November 2016
One Person, One Weighted Vote
Ashira Pelman OstrowFollow this and additional works at:https://scholarship.law.ufl.edu/flr Part of theElection Law Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by UF Law Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Florida Law Review by an authorized editor of UF Law Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contactkaleita@law.ufl.edu.
Recommended Citation
$VKLUD3HOPDQ2VWURZ
$EVWUDFW
7KLV $UWLFOHDUJXHVWKDW ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVKRXOG EHXVHGWR FRPSO\ ZLWK WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQDO RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW ZKLOH SUHVHUYLQJUHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUSROLWLFDOXQLWVRQWKHOHJLVODWLYHERG\)LUVW WKLV$UWLFOHGHPRQVWUDWHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVDWLVILHVWKHTXDQWLWDWLYH RQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWE\HTXDOL]LQJWKHPDWKHPDWLFZHLJKW RIHDFKYRWH6HFRQGWKLV$UWLFOHGHPRQVWUDWHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJKDV WKH SRWHQWLDO WR UHPHG\ VHYHUDO QHJDWLYH FRQVHTXHQFHV RI HTXDO SRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWV6SHFLILFDOO\WKLV$UWLFOHDUJXHVWKDWE\SUHVHUYLQJ ORFDO SROLWLFDO ERXQGDULHV ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ HOLPLQDWHV WKH GHFHQQLDO UHGLVWULFWLQJSURFHVVWKDWJLYHVULVHWRFODLPVRISDUWLVDQJHUU\PDQGHULQJ HQDEOHVORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVWRIXQFWLRQERWKDVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDUPVRIWKH VWDWHDQGDVLQGHSHQGHQWSROLWLFDOFRPPXQLWLHVDQGSURYLGHVDIRUPDWIRU UHJLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH7KLUGWKLV$UWLFOHUHFRJQL]HVWKDWZKLOHZHLJKWHG YRWLQJHTXDOL]HVWKHPDWKHPDWLFZHLJKWRIHDFKYRWHLWGRHVQRWHTXDOL]H DOODVSHFWVRIOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ,QSDUWLFXODUWKLV$UWLFOHH[SODLQV WKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJJHQHUDWHVLQHTXDOLW\LQWKHIXQFWLRQDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ HDFK YRWHU UHFHLYHV LQIODWHV WKH SROLWLFDO SRZHU DQG YRWLQJ SRZHU RI OHJLVODWRUV IURP PRUH SRSXORXV GLVWULFWV DQG LQFUHDVHV WKH ULVN RI PLQRULW\YRWHGLOXWLRQ7KRXJKWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWKDVQHYHUDGGUHVVHG WKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RIZHLJKWHGYRWLQJWKLV$UWLFOHDUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHG YRWLQJGRHVQRWYLRODWHWKH(TXDO3URWHFWLRQ&ODXVH,QVWHDGWKLV$UWLFOH PDLQWDLQV WKDW WKH (TXDO 3URWHFWLRQ &ODXVH GRHV QRW UHTXLUH HTXDO IXQFWLRQDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRUOHJLVODWRUSRZHUDQGWKDWWKH6XSUHPH&RXUW SHUPLWVWKHXVHRIDWODUJHYRWLQJV\VWHPVWKDWKDYHDVLPLODUFDSDFLW\WR GLOXWH PLQRULW\ YRLFH 7KXV WKLV $UWLFOH FRQFOXGHV WKDW ZKLOH LW LV LPSRUWDQW WR UHFRJQL]H WKH WUDGHRIIV LQKHUHQW LQ ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ DSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQVWKHVHWUDGHRIIVGRQRWSUHFOXGHWKHLUXVH
,1752'8&7,21
, 7+(&2167,787,21$/,7<2):(,*+7('927,1*
$ (TXDOL]LQJWKH:HLJKWRID9RWH
3URSRUWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ
'HYLDWLRQIURP3RSXODWLRQ(TXDOLW\
% 'LVWULFWLQJDURXQG3ROLWLFDO6XEGLYLVLRQV
& :HLJKWHG9RWLQJ-XULVSUXGHQFH
,, :(,*+7('927,1*$1'32/,7,&$/68%',9,6,216
$ 5HPHG\IRU3ROLWLFDO*HUU\PDQGHULQJ
% 7KH5ROHRI/RFDO*RYHUQPHQWV
& 5HJLRQDO*RYHUQDQFH
,,, ,1(48$/,7,(6,1/(*,6/$7,9(5(35(6(17$7,21
$ )XQFWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ
5HFRJQL]LQJ)XQFWLRQDO9RWH'LOXWLRQ
)XQFWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQDQG
WKH(TXDO3URWHFWLRQ&ODXVH
% ,QHTXDOLW\LQ9RWLQJ3RZHU
& 0LQRULW\9RWH'LOXWLRQ
,9 +<%5,':(,*+7('927,1*3/$16
$ :HLJKWHG9RWLQJ9HUVXV
0XOWLPHPEHU'LVWULFWLQJ
'HYLDWLRQIURP3RSXODWLRQ(TXDOLW\
6L]HRIWKH/HJLVODWLYH%RG\
% +\EULG:HLJKWHG9RWLQJ6\VWHPV
&21&/86,21
,1752'8&7,21
(YHU\WHQ\HDUVMXULVGLFWLRQVWKURXJKRXWWKHFRXQWU\FRPSO\ZLWKWKH FRQVWLWXWLRQDO RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH PDQGDWH E\ UHGUDZLQJ WKHLU OHJLVODWLYHPDSVWRHTXDOL]HWKHSRSXODWLRQRIHDFKGLVWULFW,QWKHTXHVW
IRU SRSXODWLRQ HTXDOLW\ ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV DUH EURNHQ LQWR DEVWUDFW HOHFWRUDO GLVWULFWV GHVWDELOL]LQJ SROLWLFDO FRPPXQLWLHV DQG DIIRUGLQJ SROLWLFLDQVQHDUO\OLPLWOHVVGLVFUHWLRQWRJHUU\PDQGHUHOHFWRUDOERXQGDULHV
(YHQZHOY$EERWW6&WQRWLQJWKDWWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWH
GRFWULQHUHTXLUHVVWDWHVWR“UHJXODUO\UHDSSRUWLRQGLVWULFWVWRSUHYHQWPDODSSRUWLRQPHQW”)RUDQ RYHUYLHZ RI WKH UHGLVWULFWLQJ SURFHVV VHH 1$7’/&21)(5(1&( 2) 67$7( /(*,6/$785(6
5(',675,&7,1*/$:
IRU WKHLU RZQ SHUVRQDO DQG SROLWLFDO HQGV :KLOH RWKHU MXULVGLFWLRQV HQJDJH LQ FRQWHQWLRXV SROLWLFDO DQG OHJDO EDWWOHV RYHU GLVWULFW OLQHV
'HODZDUH&RXQW\LQ XSVWDWH1HZ<RUNVLPSO\ DGMXVWVWKHQXPEHURI YRWHV DOORFDWHG WR HDFK PHPEHU RI LWV %RDUG RI 6XSHUYLVRUV 7KDW LV
EHFDXVH 'HODZDUH &RXQW\ LV DPRQJ D KDQGIXO RI FRXQWLHV WKDW XVHV D XQLTXHV\VWHPRIZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ8QGHUWKLVV\VWHPHDFKWRZQHOHFWV
DUHSUHVHQWDWLYHZKRVHYRWHLVZHLJKWHGLQSURSRUWLRQWRWKDWWRZQ’VVKDUH RIWKHFRXQW\SRSXODWLRQ7KXVDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHZKRVHWRZQFRQWDLQVWHQ
SHUFHQWRIWKHWRWDOFRXQW\SRSXODWLRQLVDOORFDWHGWHQSHUFHQWRIWKHYRWHV LQWKHFRXQW\OHJLVODWXUH
7KLV$UWLFOHDUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVKRXOGEHXVHGWRSUHVHUYH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRU SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV DQG SUHYHQW JHUU\PDQGHULQJ 7KRXJKWKHFRQFHSWLVQRWQHZZHLJKWHGYRWLQJKDVEHHQ VXUSULVLQJO\ XQGHUH[SORUHG DQG DV WKLV $UWLFOH DUJXHV XQGHUXWLOL]HG ,Q LWV RQH
