. Therefore, the foundation beneath the self – sufficient reality points to the essence of human capitol and the efforts to empower ill – equipped individuals.
Perspectives vary concerning human capitol in terms of approaches to the development of human social and economic responsibility to advance society. The
education pedagogy continues to be transformative in the reorientation of models and programs towards the integral development of people (Castellano, Garcia – Quero, & Garcia – Carmona, 2018). Two primary approaches that stem out of the HCT that theorists have highlighted are known as ‘marketable human capitol (MHC)’ and ‘non – marketable human capitol (NMHC).’ These two approaches and the understanding of them help to address those perspectives by describing how human empowerment enhances or not the marketability of individuals in some dynamic way or another.
Marketable Human Capitol
Individuals becoming marketable are a critical piece in the fight to end welfare dependency. The MHC approach is linked to a mainstream economic theory that views education as any stock of knowledge that makes the contribution to improve worker productivity and individual well – being (Castellano, et al., 2019). Additionally, NMHC is an approach rooted in the Mediterranean tradition of public thought that highlights the concepts of civic virtues, reciprocity, and public action with the educational process of human development and the influence it has on public happiness (Castellano, et al., 2019). Altogether, both approaches support the thought in one way or another that the state of society is enhanced through human development. However, considering the contributions of the HCT in human empowerment and economic welfare, there are significant and differing viewpoints of the theory that warrants attention. One criticism noted that education is not seen as a site of self – investment in the formation of cognitive ability that delivers economic returns, but as a system that signals a competitive position delivering economic returns (Marginson, 2017). Second, theorists noted that the theory is
weakened because of the synthesizing of education and work that suppresses the distinctiveness of each component instead of acknowledging the heterogeneity of work and education and the value it brings individually apart to its connection to one another (Marginson, 2017). Thus, the dichotomy of the education role in human capital demands more research to help determine effectiveness.
The theoretical foundation of the current study will play a significant role in the relevance of exploring a pathway out of poverty. The intent of HCT used in this study will be to determine how welfare programs, policies, and strategies correlate to
empowering individual’s skill – based and cognitively to exit welfare assistance and become self – sufficient. Moreover, self – sufficiency has steered away as a goal of welfare as scholars argue that current welfare policy implementation is less about helping clients achieve independence and more about getting individuals off of welfare rolls and into any type of paid employment (Taylor, Gross, & Towne-Roese, 2016). Ultimately, more intensive and extensive work needs to be done in welfare to enhance individuals and families for lasting success.
Historical Background of Welfare in America
The reformative measures of welfare throughout history have been exhaustive in the efforts to effectively address the poverty epidemic in providing a pathway out of poverty. Throughout history, the evolution and the development of welfare policies and programs have been instrumental in making its mark to fight poverty. As welfare has developed even to this day, its developments started off as being deeply rooted into the ideologies of capitalist development that has positioned welfare assistance to achieve
significant accomplishments in the quest for economic freedom (Kirkham, 2017). With that, an analysis of the historical development of welfare in America will be further explained in following sections to help identify its role in the poverty elimination process.
Public Assistance
Welfare assistance has made incredible strides to eliminate dependency. With that, the welfare system is a representation of an important structural transformation of capitalism though imperfect (Fast, O’Brien, & Block, 2017). Unfortunately, the
existence of the American welfare system in particular has been set up in such a manner that allows those depending on it to get away with working minimally, if at all, because participants do not want to lose poverty privileges and are incentivized in this direction (Fast, et al., 2017). Therefore, the welfare system promotes a revolving cycle that results in participants needing privileges instead of being holistically empowered to be self reliant.
Public assistance started to provide the needed assistance at the local level through private charitable organizations. During the Great Depression era, Congress passed, and President Theodore Roosevelt signed in 1935 the Social Security Act which in turn created multiple programs (Moffitt, 2015). Additionally, the Social Security Disability Insurance program (SSDI) was established in 1956 and transitioned into other programs being created between the 60’ and 70’s such as the Head Start program and other progressive programs that are still utilized today (Moffitt, 2015). Transitioning to 1988, President Bush proposed a bill that became the most significant bill in the modern history of welfare reform signed in 1996 (Moffitt, 2015). The bill was called the
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), which was renamed the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program (TANF) (Moffitt, 2015). There have been no further major reforms documented thereafter.
