IGCSE HISTORY COLD WAR NOTES!!!

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A10: Superpower Relations 1945-1962: Key Events

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1.) The Yalta Conference – February 4

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Who? Causes What happened? Consequences

USA led by President Roosevelt UK led by Prime Minister Winston Churchill USSR led by Joseph Stalin War situation had changed: Germany was close to defeat. Discussions over the post-war world were needed. USA & UK wanted USSR to declare war on Japan. Needed to agree a political solution for liberated countries, especially Germany and Poland.

Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan within three months of the defeat of

Germany.

Compromise over Poland. All agreed to form

a Polish government pledged to hold ‘free

elections’. Borders of Poland also changed

– USSR gained land from Eastern Poland whilst Poland would gain land from East

Germany.

The ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe’. USA, USSR & UK commit to work for

democracy in Europe.

Allies agree to form the United Nations.

Germany and Berlin to be divided into four

zones of occupation between Britain, France, USA and USSR.

Big Three restate their agreement that the USSR should have a ‘sphere of influence’ in

Eastern Europe.

The talk of ‘democracy’ and ‘free

elections’ was interpreted differently by USA and USSR. American free

speech vs. Stalin’s idea that communism represented the people so no opposition

allowed.

Yalta raised false expectations in the USA that Stalin would allow western-style governments in Eastern Europe.

Stalin paid only lip service to idea of ‘free elections’ in Poland. In March, 16

leaders of the Polish resistance were arrested by Stalin and never seen again.

Further talks over Poland achieved nothing. USSR refused to allow pro-western Poles into new government.

Soviet troops had captured most of Eastern Europe. Stalin’s demand for a

‘sphere of influence’ had to be taken seriously.

Knowing and understanding the key events from each topic is obviously essential. For

Section A topics like Superpower Relations, you need to be able to describe or explain the

causes, key features and consequences of each event. Make sure you study the following

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2.) The Potsdam Conference – July 17

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USA represented by President Harry S. Truman UK represented by Prime Minister Winston Churchill & Prime Minister Clement Attlee USSR represented by Joseph Stalin

The war against Nazi Germany was

over. Hitler was dead. The Allies needed to decide

how to disarm and punish Germany.

A political solution had to be reached over the liberated

countries. The Western Allies now occupied the whole of western Europe. The Soviet Red Army occupied

the whole of eastern Europe.

Roosevelt had died and Truman

was keen to meet Stalin. He wanted to be tougher with

Stalin over issues like Poland.

A compromise was reached over war

reparations. Each ally would take

reparations from the zone they occupied. USSR was also given industrial

equipment from Western zones in return for raw materials. Agreed to prosecute Nazi war

criminals.

Statement of aims of the occupation of

Germany by the Allies: demilitarisation, denazification, democratisation, decentralisation and decartelisation.

Details of the German-Polish border were finally agreed.

The communist dominated Polish

Provisional Government of National Unity was recognized by all three

powers.

Was confirmed that the Polish Provisional Government of National

Unity would hold ‘free and fair

elections’ as soon as possible.

The terms of the surrender of Japan were agreed. Japan had to agree unconditional surrender or face ‘prompt

and utter destruction’.

The conference ended

without agreement on what

would happen to the newly liberated states across Europe. Both superpowers

were determined to keep their half of Europe. Truman’s attempt to assert his authority by declaring a ‘powerful new weapon’ at the

conference only made Stalin more determined to protect the USSR. He saw this as a

threat from the USA. He therefore wanted to create a

‘buffer zone’ in Eastern Europe.

The USA and UK became

aware of their need to confront communism in Europe. Truman approved

Churchill’s 1946 ‘Iron Curtain’ speech, in which he said that countries in the West were free and countries in the East were under communist control

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3.) Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech – March 1946

Former UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill who lost power in the 1945 general election By 1946 it became clear that Europe

had been divided.

From 1945-1948, Stalin rigged elections to establish communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania,

East Germany & Czechoslovakia.

The West responded to this division with a war of words, designed

to portray Stalin as a power-hungry dictator. Truman had even compared Stalin

to Hitler.