SHUVRQRQHYRWHFDVHVWKH866XSUHPH&RXUWLQVLVWHGWKDWHDFKYRWH EHZHLJKWHGHTXDOO\ZLWKDOORWKHUYRWHVFDVWLQWKHVDPHHOHFWLRQ,WGLG
)RU DQ RYHUYLHZ RI OLWLJDWLRQ IROORZLQJ HDFK GHFHQQLDO FHQVXV VHH -XVWLQ /HYLWW
/LWLJDWLRQ LQ WKH &\FOH $//$%2875(',675,&7,1* KWWSUHGLVWULFWLQJOOVHGXFDVHVSKS
ODVWYLVLWHG-XQH
5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OOY'HO&W\%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV)GG&LU
6HH*HUDOG%HQMDPLQ$W/DUJH(OHFWLRQVLQ1<6&LWLHV7RZQV9LOODJHVDQG6FKRRO 'LVWULFWVDQGWKH&KDOOHQJHRI*URZLQJ3RSXODWLRQ'LYHUVLW\$/%*29’7/5(9
Q OLVWLQJ FRXQWLHV WKDW XVH ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ 1<67$7($66’1&7<6&2817<
*29(510(1725*$1,=$7,21 ,11(:<25.67$7( SURYLGLQJ RYHUYLHZ RI FRXQW\
VWUXFWXUH
6HH5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OO)GDW
7KH RQO\ UHFHQW ZRUNV RI VFKRODUVKLS DGGUHVVLQJ ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ DV D PHDQV RI FRPSO\LQJZLWKWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWDUH.HLWK5:HVRORZVNL1RWH5HPHG\ *RQH$ZU\:HLJKLQJLQRQ:HLJKWHG9RWLQJ:0 0$5</5(9FDVH
VWXG\ RQ D 1HZ <RUN FRXUW RUGHULQJ D FRXQW\ WR DGRSW D ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ VFKHPH DQG -XULM 7RSODNEqual Voting Weight of All: Finally “One Person, One Vote” from Hawaii to Maine? 7(03/5(9 – DUJXLQJ IRU ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ LQ &RQJUHVV )RU HDUOLHU
FRPPHQWDU\ VHH 5LFKDUG %ULIIDXOW:KR 5XOHV DW +RPH" 2QH 3HUVRQ2QH 9RWH DQG /RFDO *RYHUQPHQWV8&+,/5(9FRQVLGHULQJDZHLJKWHGYRWLQJDOWHUQDWLYHIRU
UHJLRQDO JRYHUQDQFH 5LFKDUG 'DYLG (PHU\:HLJKWHG 9RWLQJ 72852/5(9–
DUJXLQJWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJLVXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO%HUQDUG*URIPDQ +RZDUG6FDUURZ
:HLJKWHG9RWLQJLQ1HZ<RUN/(*,6678'4GHVFULELQJIODZVLQZHLJKWHG
YRWLQJ 5RQDOG ( -RKQVRQ$Q $QDO\VLV RI :HLJKWHG 9RWLQJ DV 8VHG LQ 5HDSSRUWLRQPHQW RI &RXQW\ *RYHUQPHQWV LQ 1HZ <RUN 6WDWH $/%/5(9 – VFUXWLQL]LQJ WKH FRPSXWHUWHVWLQJWHFKQLTXHIRUWKHYDOLGDWLRQRIZHLJKWHGYRWLQJSODQVLQ1HZ<RUN6HYHUDO LQWHUQDWLRQDO ERGLHV LQFOXGLQJ WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ WKH :RUOG %DQN DQG WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0RQHWDU\ )XQG XVH ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ V\VWHPV :LOOLDP 1 *LDQDULV:HLJKWHG 9RWLQJ LQ WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO0RQHWDU\)XQGDQGWKH:RUOG%DQN)25'+$0,17’//-(ULF
$3RVQHU $ODQ26\NHV9RWLQJ5XOHVLQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO2UJDQL]DWLRQV&+,-,17’//
/È6=/ÏÈ.Ï&=< 7+(())(&7 2)%5(;,7 21927,1* ,1 7+(&281&,/ 2) 7+(
(8523($181,21KWWSZZZDFDGHPLDHGX
6HH:HVEHUU\Y6DQGHUV86–UHTXLULQJHTXDOO\ZHLJKWHGYRWHVLQ
QRW LQVLVW WKDW VWDWH DQG ORFDO GLVWULFWV EH HTXDOO\ VL]HG ,QVWHDG LQ
5H\QROGVY6LPVWKH&RXUWKHOGWKDWDSODQLQZKLFKUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRI
GLVSDUDWHO\VL]HGGLVWULFWVHDFKKDGDVLQJOHYRWHLQWKHOHJLVODWLYHERG\ YLRODWHG WKH (TXDO 3URWHFWLRQ &ODXVH RI WKH )RXUWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW
7KHSUREOHPZDVQRWWKDWWKHGLVWULFWVWKHPVHOYHVZHUHXQHTXDOEXWUDWKHU WKDW WKH\ UHFHLYHG XQHTXDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 7KXV WKH5H\QROGV&RXUW
LWVHOIPDLQWDLQHGWKDWDVWDWHPLJKWEHDEOHWRFRPSHQVDWHIRUSRSXODWLRQ GLVSDULWLHVE\LQFUHDVLQJWKHOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIPRUHSRSXORXV GLVWULFWV
:HLJKWHG YRWLQJ VDWLVILHV WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW E\ LQFUHDVLQJ WKH QXPEHU RI OHJLVODWLYH YRWHV HDFK UHSUHVHQWDWLYH FDVWV LQ SURSRUWLRQWRWKHGLVWULFW’VSRSXODWLRQ7RLOOXVWUDWHDVVXPHDQDYHUDJH
VL]HG GLVWULFW KDV UHVLGHQWV (DFK GLVWULFW ZRXOG HOHFW D VLQJOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHZLWKRQHYRWHLQWKHOHJLVODWXUH5HVLGHQWVRIDZHLJKWHG GLVWULFW ZLWK UHVLGHQWV ZRXOG HOHFW D VLQJOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH ZKR ZRXOGFDVWWZRYRWHV,QHDFKGLVWULFWWKHUDWLRRIUHVLGHQWVWROHJLVODWLYH YRWHVLVWR$OWKRXJKWKHSRSXODWLRQVYDU\WKHQXPHULFZHLJKWRI HDFKYRWHLVH[DFWO\WKHVDPH7KLVDYRLGVWKH5H\QROGVSUREOHPLQZKLFK GLVSDUDWHO\VL]HGGLVWULFWVDUHJUDQWHGWKHVDPHOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ :HLJKWHG YRWLQJ WKXV HQDEOHV OHJLVODWXUHV WR XVH SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQVWKDWYDU\LQVL]HDVHOHFWRUDOGLVWULFWV)ROORZLQJ5H\QROGVY 6LPVVHYHUDOVWDWHVFRQVLGHUHGDGRSWLQJZHLJKWHGYRWLQJDSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQVWRHTXDOL]HUHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUWKHLUH[LVWLQJGLVWULFWV3URSRQHQWV
FRQJUHVVLRQDOGLVWULFWV5H\QROGVY6LPV86UHTXLULQJHTXDOO\ZHLJKWHG
YRWHVLQVWDWHOHJLVODWLYHGLVWULFWV$YHU\Y0LGODQG&W\86–UHTXLULQJ
HTXDOO\ZHLJKWHGYRWHVLQJHQHUDOSXUSRVHPXQLFLSDOOHJLVODWXUHV
)RUWVRQY'RUVH\86–KROGLQJWKDWVWDWHSODQWKDWPL[HG
VLQJOHPHPEHUDQGPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVWKDWYDULHGLQVL]HGLGQRWGHQ\UHVLGHQWVDQHTXDOO\
ZHLJKWHG YRWH0DKDQ Y +RZHOO 86 – ILQGLQJ WKDW PXOWLPHPEHU
DSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQ VDWLVILHG WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW HYHQ WKRXJK WKH GLVWULFWV YDULHGLQSRSXODWLRQVL]H:KLWFRPEY&KDYLV86VWDWLQJWKDWXQHTXDO PXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVVDWLVI\WKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
86
,GDW–
,GDW
,GDW QRWLQJ WKDW LQ VWDWH OHJLVODWXUHV“>R@QH ERG\ FRXOG EH FRPSRVHG RI VLQJOHmember districts while the other could have at least some multimember districts”); VHHDOVR )RUWVRQ 86 DW QRWLQJ WKDW5H\QROGV“rejected the notion that equaO SURWHFWLRQ QHFHVVDULO\UHTXLUHVWKHIRUPDWLRQRIVLQJOHmember districts”).