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA)
One of the most profound and important implementations made within the history of welfare was that of the PRWORA signed into law by President Bill Clinton on August 22, 1996. The PRWORA was a transition in welfare that signaled the importance of personal responsibility as a major theme and an enduring element of American political discourse (Williams, 2017). Since its inception into welfare assistance in 1996, it radically transformed the American poverty policy converting it from a system of dependence to that of independency by strengthening policy and program requirements (Purser & Hennigan, 2017). This approach was a breakthrough approach in the efforts to provide a pathway out of poverty through the welfare system.
The transition into the PRWORA era confronted the welfare dependency model in the most aggressive and unique ways. The PRWORA ended the entitlement program by incorporating numerous changes in existing federal welfare programs (Smith, 2015). The PRWORA mandated that the federal funding for programs of TANF be capped off at an amount of $16.4 billion annually through the year 2002 and be divided among the 50 states and the District of Columbia (Watts & Astone, 1997). The money allotted to the individual states varied in terms of use; the individual states had the freedom to innovate with the money allotted to them to move recipients into autonomy.
The essence of the PRWORA acknowledged an ethical code within the welfare development process that lifted the focus off a system and to the individual, namely accountability and responsibility. The preamble to the new legislation openly described it as primarily concerned with overcoming the problems that were caused by out – of – wedlock births and welfare dependency (O’Connor, 2001). To that, those
acknowledgements have been ideal in the imposing of demands that enhance systemic efforts that benefit welfare recipients by leading to self – sufficiency. The benefits of those demands include saving families by promoting work, discouraging illegitimacy, and strengthening child support enforcement as it transitions welfare into a helping hand rather than a handout, by limiting lifetime benefits (Smith, 2015). Unfortunately, the PRWORA has not held true to its promises as dependency to welfare remains intact and poverty a catalyst for re – occurring generational cycles.
Temporary Assistance of Needy Families (TANF)
TANF is the current welfare program in place designed to address the poverty epidemic by creating a space for individuals and families to become self – sufficient through enhanced policies and programs. The program began as a block grant
established by the PRWORA intended to be a short – term economic support system for low income individuals and families until efforts led to self – sustainability (Spencer & Komro, 2017). Over the years since its establishment, welfare efforts have deteriorated even in the midst of reformative efforts as TANF has fared as an experiment that is less effective than AFDC at pulling families out of deep poverty (Hammond, 2017).
However, its pragmatic and grass – roots approach of provoking welfare to work have raised national awareness by sparking questions and ideas that incites reform.
An ideology was formed as a replacement from the AFDC program that sparked an exchange in that welfare recipients had to do something in order to receive something. The creation of TANF challenged the welfare system in enacted policies that set
restrictions in place to move dependents out of poverty and into personal responsibility post – welfare. Work participation became a major goal in the efforts to move
participants out of dependency and into personal responsibility. Furthermore, new federal rules were initiated and implemented within the TANF program that focused on the progression of making the transition from welfare – to – work (Sandfort, Ong, & McKay, 2018). The TANF program gave states the ability to be involved in the
implementation of program restrictive policies which included, recipients showing proof of work within 24 months of receiving assistance, time limits on benefits duration, and punitive sanctions for non – compliance that varies according to state preferences (Bunch, Liebertz, & Milita, 2017). Overall, the TANF program created a drastic change in the welfare scene whereby the strains of dependency on recipients were loosened to the point of potential freedom.
Amidst the transformative process of the TANF program seeking to help
eliminate dependency, challenges remain within the program that exacerbates efforts to provoke self – sufficiency. Impacts of TANF have revealed that the program has fallen short of helping people enter and remain in the workforce along with helping participants who have serious behavioral health challenges to become self sustainable (Boosheri,
Dugan, Patel, Bloom, & Chilton, 2018). Additionally, evidence shows that the majority of TANF restrictive programs do not effectively address the overall well – being of families neither do incentives help recipients find employment opportunities that pay well enough to succeed (Boosheri, et al., 2018). Thus, the process to alleviate poverty through the welfare reform of TANF efforts must focus on leveraging opportunities that positions recipients to attain and sustain the type of employment that enhances the type of life for recipients to experience lasting economic success. Further analysis of TANF impact provided clear information to explicate and address the ways in which lack of training and other contributions are serious barriers to self – sufficiency in a work – first approach (Marsh, 2002). The TANF work first strategy may have transitioned participants into jobs, but not necessarily into self – sufficiency.