Churchill gave a speech in the presence of President Truman at

Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri on 5th_{March 1946:}

‘From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste

in the Adriatic an "Iron Curtain" has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of

the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous

cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in

one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure

of control from Moscow.’

The speech showed that both

sides now clearly viewed each other as opponents. Stalin

responded by saying:

‘…Mr Churchill now adopts the position of the warmonger, and in

this Mr Churchill is not alone. He has friends not only in Britain but

in the USA as well. A point to be noted in this respect is that Mr. Churchill and his friends bear a

striking resemblance to Hitler and his friends.’

This war of words led to both sides initiating spying and assessment reports on each other to determine the thinking

of their opponents. This resulted in the Long Telegram and

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4.) The Long Telegram & Novikov’s Telegram – 1946

US ambassador to Moscow, George F. Kennan Soviet ambassador to Washington, Nikolai Novikov Truman and Stalin were both keen to understand each other’s intentions and threats so they both commissioned reports to be written by embassy staff.

Kennan responded to Truman with a telegram on 22nd February 1946 that reported:

 The USSR perceived itself to be at war with capitalism.

 There could be no peace with the USSR while it was opposed to capitalism.

 The USSR was rebuilding its military. Novikov responded to Stalin with a telegram on 27th

September that reported:

 America wanted to dominate the world.

 The USA was no longer interested in co-operation.

 The American public was being prepared for war with the USSR by ‘capitalist elites’.

The telegrams made both governments feel that they were facing the imminent

possibility of war.

The USA now believed that the USSR was planning

world domination

whilst the USSR believed the same

about the USA. These fears led the

USA to form the ‘Truman Doctrine’.

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5.) The Truman Doctrine – March 1947

President Truman of

the USA

George Kennan advised Truman that the USA’s best hope was to

‘contain’ communism rather than fight it on the battlefield. Much of Europe was devastated after the war and communism was

appealing. Truman was worried about the Domino Theory: if communism took over one country,

neighbouring countries were next in line to be threatened. In Feb 1947 the UK announced it

could no longer afford to pay

for troops in Greece and Turkey.

The US feared communism would spread to these countries.

The Truman Doctrine stated that:

 The world had choice between communist tyranny and

democratic freedom.

 America had a responsibility to

fight for liberty.

 America would send troops and

money help governments against

communism.

 Communism should not be allowed to grow and spread and should be ‘contained’.

Over the course of the Cold War, the Truman doctrine provided arms and money to defend Greece, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, Afghanistan and

South America.

The doctrine was significant because it suggested that America had the responsibility

to protect the world, not the UN which marked an end to

USA’s traditional policy of ‘isolationism’.

The doctrine assumed that Capitalism and Communism were

incompatible = the unofficial

start of the Cold War.

Truman was now committed to a policy of ‘containment’. US military aid to Greece meant that the communists

were defeated in the Greek

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6.) The Marshall Plan – June 1947

President Truman of the USA George C. Marshall, US Secretary of State Economic crisis in Europe: food shortages, unemployment, food rationing and starvation. Communist

party support was growing, especially in

France and Italy where riots broke

out.

Truman knew that to

weaken the attraction of communism, he

needed to rebuild and encourage prosperity

in Europe.

The USA decided to offer economic aid to Europe, organised by US Secretary of State General George

Marshall. Committed $13 billion

USD to rebuild the ruined

economies of Europe. Countries had to agree free trade

agreements with the USA in order

to receive money. This would

benefit the American economy as

the US would provide the money and goods needed to rebuild. American money was made available to eastern Europe and the USSR as

well. Stalin ordered Poland &

Czechoslovakia not to accept it.

European leaders met at the Paris Conference of 1948 to discuss Marshall

Aid. The USSR walked out of the

conference as they believed the US was

trying to split Europe into two camps. Stalin claimed that Marshall Aid had

tricked western Europe into an economic

reliance on the US. Led to the creation of Soviet rivals: COMINFORM and COMECON.

West European economies experienced an

economic boom and had returned to

pre-war levels of growth when the plan ended in 1952.