5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OOY'HO&W\%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV)GG&LU
5$OWD&KDUR'HVLJQLQJ0DWKHPDWLFDO0RGHOVWR'HVFULEH2QH3HUVRQ2QH9RWH&RPSOLDQFH E\ 8QLTXH *RYHUQPHQWDO 6WUXFWXUHV 7KH &DVH RI WKH 1HZ <RUN &LW\ %RDUG RI (VWLPDWH
)25'+$0/5(9
-RKQ ) %DQ]KDI ,,,:HLJKWHG 9RWLQJ 'RHVQ’W :RUN $ 0DWKHPDWLFDO $QDO\VLV
587*(56/5(9317, 317 (1965) (“[W]eighted voting has been widely suggested as an alternative to actual reapportionment.”).
DUJXHGWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJZRXOGSUHYHQWJHUU\PDQGHULQJDQGHQDEOH VWDWHVWRFRQWLQXHWRXVHFRXQWLHVDVWKHXQLWRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQWKHVWDWH OHJLVODWXUH&ULWLFVFRXQWHUHGWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJJHQHUDWHVLQHTXDOLW\
LQFULWLFDOGLPHQVLRQVRIOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ&RXUWVIRUWKHPRVW
SDUWVLGHGZLWKFULWLFVDQGUHMHFWHGVWDWHZLGHZHLJKWHGYRWLQJSODQVIRU IDLOLQJWRHTXDOL]HWKHQRQYRWLQJDVSHFWVRIOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
7KXV PRVW MXULVGLFWLRQV HOHFW UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV IURP VLQJOHPHPEHU HTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWV7KH6XSUHPH&RXUWKDVH[SUHVVHGDVWURQJ
SUHIHUHQFHIRUWKLVPRGHRIDSSRUWLRQPHQW)HGHUDOODZUHTXLUHVHTXDO SRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWV IRU FRQJUHVVLRQDO VHDWV DQG WKH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI VWDWHVXVHHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWVIRUWKHLUVWDWHOHJLVODWXUHV2YHUWKH
SDVW GHFDGHVKRZHYHU LW KDVEHFRPHLQFUHDVLQJO\ REYLRXVWKDW HTXDO SRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWLQJLPSRVHVLWVRZQFRVWVRQYRWHUHTXDOLW\(TXDO
SRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWVLQHYLWDEO\GLVUXSWWKHLQWHJULW\RIORFDOJRYHUQPHQW ERXQGDULHV7KHGHFHQQLDO UHGLVWULFWLQJSURFHVVH[DFHUEDWHVWKLV HIIHFW LQKLELWLQJ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI SROLWLFDO FRPPXQLWLHV DQG HQDEOLQJ JHUU\PDQGHULQJ
,G DW 5REHUW ,PULH7KH ,PSDFW RI WKH :HLJKWHG 9RWH RQ5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ 0XQLFLSDO*RYHUQLQJ%RGLHVRI1HZ<RUN6WDWH$11$/61<$&$'6&,
DGYRFDWLQJWKHXVHRIZHLJKWHGYRWLQJDVDWHPSRUDU\VROXWLRQ
%DQ]KDIVXSUDQRWHDWDUJXLQJWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJRYHUUHSUHVHQWVUHVLGHQWV RI PRUH SRSXORXV GLVWULFWV -DFN % :HLQVWHLQ7KH (IIHFW RI WKH )HGHUDO 5HDSSRUWLRQPHQW 'HFLVLRQVRQ&RXQWLHVDQG2WKHU)RUPVRI0XQLFLSDO*RYHUQPHQW&2/80/5(9–
DUJXLQJWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJGRHVQRWSURYLGHHTXDOOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 6HHLQIUDQRWHV–
-DPHV $ *DUGQHUWhat Is “Fair” Partisan Representation, and How Can It Be
&RQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG"7KH&DVHIRU$5HWXUQWR)L[HG(OHFWLRQ'LVWULFWV0$54/5(9 562 (2007) (noting our country’s “commitment on both the federal and state levels to the use of VLQJOHmember, territorial election districts”); Jeffrey C. O’Neill, (YHU\WKLQJ 7KDW &DQ %H &RXQWHG'RHV1RW1HFHVVDULO\&RXQW7KH5LJKWWR9RWHDQGWKH&KRLFHRID9RWLQJ6\VWHP 0,&+67/5(9 “6LQJOHPHPEHU GLVWULFWV DUH WKH QRUP LQ WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV DQG
HQJHQGHUWKHWZRSDUW\V\VWHP”
6HH&KDSPDQY0HLHU86&RQQRUY-RKQVRQ86
86& DD F UHTXLULQJ VLQJOHPHPEHU HTXDO SRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWV IRU FRQJUHVVLRQDOUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV
6HH2’1HLOOVXSUD QRWH DW *DUGQHUVXSUD QRWH DW 1LFKRODV 2 6WHSKDQRSRXORV5HGLVWULFWLQJ DQG WKH 7HUULWRULDO &RPPXQLW\ 83$/5(9
0LFDK$OWPDQ 0LFKDHO30F'RQDOG5HGLVWULFWLQJ3ULQFLSOHVIRUWKH7ZHQW\)LUVW &HQWXU\&$6(:5(6/5(9GHVFULELQJRGGO\VKDSHGHTXDOSRSXODWLRQ
GLVWULFWVGUDZQWRIDYRUDSROLWLFDOSDUW\LQFXPEHQWRUPLQRULW\JURXS3DPHOD6.DUODQ0DSV DQG0LVUHDGLQJ7KH5ROHRI *HRJUDSKLF&RPSDFWQHVVLQ5DFLDO9RWH'LOXWLRQ/LWLJDWLRQ +$59&5&//5(9QRWLQJWKDWWKHHTXDOSRSXODWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWGRHVQRW SUHYHQWOHJLVODWRUVIURPJHUU\PDQGHULQJGLVWULFWERXQGDULHVWRGLOXWHWKHYRWLQJSRZHURIPLQRULW\ JURXSV6WHYHQ-0XOUR\7KH:D\2XW$/HJDO6WDQGDUGIRU,PSRVLQJ$OWHUQDWLYH(OHFWRUDO 6\VWHPVDV9RWLQJ5LJKWV5HPHGLHV+$59&5&//5(9“6LQJOHPHPEHU
7KLV$UWLFOHDUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVKRXOGEHXVHGWRPLWLJDWH WKHVHFRVWV7KH$UWLFOHSURFHHGVDVIROORZV3DUW,DUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ V\VWHPV VDWLVI\ WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQDO RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQWE\DOORFDWLQJOHJLVODWLYHYRWHVLQSURSRUWLRQWRWKHSRSXODWLRQ RIHDFKGLVWULFW0RUHRYHUWKLV3DUWDUJXHVWKH6XSUHPH&RXUW’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
3DUW,,,UHFRJQL]HVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJGRHVQRWHTXDOL]HDOODVSHFWV RI OHJLVODWLYH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ ,Q SDUWLFXODU ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ V\VWHPV JHQHUDWHLQHTXDOLW\LQWKHIXQFWLRQDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQHDFKYRWHUUHFHLYHV LQIODWH WKH SROLWLFDO SRZHU DQG YRWLQJ SRZHU RI OHJLVODWRUV IURP PRUH SRSXORXVGLVWULFWVDQGLQFUHDVHWKHULVNRIPLQRULW\YRWHGLOXWLRQ7KRXJK WKHVHLQHTXDOLWLHVDUHFULWLFDOO\LPSRUWDQWIURPDSROLF\SHUVSHFWLYHWKLV 3DUWDUJXHVWKDWWKH\GRQRWUHQGHUZHLJKWHGYRWLQJXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOSHU VH