Under the 1996 passing of the PRWORA, TANF must be reauthorized after five years. On October 10, 2001, Patsy Mink and members of the Progressive Caucus introduced a bill called the Mink Bill to reauthorize TANF (Anonymous, 2003).
Furthermore, the TANF reauthorization provided an opportunity to refocus the attention on the well – being of children and families.
The family structure has been a pivotal key to the elimination of dependency. A broad study of organizational culture perspectives and family empowerment
implementation approaches are being considered to reorient and reform welfare (Gentles – Gibbs & Kim, 2019). Moreover, building on the successes already achieved through initial TANF implementation, the focus has shifted efforts to strengthen support for families that have left welfare for work to help them climb the economic ladder and on
efforts that provided additional resources and opportunities for families whose well – being has not improved under the first round of welfare reform (Primus, Haskins, Guerra, Anderson, & Blum, 2002). The structure of the family unit is essential to economic success.
Welfare to Work Policies
Welfare to work became a major theme in the efforts to eliminate welfare dependency through the reformative efforts of the PRWORA. Also, it was ideal in the efforts to address dependency because it did not just challenge the safety net of welfare, but more so, it challenged the victimization of welfare recipients through the introduction of personal responsibility. Welfare to work programs teach and force participants to practice the skills needed to both find and maintain employment in what is an
increasingly tumultuous labor market (Purser & Hennigan, 2018). Also, administrations in the debate to challenge the welfare system acknowledged the rhetoric of personal responsibility rather than being dependent upon government subsidies to live and survive (Williams, 2017). Thus, the concept of personal responsibility brought forth a brand - new meaning to the world of welfare by playing a significant role to help in the transition of welfare recipients from dependency to self - sufficiency through work.
The strategy of work became a major asset in the reduction of dependency. Over the past few decades, workfare became a model that emerged out of welfare reformative efforts in the United States (Greer, 2015). Workfare was an introduction into the
requirements of welfare as a concept used to describe any regulation of the labor market through an emphasis on job search and participants are required by policies to undertake
in work requested of them in return for benefit payment (Grady, 2017). However, the transition from welfare to workfare has partially been explained in the increase of severe poverty because of the participation in low paid, insecure, part – time jobs, and when there is less cash availability to the poor (Daguerre, 2017). The essence of the workfare initiative was instrumental in pioneering a way out of poverty, but ultimately fell short in its intentions by not eliminating the safety net of dependency.
Welfare to work was emphasized through the acknowledging of its less than adequate accomplishments in reform and the engaging of stricter requirements of the transition. Its failure to successfully accomplish was due to its ravage of the welfare system as its work requirements in the welfare context constitute a legally cognizable relic of slavery rather than a guide to economic freedom (Banerjee, 2018). With that, the welfare reforms that were made and implemented shifted from a legalistic model of accountability to a privatization and business – like form of welfare governance (Benish & Maron, 2016). Clearly, the welfare – to – work transition, or “workfare,” revealed a system of which work requirements were implemented not to promote economic freedom and self – sufficiency, but to harbor slavery by remaining in control of the dependency safety net by nurturing vulnerability.
Behavioral Health Policies
There are many dynamics relating to behavioral health that contribute to welfare involvement. However, few studies have been conducted to examine how policies effect behavioral health (Spencer & Komro, 2017). Behavioral health alludes to the vast area of mental health and substance abuse conditions, health behaviors, life stressors and crises,
physical symptoms related to stress, and ineffective patterns of health care utilization (Vogel, Kanzler, Aikens, & Goodie, 2017). It involves disorders and behaviors that encourage the need for entities such as welfare to help address vulnerabilities and help provide the support necessary to overcome behavioral obstacles that impede or disrupt everyday life. Unfortunately, the behavioral health epidemic has been a major
contributor to the welfare dependency crisis and continues to strengthen the lifeline between assistance and the recipient.