Divided Germany as the military governors

of western Germany agreed to accept money. Divide in Europe was now

economic, not just ideological.

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7.) Creation of COMINFORM – Sep 1947

Communist Party General

Secretary

Joseph Stalin

Stalin was concerned

that eastern European countries would be

tempted by the Marshall Plan. He wanted

to prevent this by forcing Eastern European countries to become

‘satellite states’, controlled by the USSR.

Stalin wanted satellite states on his European borders to trade with,

and for military defence.

At an international conference, the USSR created the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) which represented Communist Parties across Europe and brought them under the control and manipulation of the USSR. COMINFORM encouraged Communist Parties in Western Europe to organise demonstrations

and strikes in order to wreck the Marshall

Plan. 2 million workers went on strike in

France in 1947 calling for their government to reject Marshall Aid.

COMINFORM was also used to stamp out

opposition and ensure the loyalty of Eastern European governments. 5% of population was

imprisoned in Hungary by 1953.

COMINFORM organised

strikes in Western Europe did not work as growing

prosperity weakened the attraction of communism.

COMINFORM strengthened Stalin’s hold

on Eastern Europe. He

could use COMINFORM to investigate government ministers and employees,

and remove or imprison those who were not loyal.

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8.) Creation of COMECON - Jan 1949

Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin The failure of COMINFORM to destroy Marshall Plan through political

opposition forced the USSR to consider an economic rival. Stalin

wanted to minimise the influence of the

USA.

Stalin wanted to

prevent Eastern Europe from benefiting economical

from the West.

The Council for Mutual Economic Aid (COMECON)

was designed as a trading

organisation of communist countries. Aims was to

economically develop Eastern Europe and prevent trade

with Western Europe.

USSR, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Romania were all

members in first year.

Albania and Eastern Germany joined in 1950.

Was not very successful as the Soviet Union had little spare cash to inject into the economies of Eastern Europe.

Meant that Eastern Europe did not develop as fast as Western Europe. The USSR used COMECON to help

rebuild itself first – not its satellite

states. The USSR eventually encouraged COMECON members to

specialise in different products. Stalin’s wish of a sphere of influence

over Eastern Europe was now made an economic reality.

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9.) The Berlin Blockade and Airlift – June 1948

Communist Party General Secretary of the USSR, Joseph Stalin US President Harry Truman

Stalin didn’t want a divided Germany.

Germany’s main economic resources were in the west and he

wanted to prevent the USA from having further influence in Germany. He feared

they were rebuilding Germany as an ally

against the USSR.

He viewed the merging of the Allied zones of Germany in 1947, along with the introduction of

the Deutschmark in June 1948 as an attempt to divide Germany. He expected

the western powers to make a humiliating

retreat.

Stalin set up a military blockade around West Berlin on 23rd_June 1948. He planned to cut western

Germany off from its capital: Berlin. This would prove that a divided

Germany could not work.

All roads and railways to Berlin were blocked by the Soviets. Stalin

assumed the West would give in as 2 million Berliner’s were starving.

Truman responded with the Berlin Airlift. It was the first major test of

the Truman Doctrine. Allied planes would supply West Berlin from the air. The first flight was on the 26th_{and by}

Sep, a US aircraft was leaving every 3 minutes. 70 large cargo planes airlifted

600-700 tonnes of food and supplies every day. This increased to 1000 tonnes within weeks. At its height, the airlift provided over 170,000 tonnes of supplies, flying along 3 ‘air corridors’

during January 1949.

Stalin backed down on 12th_May 1949. Stalin seemed like the

aggressor as the attack on Berlin looked like the first step in a march

westwards. This was a propaganda success for the USA.

Blockade seemed to prove to the West that the USSR wanted to take over Europe. This led to the creation of

the NATO alliance in April 1949 and

the creation of West Germany (FDR) as an independent state in Sep 1949.

This in turn forced the USSR to

establish East Germany (GDR) as an

independent nation one month later.