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
,7+(&2167,787,21$/,7<2):(,*+7('927,1*
+LVWRULFDOO\HOHFWRUDOGLVWULFWVFRUUHVSRQGHGWRIL[HGSROLWLFDOXQLWV
VXFKDVFRXQWLHVRUFLWLHV8QWLOWKHVWKHPRVWFRPPRQPRGHRI
DSSRUWLRQPHQWZDVWR FUHDWHGLVWULFWV FRPSULVHGRIRQHRUPRUHZKROH
-DPHV$*DUGQHU2QH3HUVRQ2QH9RWHDQGWKH3RVVLELOLW\RI3ROLWLFDO&RPPXQLW\
1&/5(9–6WHSKDQRSRXORVVXSUDQRWHDW
FRXQWLHVDQGYDU\WKHQXPEHURIUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVHOHFWHGIURPHDFKGLVWULFW LQ URXJK SURSRUWLRQ WR WKHLU UHVSHFWLYH SRSXODWLRQV ,Q LWV
UHDSSRUWLRQPHQWFDVHVWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWILUPO\UHMHFWHGWKHXVHRIORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV DV WKH XQLWV RI UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RQ OHJLVODWLYH ERGLHV ,Q
5H\QROGVY6LPVWKH&RXUWUHTXLUHGVWDWHOHJLVODWXUHVWREHDSSRUWLRQHG
DFFRUGLQJWRSRSXODWLRQZLWKRXWUHJDUGWRWKHVWDWH’VH[LVWLQJSROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV $V WKH 5H\QROGV &RXUW IDPRXVO\ KHOG “LHJLVODWRUV
UHSUHVHQWSHRSOHQRWWUHHVRUDFUHV/HJLVODWRUVDUHHOHFWHGE\YRWHUVQRW IDUPVRUFLWLHV.”
2QHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH WULJJHUHG D UHDSSRUWLRQPHQW UHYROXWLRQ 0RVW MXULVGLFWLRQV FRPSOLHG ZLWK WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH PDQGDWH E\ WUDQVLWLRQLQJ WR HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ 7KHVH QHZO\ IRUPHG
GLVWULFWV QHDUO\ DOZD\V GLVUXSWHG WKH ERXQGDULHV RI H[LVWLQJ SROLWLFDO FRPPXQLWLHV VXFK DV FRXQWLHV WRZQV DQG FLWLHV :HLJKWHG YRWLQJ
HPHUJHG LQ WKH PLGVW RI WKLV XSKHDYDO DV D FRPSURPLVH GHVLJQHG WR SUHVHUYH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRU H[LVWLQJ SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV ZKLOH SURYLGLQJHDFKYRWHUZLWKDQHTXDOO\ZHLJKWHGYRWH
7KLV3DUWDUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJV\VWHPVVDWLVI\WKHRQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW6HFWLRQ$DUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJHTXDOL]HV WKHZHLJKWRIHDFKYRWHE\DOORFDWLQJOHJLVODWLYHYRWHVLQSURSRUWLRQWR SRSXODWLRQ 6HFWLRQ % DUJXHV WKDW WKH &RXUW’V SUHIHUHQFH IRU VLQJOH PHPEHU HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWV FDQ EH RYHUFRPH E\ D FRPSHWLQJ GHVLUH WR SUHVHUYH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRU H[LVWLQJ SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV
6WHSKDQRSRXORVVXSUDQRWHDW–
%UXFH(&DLQ(OHFWLRQ/DZDVD)LHOG$3ROLWLFDOScientist’s Perspective/2<
/$/5(9QRWLQJWKDWLQLWVRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHFDVHVWKH&RXUWHQGRUVHG
DSRSXODWLRQEDVHGWKHRU\RIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDWQRWLQJWKDW“WKH &RXUWQRWRQO\IRUPDOO\UHMHFWHGEXWDOVRGHFLVLYHO\GHOHJLWLPL]HGWKHQHZGRFWULQH’VORJLFDODQG KLVWRULFDO DOWHUQDWLYH RQH FRPPXQLW\ RQH YRWH” .DUODQVXSUD QRWH DW “5H\QROGV UHSUHVHQWHGDGHFLVLYHUHMHFWLRQRIDFRQFHSWLRQRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDWDOORFDWHGWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WR H[HUFLVHHIIHFWLYHSROLWLFDOSRZHURQWKHEDVLVRIJHRJUDSK\”)
86
,GDW
,GDW
%UXFH(&DLQHWDO)URP(TXDOLW\WR)DLUQHVV7KH3DWKRI3ROLWLFDO5HIRUP6LQFH %DNHU Y &DUU LQ 3$57< /,1(6 &203(7,7,21 3$57,6$16+,3 $1' &21*5(66,21$/
5(',675,&7,1*–7KRPDV(0DQQ %UXFH(&DLQHGV
6HH&DLQHWDOVXSUDQRWHDW(“7KHHTXDOSRSXODWLRQFULWHULRQLQHYLWDEO\ZUHDNHG KDYRF RQ JHRJUDSKLF UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ VLQFH LQ PDQ\ LQVWDQFHV KRPRJHQHRXV FRPPXQLWLHV RI interest had to be split or combined in order to achieve population equality among districts.”);
&DLQVXSUDQRWHDW–GHVFULELQJWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHvote requirement’s disruptive HIIHFWRQJHRJUDSKLFGLVWULFWLQJ*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDW(noting that “recognized local political communities” were broken up “because their populations fail to add up to the required numbers”); 6WHSKDQRSRXORVVXSUDQRWHDWGHVFULELQJGLVUXSWLRQRIORFDOJRYHUQPHQW ERXQGDULHVIROORZLQJWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
6HFWLRQ & EULHIO\ VXUYH\V WKH FDVH ODZ QRWLQJ WKDW ERWK 1HZ <RUN’V KLJKHVWFRXUWDQGWKH86&RXUWRI$SSHDOVIRUWKH6HFRQG&LUFXLWKDYH KHOGWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVDWLVILHVWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
$(TXDOL]LQJWKH:HLJKWRID9RWH
7KH FRQVWLWXWLRQDO RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH GRFWULQH UHTXLUHV WKDW OHJLVODWXUHVEHDSSRUWLRQHGRQDSRSXODWLRQEDVLVVRWKDWHDFKSHUVRQKDV DPDWKHPDWLFDOO\HTXDOO\ZHLJKWHGYRWH$V3URIHVVRU3DPHOD.DUODQ
H[SODLQV WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHvote cases are “‘based solely on a mathematical analysis’ that shows that the votes of persons in one district
DUHGHYDOXHGUHODWLYHWRWKHYRWHVRISHUVRQVLQDOHVVSRSXODWHGdistrict.”