Behavioral health has been an undermined and underestimated contributor to the welfare dependency plight. As decades of behavioral health economic research has increasingly achieved prominence, the advent of policymaking has increased within the last decade creating a unique challenge to welfare analysis that has not been sufficiently addressed in literature (Just, 2017). However, policies that are intended to address behavioral health issues in children and families have improved the likeliness of participants to overcome the obstacles of health detriments. Research has increasingly demonstrated that economic policies within the welfare system impact health behaviors and outcomes via numerous mechanisms such as changing the broad social conditions that ultimately affect individuals and community level susceptibility, responses to poor economic conditions and even experiences (Spencer & Komro, 2017). The economic security policies within welfare designed to do such have been instrumental in
influencing the health behaviors and even outcomes of individuals and families. As the popularity of behavioral health in welfare is on the rise, concurrently there is an increase in behavior policy – making tools among welfare policy – makers. With
that, the intent of behavioral policy – making is to provide correction to decision making that result in sub – optimal outputs and to redirect those decisions that make people self -sufficient (Fabbri & Faure, 2018). This goes to show that decision making is an integral measure of behaviors in an individual and as an offset dictate whether a life is sufficiently sustained or dependent and vulnerable. Policy – making procedures, approaches, and implementation within the welfare capacity include the US Pension Protection Act (PPA) of 2006, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) 2010, and a specific type of behavioral policy called nudging which is an intervention measure that alters people’s behavior in a predictable way through decision making and positively affects welfare participants (Fabbri & Faure, 2018). Additionally, the child welfare field involves a vast array of services and programs that are evidence based practices that move towards the integration of child welfare and behavioral health such as child protection services, home visiting, permanency planning, adoptions, mental health care and substance abuse treatment, and parent training (Thyer, Babcock, & Tutweiler, 2017). The behavioral health field in welfare is progressing in policy development, but still remains limited in literature.
Educational Policies
Making the transition from a lifestyle of welfare dependency into a lifestyle of economic independence where no assistance is needed requires a level of empowerment through knowledge and training that overcomes the poverty epidemic. Empowerment, which involves the tool of education, gives space to opportunity for individuals as a pliable vehicle for productive power that actively disavows domination while quite
effectively accomplishing subjection (Rushing, 2016). It is a powerful wielding tool that offers the liberty needed to translate into autonomy without government sovereignty in a system. With that, educational empowerment has been a key component in economic success and self – sustainability.
The nexus between education attainment and the poverty epidemic and the research conducted reveal the impact that each variable has on the other. Educational attainment determines the occupational and the social success of an individual to a large extent (Lavrijsen & Nicaise, 2016). For instance, study results suggest that expenditure on primary and secondary education have a strong long-term effect on reducing the incidence of poverty especially in adults (Hidalgo-Hidalgo & Iturbe-Ormaetxe, 2018). Alternatively, poverty is a detriment to furthering the welfare of society and alleviating the demographic crisis because it decreases the chances of access to education and also generates illiteracy and school dropout (Gabriela, 2018). Nonetheless, education provides a potential pathway out of poverty by removing the barriers of ignorance and illiteracy while empowering individuals through knowledge and skill.
Education and its initiative to promote long – term economic self – sufficiency has been of upmost importance in the United States for a long time. In fact, policymakers have strongly endorsed the education system celebrating universities as “engines of innovation” and promoting education as the “best anti – poverty program” (Schulze – Cleven, 2017, p. 397). However, despite the educational intentions and pursuits, the education system is experiencing turbulence structurally as it may not be enough to position individuals for economic success especially in contemporary society. Private
involvement in education from institutions such as the welfare system over the past several decades have increased as issues in the education sector continue to spark national debate including the role of government in education and the nation’s direction of the school system (Fried, 2017). Therefore, with welfare involvement in education, it is incumbent upon the system as a responsibility to create and develop policies and programs that position the participant to succeed economically.
The transition of the PRWORA was critical and eventful as its replacement and implementation of policy programs made it possible for dependency elimination. Upon the establishment of the PRWORA passed by Congress in 1996, President Bill Clinton emphasized the need for both greater individual responsibilities along with government action on jobs and on education (Williams, 2017). Nonetheless, legislation lacked the necessary substance to provoke financial independence as welfare focused attention on welfare – to – workfare rather than the proper education needed to acquire and maintain employment that is sustainable. With the welfare transition of TANF out of the shadow of the PRWORA, the work first approach failed to connect recipients to education and training leaving participants living below the federal poverty line even after leaving TANF (Hall, 2016). Overall, the emphasis on work diluted the need for education as a vital contributor for individual competency and readiness.