Stalin ordered the speeding up of atomic testing as he realised that

without an atomic bomb, he could not win confrontations with the USA. The USSR test their first atomic bomb in

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10.) Creation of NATO – April 1949

1949 – USA, UK, Canada, Iceland, France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark and Norway. 1952 – Greece and Turkey. 1955 – West Germany. 1982 – Spain. The Berlin Blockade raised the possibility of war in Europe as it

was the first military confrontation of

the Cold War.

European countries were keen to establish a military alliance

in order to ‘keep

the USA in, the USSR out and the

Germans down.’

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established as a military alliance

between the USA and Western Europe. An attack on one member

would be considered as an attack on all members.

It was in effect a military alliance with the aim of defending the

West against communism. It

wasn’t just a promise either. Five divisions of US troops were based

in Germany.

West Germany joined NATO in 1955, adding millions more troops.

The creation of NATO significantly heightened tensions in the Cold War. The

creation of NATO now added a clear military divide to Europe.

The USSR felt threatened by the creation of NATO and especially when

West German troops joined. The USSR responded by creating the Warsaw Pact in

1955 which was a military alliance of

Eastern European countries. The build-up of military alliances turned into an arms race when the USSR tested

its own nuclear bomb in 1949. But paradoxically, the threat of Mutually

Assured Destruction (MAD) prevented war in Europe.

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11.) The Korean War – June 1950 – July 1953

North Korea, led by Kim Il Sung South Korea led by Syngman Rhee China led by Mao Zedong USA led by President Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 US/UN Forces led by General Douglas MacArthur

Truman believed the

Russians were behind the attack and it was

a test of his policy of containment. China had become communists in 1949

providing further proof that

containment was needed.

In Sep 1949 the USSR had developed an atomic bomb. Truman

became convinced that communism wanted to take over

the world.

UN vote gave the USA greater ‘legitimacy’ to

invade

Korea was divided after the Second World War. On 25th_{June 1950, North}

Korea led by Kim Il Sung invaded the

South in an attempt to re-unite the country by force.

Truman asked the UN Security Council to back the use of US troops in Korea. The Security Council approved

the use of force to defeat the Northern invasion.

In Sep 1950, US troops led by General Douglas MacArthur led a successful counter-attack and by 1st

Oct, US troops had reached the 38th

parallel. When MacArthur invaded North Korea, the Chinese intervened,

pushing US led forces back to Seoul.

For the rest of the war, stalemate ensued. Ceasefire was agreed on 27th

July 1953. Korea remained divided.

Demonstrated the US commitment to containing communism anywhere

in the world. Proved that

containment could work to prevent the Domino Theory – would later

influence decision making in Vietnam.

War led to rearmament throughout the western world. The

Involvement of USSR and China persuaded the US to increase defence spending, up to 400% after

the war. Marshall Aid money also was diverted to defence spending in

Western Europe.

Dangers of nuclear war, proposed by General MacArthur scared the world and put pressure on the superpowers to negotiate. After the death of Stalin in 1953, this led

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12.) Creation of the Warsaw Pact – May 1955

USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Albania and East Germany.

The formation of NATO in 1949

altered the balance of power in

Europe in the West’s favour. Stalin needed his own rival alliance

to ensure parity with the west.

The addition of West Germany

to NATO in 1955 along with over a million extra German soldiers accelerated the need for the USSR to create a military alliance.

The USSR responded to NATO by creating the Warsaw Pact which was a

military alliance of Eastern European countries. The countries

agreed to respect each other’s independence and

to defend each other in the event of war. Unlike NATO, the Warsaw

Pact countries were

strictly dominated by the USSR.

The creation of a communist military alliance cemented the

control of the USSR over Eastern Europe.

It also contributed to the

increasing competition of the arms race. The Warsaw Pact had

poor technology and relied on conscription, therefore the USSR

focused on developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterrence.

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13.) The Hungarian Uprising – Feb-Nov 1956

Hungarian Dictator Matyas Rakosi Hungarian Leader Erno Gero Hungarian Leader Imre Nagy Hungarian Leader Janos Kadar USSR led by Nikita Khrushchev

Hungarians were dissatisfied with Soviet rule. After 1949,

COMINFORM imposed an oppressive regime on Hungary. Hungarian land was given to other

countries, resources shipped to Russia, political parties abolished and Matyas Rakosi was appointed

dictator in Aug 1952.