7KLV6HFWLRQDUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJSODQVOLNHPXOWLPHPEHUSODQV VDWLVI\WKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWVRORQJDVYRWHVLQWKH OHJLVODWLYH ERG\ DUH DOORFDWHG LQ SURSRUWLRQ WR SRSXODWLRQ DQG WKH PD[LPXPGHYLDWLRQIURPSRSXODWLRQHTXDOLW\LVZLWKLQDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\ SHUPLVVLEOHUDQJH
3URSRUWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ
7KRXJK WKH &RXUW KDV H[SUHVVHG D VWURQJ SUHIHUHQFH IRU VLQJOH PHPEHUHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWVWKH\DUHQRWVWULFWO\UHTXLUHG7RWKH
FRQWUDU\LQLQ)RUWVRQY'RUVH\WKH6XSUHPH&RXUWH[SUHVVO\
KHOG WKDW WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW GRHV QRW UHTXLUH WKH IRUPDWLRQRIHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWV,Q)RUWVRQWKH6XSUHPH&RXUW
XSKHOGDUHGLVWULFWLQJSODQWKDWFRQVLVWHGRIDPL[WXUHRIPXOWLPHPEHU DQGVLQJOHPHPEHUGLVWULFWV7KH&RXUWGHWHUPLQHGWKDWthere is “clearly
no mathematical disparity” in the weight of each vote EHFDXVH HDFK
GLVWULFW HOHFWV D QXPEHU RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV LQ SURSRUWLRQ WR LWV SRSXODWLRQ,QLQ:KLWFRPEY&KDYH]WKH6XSUHPH&RXUWDJDLQ
KHOGWKDWPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVLQZKLFKUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVZHUHDOORFDWHG LQSURSRUWLRQWRSRSXODWLRQVDWLVILHGWKHPDWKHPDWLFDORQHSHUVRQRQH YRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
%RWKPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVDQGZHLJKWHGYRWLQJGLVWULFWVHTXDOL]HWKH ZHLJKWRIDQLQGLYLGXDOYRWHE\LQFUHDVLQJWKHQXPEHURIOHJLVODWLYHYRWHV
.DUODQVXSUDQRWHDW
,G
6HHHJ&RQQRUY-RKQVRQ86(1971) (“[S]inglePHPEHUGLVWULFWVDUH SUHIHUDEOHWRODUJHPXOWLmember districts as a general matter.”).
86
,GDW–
,G
,GDW
86
LQSURSRUWLRQWRWKHGLVWULFW’VSRSXODWLRQ0XOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVHTXDOL]H WKH ZHLJKW RI LQGLYLGXDO YRWHV E\ LQFUHDVLQJ HDFK GLVWULFW’V QXPEHU RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV—DQG WKHUHIRUH WKH QXPEHU RI OHJLVODWLYH YRWHV—LQ SURSRUWLRQ WR LWV SRSXODWLRQ :HLJKWHGYRWLQJ GLVWULFWV HTXDOL]H WKH ZHLJKWRILQGLYLGXDOYRWHVE\LQFUHDVLQJWKHQXPEHURIOHJLVODWLYHYRWHV HDFKUHSUHVHQWDWLYHFDVWVLQSURSRUWLRQWRWKHGLVWULFW’VSRSXODWLRQ
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
'HYLDWLRQIURP3RSXODWLRQ(TXDOLW\
&RXUWVW\SLFDOO\GHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUDQDSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQFRPSOLHV ZLWK WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHvote requirement by calculating the plan’s
PD[LPXPGHYLDWLRQIURPSRSXODWLRQHTXDOLW\7KHPD[LPXPGHYLDWLRQ
LVWKHUDQJHE\ZKLFKWKHPRVWRYHUUHSUHVHQWHGFRQVWLWXHQF\GLIIHUVIURP WKHPRVWXQGHUUHSUHVHQWHG,IWKHODUJHVWGLVWULFWLVWZRSHUFHQWODUJHU
WKDQWKHLGHDODQGWKHVPDOOHVWGLVWULFWLVRQHSHUFHQWVPDOOHUWKDQWKH LGHDOWKHQWKHRYHUDOOUDQJHRUPD[LPXPSRSXODWLRQGHYLDWLRQLVWKUHH SHUFHQW
7KH&RXUWDSSOLHVGLIIHUHQWVWDQGDUGVWRFRQJUHVVLRQDOGLVWULFWVYHUVXV VWDWHDQGORFDOSODQV$WWKHQDWLRQDOOHYHOWKH&RXUWLQVLVWVRQVWULFW
HTXDOLW\ UHTXLULQJ WKDW FRQJUHVVLRQDO GLVWULFWV EH“DV QHDUO\ HTXDO LQ SRSXODWLRQDVSUDFWLFDEOH”,QVWDWHDQGORFDODSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQV
.DUODQVXSUDQRWHDW
&RXUWVUHIHUWRWKLVUDQJHLQDYDULHW\RIZD\V6HHHJ$EUDPVY-RKQVRQ86
–99 (1997) (“overall population deviation”); Bd. of Estimate v. Morris, 489 U.S. 688, 700
(1989) (“maximum percentage deviation”); Connor v. Finch, 431 86
(“maximum deviation”); Chapman v. Meier, 420 U.S. 1, 23 (1975) (“deviation,” “variation,” and “total population variance”).
6HH(YHQZHOY$EERWW6&WQRWLQJWKDWWKH&RXUWLQVLVWVRQVWULFW HTXDOLW\ LQ FRQJUHVVLRQDO GLVWULFWV EXW DIIRUGV JUHDWHU IOH[LELOLW\ WR VWDWH DQG ORFDO GLVWULFWV
0DKDQY+RZHOO86noting while “population alone has been the sole
FULWHULRQRIFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\LQFRQJUHVVLRQDOUHGLVWULFWLQJEURDGHUODWLWXGHKDVEHHQDIIRUGHG the States under the Equal Protection Clause in state legislative redistricting”).
:KLWHY:HLVHU86–LQYDOLGDWLQJGLVWULFWVWKDWZHUHQRWDV
PDWKHPDWLFDOO\HTXDODVSRVVLEOHVHH.DUFKHUY'DJJHWW86UHMHFWLQJ
KRZHYHU WKH &RXUW KDV DGRSWHG D PRUH IOH[LEOH DSSURDFK JHQHUDOO\ SHUPLWWLQJVWDWHDQGORFDOGLVWULFWVWRGHYLDWHXSWRWHQSHUFHQWIURPWKH LGHDOVL]H
,QZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVFKHPHVFRXUWVFDOFXODWHWKHPD[LPXPGHYLDWLRQ XVLQJDZHLJKWHGYRWHIRUPXODWKDWFRPSDUHVWKHSHUFHQWRISRSXODWLRQ DQRIILFLDOUHSUHVHQWVWRWKHSHUFHQWRIYRWHVDOORFDWHGWRWKDWRIILFLDO
%HFDXVHYRWHVDUHDOORFDWHGLQSURSRUWLRQWRSRSXODWLRQZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ SODQV JHQHUDOO\ GR QRW GHYLDWH IURP SRSXODWLRQ HTXDOLW\ ,I DQ RIILFLDO ZKRVHWRZQFRQWDLQVWHQSHUFHQWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQLVDOORFDWHGWHQSHUFHQW RIWKHYRWHV WKHPD[LPXP GHYLDWLRQ LV ]HURSHUFHQW:HLJKWHGYRWLQJ SODQVWKXVSURGXFHSUHFLVHPDWKHPDWLFDOHTXDOLW\