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
The Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) was the primary program that provided cash assistance to dependents before the PRWORA was established as a major reform. It was in that program where participants could receive cash assistance
without any limits or requirements indefinitely (Muennig, Caleyachetty, Rosen, Korotzer, 2015). It was because of this incentive within the AFDC program that initiated a critical transition and replacement of the AFDC to the newly improved TANF program.
Policymakers highly questioned the AFDC program because the logic of paying citizens indefinitely that were able to physically work might serve as a reason for the participant to stay out of the workforce (Muennig, et al., 2015). Thus, the aforementioned dispelled the accountability of welfare to assist participants by casting a life line of dependency.
The AFDC program had been in place since 1935. During its era, very little to nothing was done to move participants into a life of self – sufficiency. It was because of its emphasis on free benefits that the nation’s economy and the welfare of the nation’s citizens became crippled and imbalanced impeding any form of progress. For that matter, the AFDC was responsible for the spike in AFDC rolls especially in the 1980’s and the 1990’s along with the rapid rising of immigrants receiving welfare under its governance (Burkhauser, 2016). With that, 82 out of every 100 families received AFDC benefits in contrast to TANF where only 26 out of every 100 families received of its benefits (Burkhauser, 2016). The distinction between the two programs speaks to the ineffectiveness of the AFDC program and its role in the welfare system.
Contributors to Welfare Dependency
Welfare dependency does not just happen but has been a debilitating concept that has historically crippled recipients from experiencing economic freedom. The idea of ‘welfare dependency’ was first introduced by John Moore between the years of 1987 to 1989 arguing that dependency is a debilitating concept and that the best kind of assistance
is that which gives the individuals the will and the ability to help themselves (Benton, 2018). However, as welfare dependency has played an intergenerational role throughout decades negatively affecting families, there remains to be underlying factors that
contribute to the dependency epidemic that facilitates poverty. It is within this section where the researcher will address various contributors.
Causes of Dependency
Welfare dependency to this day remains a problem to society and continues to give rise to the vicious cycle that cost the lives of so many individuals. Several studies reported that 17% to 37% of former welfare participants returned to welfare within 1 year of exiting, while 33% to 60% of former participants returned to welfare within 5 years (Cheng, 2003). This statistic speaks to the multiple lives that welfare negatively affects due to the inability of welfare to produce self – sustainable lives. Furthermore, there are several causes that contribute to the constant dependency that destroys individuals and families.
The overall well – being of individuals must be a concern of government support. Without the well – being of individuals, poverty will continue to be a problem socially and it will be difficult for society to develop and progress as a whole. Biological contributors are widely recognized as determinants of well – being and social discourse (Kathleen & McDade, 2018). In essence, the biosocial factor and the relationship between the two variables should be largely taken into consideration as the discussion remains as to what biological factors contribute to welfare dependency.
Biological deficiencies have been responsible for the vulnerability of participants and demands for assistance to be needed to compensate for what is lacking with the participant. The biological or what some researchers call the individualistic cause or determinant of dependency can be characterized as processes and structures within an individual that contribute to the growth, reproduction, and maintenance of the individual from conception to death (Harris & McDade, 2018). The biological determinant for dependency dated back to the Elizabethan era where the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 was an extraordinary response based on social relations, mutual rights and responsibilities of local communities who were impoverished and in need of public support (Szreter, Kinmonth, Kriznik, & Kelly, 2016). As time evolved from that era where dependency was introduced to the general public to the era of personal responsibility as expressed through the PRWORA, variations in public attitudes became more intolerant of the seeming overgenerous welfare system. Consequently, ongoing debates in government acknowledge the need for establishing programs that demand accountability, despite contributing determinants.
Several biological determinants are underestimated but are very important in the conversation of contributing factors to dependency namely gender and race. Reports suggest that those most likely to be dependent on welfare for extended periods of time are proportionately higher for blacks than non – blacks, whether male or female (Price, 1995). Furthermore, in over a 60-year period, race has indeed been one of the most influential contributors in the development of the programs that undergird the welfare state causing African Americans to become the face of welfare (Callaghan & Olson,