Rakosi’s reign was harsh – he

used what he called ‘salami tactics’ to deal with opposition

‘one slice at a time’. He imprisoned over 387,000 people

and was responsible for over 2000 deaths.

The death of Stalin in 1953 led to the end of ‘Stalinism’ and the start of what Khrushchev called ‘peaceful co-existence’ with the west. This was taken to mean

that Soviet rule was to be relaxed in Hungary. In June 1956, there were anti-Soviet demonstrations in Poland.

Khrushchev agreed to allow reforms there. This inspired many Hungarians to demonstrate

and protest, hoping to gain reforms in their country.

After Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ in Feb 1956, many students began

to riot in Budapest, attacking

Soviet troops with petrol bombs and grenades. Police lost control and protests erupted in other cities. By the summer, Khrushchev

realised that Rakosi was extremely unpopular & replaced him with Erno Gero in July 1956.

This made little difference.

On 24th_{Oct, Khrushchev agreed} to calls for a more liberal leader

and appointed Imre Nagy. He

proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact, making Hungary a democracy with

free election, communism should end and Hungary should ask the UN

for help against the USSR.

Khrushchev worried that to allow this greater freedom and let Hungary leave the Warsaw Pact

would mean the end to Soviet control of Eastern Europe. He

responded by sending 200,000 Soviet troops and 2500 tanks into Hungary to crush the government. They reached Budapest on 4th_Nov.

20,000 Hungarians were killed and another 200,000 fled to Austria.

Nagy fled to the Yugoslavian embassy but was arrested by

Soviet troops as soon as he left. He was accused of treason by Khrushchev and was hanged in

June 1958.

The west was accused of ‘abandoning’ the Hungarians.

The USA had encouraged the uprising but didn’t want to risk nuclear war. May have actually

improved relations as USSR had

seen the USA as having no desire to interfere in its sphere

of influence.

The lack of military help from the USA discouraged other radicals in Eastern Europe from

rising up. In that sense,

Khrushchev’s show of force worked to strengthen his control on Eastern Europe. Janos Kadar was appointed as the new Hungarian leader who

called for: re-establishing communist control and remaining

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14.) The Berlin Crisis & U2 Incident – 1958-1961

USSR led by Nikita Khrushchev USA led by President Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 Khrushchev was deeply concerned by the growing refugee problem. Between 1949 and 1961, 2.7 million East Germans escaped to West Germany through Berlin. Many were highly skilled. Khrushchev also believed that West

Berlin was being used by the West

as a base for spying and sabotage. The post-war recovery of West Berlin seemed to remind people of the benefits of capitalism. This worried Khrushchev.

In Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum giving Western Powers six months

to withdraw from Berlin. Eisenhower was

unsure how to respond but agreed to hold talks on the issue.

Further talks are held in Geneva (May 1959) and at Camp David (Sep 1959) but

both talks fail to achieve anything. Further talks are scheduled for 1960.

On 1st_{May 1960, an American U2 spy} plane is shot down over USSR. Khrushchev

used this to expose the USA’s spying programme at the UN.

The Paris Summit on 16th_{May 1960 breaks} down as Khrushchev walks out. Eisenhower

refuses to punish the leaders of the U2 programme.

At the Vienna Conference on 4th_{June 1961,}

Khrushchev challenges Kennedy to withdraw US troops from Berlin within 6 months or

to declare war. Kennedy refuses. On morning of 13th_{Aug 1961, Berliner’s}

awake to find that a fence had been erected around the whole of West Berlin. It

was eventually reinforced.

The wall stopped East Germans from escaping to the West,

ending the refugee crisis. Allowed the communists to consolidate their hold over East Germany.

Allowed Khrushchev to avoid war with USA whilst appearing strong. Was propaganda victory for the USA as USSR had to ‘wall people in’

to make sure they didn’t run away from communism. Kennedy took advantage of this by touring West

Berlin in 1963, saying in a speech:

“All free men, wherever they live, are citizens of Berlin and therefore as a free man, I take

pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner.”