%'LVWULFWLQJDURXQG3ROLWLFDO6XEGLYLVLRQV
,Q LWV UHDSSRUWLRQPHQW FDVHV WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW UHMHFWHG XVLQJ SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV DV WKH VROH XQLW RI UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RQ OHJLVODWLYH ERGLHV7KH&RXUWGLGQRWKRZHYHUQHJDWHWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV PRUH JHQHUDOO\ ,QGHHG WKH 5H\QROGV &RXUW LWVHOI UHFRJQL]HGWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRISROLWLFDOVXEGLYLVLRQVDVDOHJLWLPDWHIDFWRU LQVWDWHGLVWULFWLQJWKRXJKLWFRXOGQRWMXVWLI\WKHHQRUPRXVSRSXODWLRQ GLVSDULW\LQWKDWFDVH,QWKHZRUGVRIWKH&RXUW“D6WDWHFDQUDWLRQDOO\
FRQVLGHU DFFRUGLQJ SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV VRPH LQGHSHQGHQW UHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQDWOHDVWRQHERG\RIWKHVWDWHOHJLVODWXUHDVORQJDVWKH EDVLFVWDQGDUGRIHTXDOLW\RISRSXODWLRQDPRQJGLVWULFWVLVPDLQWDLQHG”
/DVWWHUPLQ(YHQZHOY$EERWWWKH&RXUWFRQILUPHGWKDWVWDWHDQG
local legislative districts are permitted to deviate to “accommodate traditional districting objectives,” such as “preserving the iQWHJULW\ RI
HTXDOLW\.LUNSDWULFNY3UHLVOHU86–UHMHFWLQJSODQZLWKVL[SHUFHQW
SRSXODWLRQ GHYLDWLRQ DQG UHMHFWLQJ WKH VXJJHVWLRQ WKDW WKHUH LV D SRLQW DW ZKLFK SRSXODWLRQ GLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJGLVWULFWVEHFRPHGHPLQLPLV6WDWHH[UHO6WHSKDQY*UDYHV)6XSS
'.DQUXOLQJWKDWSODQZLWKD“PD[LPXPSRSXODWLRQGHYLDWLRQ”RI
ZDV XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SODQ PDLQWDLQHG ZKROH FRXQWLHV LQ HDFK FRQJUHVVLRQDOGLVWULFW
6HH 9RLQRYLFK Y 4XLOWHU 86 QRWLQJ WHQSHUFHQW WKUHVKROG
%URZQY7KRPVRQ86“>7KH&RXUW’V@GHFLVLRQVKDYHHVWDEOLVKHGDVD
JHQHUDO PDWWHU WKDW DQ DSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQ ZLWK D PD[LPXP SRSXODWLRQ GHYLDWLRQ XQGHU WHQ SHUFHQWIDOOVZLWKLQWKLVFDWHJRU\RIPLQRUGHYLDWLRQV”%XWVHH/DURLVY&R[)6XSSG 1'*DILQGLQJWKDWWHQSHUFHQWWKUHVKROGLVSUHVXPSWLYHO\FRQVWLWXWLRQDO
EXWQRWLPPXQHIURPFRQVWLWXWLRQDODWWDFNaff’dPHP86
5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OOY'HO&W\%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV)GG&LU
FLWLQJ/HDJXHRI:RPHQ9RWHUVY1DVVDX&W\%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV)GG&LU FRPSDULQJWKH“SHUFHQWRIWRWDOSRSXODWLRQUHSUHVHQWHGE\DJLYHQORFDORIILFLDOWRWKH SHUFHQWRIZHLJKWHGYRWHVDOORFDWHGWRWKDWRIILFLDO”).
5H\QROGVY6LPV86
,GDW–
,GDW
SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV”7KXVWKH&RXUWUHJXODUO\ WROHUDWHVGHYLDWLRQV
IURP SRSXODWLRQ HTXDOLW\ ZKHQ DGHTXDWHO\ MXVWLILHG E\ D VWDWH SROLF\ SUHVHUYLQJ WKH ERXQGDULHV RI H[LVWLQJ SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV VXFK DV FRXQWLHV WRZQV RU FLWLHV,Q WKH FDVH RI$EDWH Y 0XQGW IRU
H[DPSOHWKH&RXUWDSSURYHGRIDPXOWLPHPEHUDSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQIRU 5RFNODQG &RXQW\ 1HZ <RUN ZKLFK KDG EHHQ GUDZQ VR LWV HOHFWRUDO GLVWULFWVFRUUHVSRQGHGSUHFLVHO\ZLWKWKHFRXQW\’VILYHH[LVWLQJWRZQV
7KH&RXUWXSKHOGWKHSODQGHVSLWHLWVGHYLDWLRQH[SODLQLQJWKDW ORFDOQHHGV“PD\VRPHWLPHVMXVWLI\GHSDUWXUHVIURPVWULFWHTXDOLW\”DQG WKDWWKH“H[DFW>WRZQ–GLVWULFW@FRUUHVSRQGHQFH”ZDVGHVLUDEOHEHFDXVHLW IDFLOLWDWHGLQWHUORFDOFRRSHUDWLRQ
,QDGGLWLRQWRUHFRJQL]LQJWKHYDOXHRISUHVHUYLQJWRZQVRQWKHFRXQW\ OHJLVODWXUHWKH&RXUWKDVUHFRJQL]HGWKHYDOXHRISUHVHUYLQJFRXQWLHVRQ WKH VWDWH OHJLVODWXUH ,Q LQ0DKDQ Y +RZHOO IRU H[DPSOH WKH
&RXUWHQGRUVHGD9LUJLQLDGLVWULFWSODQZLWKDWRWDOGHYLDWLRQWKDW KDGEHHQFDUHIXOO\GUDZQWRDYRLGFURVVLQJFLW\RUFRXQW\ERXQGDULHV
7KH &RXUW DJUHHG WKDW GLYLGLQJ FRXQWLHV LQWR PXOWLSOH GLVWULFWV ZRXOG KDUPFRXQW\YRWHUV,QSDUWLFXODUWKH&RXUWQRWHGWKDWLIFRXQWLHVZHUH
split, “[W@KH RSSRUWXQLW\ RI >WKHLU@ YRWHUV WR FKDPSLRQ ORFDO OHJLVODWLRQ
[would be] virtually nil,” and their “representation [would be] no representation at all so far as local legislation is concerned.”7KXVWKH Court determined that the state’s policy of presHUYLQJORFDOJRYHUQPHQW ERXQGDULHVMXVWLILHGWKHGHYLDWLRQ
7HQ \HDUV ODWHU LQ%URZQ Y 7KRPVRQ WKH &RXUW DSSURYHG RI D
:\RPLQJ DSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQ ZLWK DQ HLJKW\QLQHSHUFHQW PD[LPXP GHYLDWLRQ IURP SRSXODWLRQ HTXDOLW\ 7KH &RXUW KHOG WKDW WKH VWDWH’V
SROLF\RIXVLQJFRXQWLHVDVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHGLVWULFWVDQGDOORFDWLQJDWOHDVW RQH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH WR HDFK FRXQW\ ZDV VXSSRUWHG E\ VXEVWDQWLDO DQG
6&W
%URZQY7KRPSVRQ86Q0DKDQY+RZHOO86–
XSKROGLQJSODQZLWKWRWDOGHYLDWLRQWKH9LUJLQLD*HQHUDO$VVHPEO\KDG FDUHIXOO\GUDZQWRDYRLGFURVVLQJFLW\RUFRXQW\ERXQGDULHV
86
,GDW–
,GDWVHHDOVR1$1&<0$9((7<5(35(6(17$7,215,*+76$1'7+(%85*(5
<($56GHVFULELQJ$EDWHDV“WKHILUVW%XUJHUGHFLVLRQWKDWLVFOHDUO\FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKH
FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RI WHUULWRULDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ” 'HDQ $OIDQJH -U*HUU\PDQGHULQJ DQG WKH &RQVWLWXWLRQ,QWRWKH7KRUQVRIWKH7KLFNHWDW/DVW683&75(9QRWLQJWKDWZLWK
$EDWH“WKH&RXUWEHJDQDUHWUHDWIURPWKHH[WUHPHULJLGLW\RILWVSRVLWLRQ”
86
,GDW–
,GDW–
6HHLG
86
6HHLGDW
OHJLWLPDWH VWDWH FRQFHUQV 6SHFLILFDOO\ WKH &RXUW UHFRJQL]HG WKDW WKH YDULRXV FRXQWLHV KDG“GLIIHUHQW DQG GLVWLQFWLYH” QHHGV DQG ZHUH WKH
SULPDU\DGPLQLVWUDWLYHDJHQFLHVRIWKHVWDWHJRYHUQPHQW,QWKH
86'LVWULFW&RXUWIRUWKH1RUWKHUQ'LVWULFWRI2KLRVLPLODUO\XSKHOGDQ 2KLROHJLVODWLYHGLVWULFWSODQZLWKDWRWDOGHYLDWLRQRIIRU+RXVH GLVWULFWV WKDW ZDV D UHVXOW RI D UDWLRQDO VWDWH SROLF\ SUHVHUYLQJ FRXQW\ OLQHV
$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKH&RXUWKDVUHMHFWHGGHYLDWLRQVWKDWH[FHHG WHQ SHUFHQWWKDWZHUHQRWDGHTXDWHO\VXSSRUWHGE\VWDWHSROLFLHVSUHVHUYLQJ SROLWLFDOERXQGDULHV,Q&KDSPDQY0HLUIRUH[DPSOHWKH&RXUWVWUXFN
GRZQDQDSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQZLWKDGHYLDWLRQQRWLQJWKDW“[i]WLV
IDUIURPDSSDUHQWWKDW1RUWK'DNRWDSROLF\FXUUHQWO\UHTXLUHVRUIDYRUV VWULFWDGKHUHQFHWRSROLWLFDOOLQHV”6LPLODUO\LQ.LOJDUOLQY+LOOWKH
&RXUWUHMHFWHGDFRXQW\EDVHGDSSRUWLRQPHQWSODQZKHUHWKHVWDWHGLGQRW GHPRQVWUDWH “ZK\ RU KRZ UHVSHFW IRU WKH LQWHJULW\ RI FRXQW\ OLQHV UHTXLUHGWKHSDUWLFXODUGHYLDWLRQV”
&:HLJKWHG9RWLQJ-XULVSUXGHQFH
'HVSLWH LWV SUHIHUHQFH IRU HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWV WKH &RXUW UHJXODUO\ SHUPLWV VWDWH DQG ORFDO DSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQV WR GHYLDWH IURP SRSXODWLRQHTXDOLW\LQRUGHUWRDFFRPPRGDWHWKHERXQGDULHVRISROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQV ,Q$EDWH Y 0XQGW WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW UHFRJQL]HG WKDW
SROLWLFDOVXEGLYLVLRQVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKHVWUXFWXUHRI1HZ<RUN FRXQWLHV8QWLOWKHV1HZ<RUNFRXQWLHVZHUHJRYHUQHGE\D%RDUG RI 6XSHUYLVRUV FRPSRVHG RI D VLQJOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH IURP HDFK WRZQ ZLWKLQWKHFRXQW\7KH&RXUW’VKROGLQJLQ5H\QROGVY6LPVDQG$YHU\
Y0LGODQG&RXQW\UHQGHUHG1HZ<RUN’VWUDGLWLRQDO“RQHWRZQRQH
YRWH”OHJLVODWLYHVWUXFWXUHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO5RXJKO\KDOIRIWKHFRXQWLHV LQ1HZ<RUNUHVSRQGHGWRWKHVHUXOLQJVE\UHSODFLQJWKHLUFRXQW\%RDUGV ZLWKFRXQW\OHJLVODWXUHVFRPSRVHGRIVLQJOHPHPEHUHTXDOSRSXODWLRQ
,GDWQ
4XLOWHUY9RLQRYLFK)6XSS–1'2KLR
86
,GDW
86
,GDWVWULNLQJGRZQD7H[DVVWDWXWHXVLQJVLQJOHPHPEHUPXOWLPHPEHUDQG
IORWHULDOGLVWULFWVWKDWFUHDWHGDPD[LPXPSRSXODWLRQGHYLDWLRQRIDVDQ“XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO ‘FUD]\TXLOW’”
86
6HH1<67$7($66’1&7<6VXSUDQRWHDW)RUDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHVWUXFWXUHRI
1HZ<RUNFRXQWLHVVHHLGDW
86
86
GLVWULFWV7KHRWKHUKDOIKRZHYHUDGRSWHGZHLJKWHGYRWLQJV\VWHPVWR
SUHVHUYHWKHWRZQEDVHGVWUXFWXUHRIWKHLUFRXQW\%RDUGV0RUHWKDQD
GR]HQFRXQWLHVFRQWLQXHWRXVHZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ
8QGHUWUDGLWLRQDOZHLJKWHGYRWLQJSODQVWKHUHJLVWHUHGYRWHUVLQHDFK WRZQHOHFWRQHWRZQVXSHUYLVRUZKRUHSUHVHQWVWKHWRZQRQWKHFRXQW\
%RDUGRI6XSHUYLVRUV(DFKWRZQVXSHUYLVRUFDVWVDQXPEHURIYRWHV
based upon the town’s population.7KXVDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHZKRVHWRZQ
FRQWDLQV WZHQW\ SHUFHQW RI WKH FRXQW\ SRSXODWLRQ ZRXOG FDVW WZHQW\ SHUFHQW RI YRWHV RQ WKH &RXQW\ %RDUG 2WKHU FRXQWLHV LQFUHDVH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUPRUHGHQVHO\SRSXODWHGDUHDVE\VXEGLYLGLQJFLWLHVLQWR ZDUGVHDFKRIZKLFKHOHFWVLWVRZQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRUE\LQFUHDVLQJWKH
*URIPDQ 6FDUURZVXSUDQRWHDW–
&KDURVXSUDQRWHDWVHHDOVR*URIPDQ 6FDUURZVXSUDQRWHDW–
QRWLQJWKUHHIDFWRUVWKDW OHG1<FRXQWLHVWRDGRSW ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJLQFOXGLQJWKHKLVWRU\RI ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJLQ1DVVDX&RXQW\DFRPPLVVLRQUHSRUWUHFRPPHQGLQJZHLJKWHGYRWLQJIRUWKH VWDWH OHJLVODWXUH DQG WKH QDWXUH RI FRXQW\ SROLWLFV LQ 1HZ <RUN (PHU\VXSUDQRWH DW QRWLQJWKDW1HZ<RUNDGRSWHGZHLJKWHGYRWLQJWRHQDEOHWRZQPD\RUVWRFRQWLQXHWRVHUYHDV FRXQW\OHJLVODWRUV
6HHVXSUDQRWHDQGDFFRPSDQ\LQJWH[WVHHDOVR1<67$7($66’1&7<6VXSUDQRWH
DW – &RXQWLHV WKDW SUHVHUYHG WKHLU %RDUGV JHQHUDOO\ GR QRW KDYH DQ HOHFWHG H[HFXWLYH ,QVWHDGDQDSSRLQWHGFRXQW\PDQDJHURUWKH%RDUGLWVHOIPDQDJHVWKHVHFRXQWLHV,G:LWKRXW UXOLQJRXWWKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWRWKHUVH[LVWWKH$XWKRUFRXOGRQO\ILQGRQHMXULVGLFWLRQRXWVLGHRI 1HZ<RUNWKDWXQWLOUHFHQWO\XVHGZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ,Q%DUQVWDEOH&RXQW\0DVVDFKXVHWWV YRWHGWRUHSODFHLWVZHLJKWHGYRWLQJV\VWHPZLWKDVLQJOHPHPEHUHTXDOSRSXODWLRQOHJLVODWXUH
6HH5HFRPPHQGDWLRQ RI WKH &KDUWHU 5HYLHZ &RPPLWWHH %$5167$%/(&7< 1RY
KWWSZZZEDUQVWDEOHFRXQW\RUJZSFRQWHQWXSORDGV0HHWLQJ3DFNHWSGI
5R[EXU\ 7D[SD\HUV $OO Y 'HO &W\ %G RI 6XSHUYLVRUV ) 6XSS
1'1<GHVFULELQJ'HODZDUH’VZHLJKWHGYRWLQJSODQIROORZLQJWKHFHQVXVDII’G )G G &LU VHH DOVR5HIRUP RI 6FKRKDULH &W\ Y 6FKRKDULH &W\ %G RI
6XSHUYLVRUV)6XSS1'1<GHVFULELQJ6FKRKDULH&RXQW\’VZHLJKWHG