86 Germans would die over the

next 30 years in trying to cross the wall.

Led to a period of calm in Europe

as both sides accepted there was no immediate prospect of change so

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15.) The Cuban Missile Crisis – October 1962

USA led by President Kennedy USSR led by Nikita Krushchev Cuba led by Fidel Castro Long-term The continuing arms race

forced both sides to find ways in which to gain military supremacy. The

launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 had intensified the arms race. In early 1962, the US placed nuclear missiles in Turkey. The USSR decided to retaliate by placing missiles in Cuba. This would allow the USSR to undermine American nuclear superiority without

having to develop expensive inter-continental

ballistic missiles.

Short-term The overthrow of the

pro-US Batista government in Cuba with a communist government led by Fidel Castro in 1959 intensified fears of

communist expansion in Latin America. Cuba was only 90 miles from Florida.

Castro nationalised US property in Cuba and the

USA banned the import of Cuban sugar – their main export. This forced Cuba to turn to the USSR

for help. The USSR now gave economic aid to Cuba.

The failed Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba in April 1961 by the CIA left Castro fearing another US

invasion. He asked Khrushchev for military

help.

In August 1961, Khrushchev agreed to defend Cuba by stationing Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba.

On 25th_{September 1962, Khrushchev sent 114}

ships to Cuba carrying nuclear warheads and long range missiles.

14th_{Oct – American U2 spy plane spots a nuclear}

site under construction in Cuba.

16th_{Oct – Kennedy was shown the photographs}

proving the missiles were on Cuba. The ExComm committee is established and he spends 6 days

secretly discussing how to respond.

20th _{Oct – Kennedy ignores pressure from ‘hawks’ and}

decides to impose a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent further missiles reaching Cuba.

22nd_{– Kennedy gives a public address officially}

declaring the blockade with 100 ships and calls on Khrushchev to recall his ships on route to Cuba. He promised to destroy any ships that passed the

‘quarantine line’.

23rd_{Oct – Khrushchev states that Soviet ships will}

break though the blockade.

24th_{Oct – Khrushchev issues a statement saying the}

USSR is prepared to respond with nuclear weapons if the USA goes to war.

25th_{Oct – Kennedy writes a letter to Khrushchev}

asking him to withdraw missiles from Cuba. Both armies told to prepare for war. Tension at highest

point.

26th_{Oct – Khrushchev’s first offer: he ignores calls}

for a nuclear war and responds, saying in a letter he will withdraw the missiles in return for a US

guarantee not to invade Cuba.

27th_{Oct – Khrushchev’s second offer: he sends a}

second letter now demanding that the US withdraws its missiles from Turkey in return for the removal

of Cuban missiles. Kennedy ignores this letter but agrees to the first letter. Robert Kennedy then meets with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. He agrees to Russian demands to withdraw missiles from

Turkey but insists the deal must be kept secret.

28th_{Oct – Khrushchev agrees to the secret deal}

and orders all ‘cargoes’ to return to the USSR.

Short-Term

Kennedy and the USA appeared victorious as Khrushchev was seen

by the world as the one to publically back down. This propaganda defeat contributed to

Khrushchev resigning in 1964. Kennedy had agreed to pull US missiles out of Turkey. In reality,

the event did end in compromise. European allies of the US were shocked at how little they were consulted throughout the crisis. French leader Charles de Gaulle pulls France out of NATO in response. NATO is weakened. The Chinese were not impressed

with the performance of the USSR so began to pursue a more independent foreign policy. World

communism was also weakened. This led to the creation of a ‘hotline’ in June 1963 between Washington and Moscow in order

to avoid future ‘misunderstandings’. The Limited Test Ban Treaty was agreed in August 1963. Both

sides agreed to ban nuclear testing in space, in the sea and

above ground.

Long-term

Both sides recognised the dangers of direct conflict. The USA and

USSR began to search for meaningful ‘peaceful co-existence’

as they realised how close they came to nuclear war. This led to a

policy called ‘détente’ – a relaxing of tension in the Cold War which dominated superpower

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