YRWLQJSODQDII’G)GG&LU,DQQXFFLY%GRI6XSHUYLVRUVRI:DVK&W\
1(GQ1<QRWLQJWKDWVXSHUYLVRUVRQWKH%RDUGKDGRQHYRWHGHVSLWH YDVWSRSXODWLRQGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWRZQV
6HHHJ,DQQXFFL1(GDW)RUDQLOOXVWUDWLRQVHH0217*20(5<&7<1<
3238/$7,21$1':(,*+7('927(KWWSVZZZFRPRQWJRPHU\Q\XVVLWHVSXEOLF
JRYHUQPHQWSODQQLQJFKDUWHU&KDUWHUB)RUPV5HIHUHQFHB0DWHULDOV/HJLVODWLYHB'LVWULFWV0RQW
&R:HLJKWHG9RWH0DSSGI ODVW YLVLWHG -XQH +HDWKHU 1HOOLV9RWLQJ
0DWK :LOO 8QGHUJR6OLJKW &KDQFH $067(5'$05(&25'(5 $SU DW $ GHVFULELQJ
DOORFDWLRQRIYRWHVLQ0RQWJRPHU\&RXQW\,Q0RQWJRPHU\&RXQW\UHSODFHGLWVZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ V\VWHP ZLWK D OHJLVODWXUH FRQVLVWLQJ RI QLQH PHPEHUV HOHFWHG IURP HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWV6HH0217*20(5<&7<&+$57(5DUWVHHDOVR0217*20(5<&7<
/2&$//$:),/,1*KWWSVZZZFRPRQWJRPHU\Q\XVVLWHVSXEOLFJRYHUQPHQWORFDOODZV
/RFDO/DZ6FDQVSGIFRPSLOLQJGRFXPHQWVUHODWLQJWR/RFDO/DZ
&RUWODQG &RXQW\ VXEGLYLGHV LWV GHQVHO\ SRSXODWHG FLW\ DQG VXEXUEDQ WRZQV LQWR HOHFWRUDOGLVWULFWV&RUWODQG&W\/HJLVODWLYHDQG(OHFWLRQ'LVWULFWVVHH6ODWHUY%GRI 6XSHUYLVRUV RI &RUWODQG 1<6G – 6XS &W XSKROGLQJ &RUWODQG
County’s apportionment plan)aff’d1<6G$SS'LY
QXPEHU RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV HDFK GLVWULFW HOHFWV LQ SURSRUWLRQ WR WKH
district’s population.
%RWKWKH6HFRQG&LUFXLWDQGWKH1<&RXUWRI$SSHDOVKDYHKHOGWKDW ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ VDWLVILHV WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW ,Q
LQ)UDQNOLQY.UDXVHWKH1<&RXUWRI$SSHDOVXSKHOG1DVVDX
&RXQW\’V ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ VFKHPH DJDLQVW DQ (TXDO 3URWHFWLRQ FKDOOHQJH ,Q XSKROGLQJ WKH SODQ ZKLFK XVHG WRZQV DV HOHFWRUDO
GLVWULFWVWKH)UDQNOLQFRXUWHPSKDVL]HGWKH6XSUHPH&RXUW’VWROHUDQFH IRU IOH[LEOH ORFDO JRYHUQDQFH VWUXFWXUHV DQG WKH YDOXH RI SUHVHUYLQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRUSROLWLFDO VXEXQLWV—WRZQVDQGFLWLHV—RQWKH&RXQW\ %RDUG7KHUHDIWHUWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWGLVPLVVHGDQDSSHDORIWKH1HZ
<RUNGHFLVLRQIRUZDQW RIDIHGHUDO TXHVWLRQ6XEVHTXHQW FDVHVKDYH
WUHDWHG WKLV GLVPLVVDO DV D GHFLVLRQ RQ WKH PHULWV,Q RWKHU ZRUGV E\
GLVPLVVLQJWKHDSSHDOIRUZDQWRIDIHGHUDOTXHVWLRQWKH6XSUHPH&RXUW HIIHFWLYHO\GHWHUPLQHGWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJDW WKHORFDO OHYHOGRHVQRW YLRODWHWKHIHGHUDOFRQVWLWXWLRQEXWLVLQVWHDGDPDWWHURIVWDWHODZ
0RUHUHFHQWO\LQ5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV $OOLDQFHY'HODZDUH&RXQW\ %RDUG RI 6XSHUYLVRUVWKH 6HFRQG &LUFXLW XSKHOGDelaware County’s
ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ SODQ XQGHU ZKLFK HDFK WRZQ HOHFWHG D VLQJOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHWRWKH&RXQW\%RDUG7KHFRXUWUHMHFWHGWKHFODLPWKDW
WKH (TXDO 3URWHFWLRQ &ODXVH UHTXLUHV VLQJOHPHPEHU HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWVDQGKHOGWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVDWLVILHVWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWH
6FKHQHFWDG\&RXQW\LQFUHDVHVWKHQXPEHURIPHPEHUVHDFKGLVWULFWHOHFWVLQSURSRUWLRQ to the district’s population and then divides the total number of votes between the district’s PHPEHUV6&+(1(&7$'<&7<1<&+$57(5DUW,,)VHH0LFKDHO/DPHQGROD
6FKHQHFWDG\&RXQW\/HJLVODWXUH3XVKHVIRU:HLJKWHG9RWLQJ'$,/<*$=(77($SU
KWWSVGDLO\JD]HWWHFRPDUWLFOHBZHLJKWHG
6HHHJ5HIRUPRI6FKRKDULH&W\)6XSSDW–5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OO )GDW)UDQNOLQY.UDXVH1(G1<,DQQXFFLY%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV
1(G1<6ODWHU1<6GDW
1(G1<
,GDW
6HHLGDWQRWLQJWKDWSUHVHUYLQJWRZQERXQGDULHVIDFLOLWDWHVORFDOWD[LQJDQGWKH GHOLYHU\RIORFDOVHUYLFHVDQGWKDWPHUJLQJWKHVHXQLWVLQWRHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWV“ZRXOGEH WRVDFULILFHSUDFWLFDOLW\IRUDQDEVWUDFWLRQ”
)UDQNOLQY.UDXVH86
6HH5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OOY'HO&W\%G2I6XSHUYLVRUV)6XSS–
1'1<
6HHLGQRWLQJWKDW“>W@KLVW\SHRIGLVPLVVDOLVGHHPHGWRUHDFKWKHPHULWVRIWKHFDVH DQGFUHDWHVELQGLQJSUHFHGHQW”
)GG&LU
,GDWVHHDOVR5HIRUPRI6FKRKDULH&W\Y6FKRKDULH&W\%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV ) 6XSS – 1'1< XSKROGLQJ D VXEVWDQWLDOO\ LGHQWLFDO ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ VFKHPHLQ6FKRKDULH&RXQW\
UHTXLUHPHQWVRORQJDVYRWHVDUHDOORFDWHGLQSURSRUWLRQWRSRSXODWLRQ
$VWKHFRXUWH[SODLQHG“[E@\KDYLQJHDFKWRZQHOHFWDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHWKH &RXQW\DVVXUHVWKDWWKHLQWHUHVWVRIHYHU\WRZQQRPDWWHUKRZVPDOODUH FRQVLGHUHGE\WKH%RDUGDQGWKDWQRWRZQVXIIHUVIURPSHUPDQHQWODFN RIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRQDFFRXQWRILWVVL]H”7KH6HFRQG&LUFXLWUHDIILUPHG
WKLVKROGLQJWZR\HDUVODWHULQ5HIRUPRI6FKRKDULH&RXQW\Y6FKRKDULH &RXQW\%RDUGRI6XSHUYLVRUV,Q6FKRKDULH&RXQW\WKHFRXUWXSKHOGD
ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVFKHPHZKLFKXVHGWRZQVDVHOHFWRUDOGLVWULFWVDQGJDYH HDFKVXSHUYLVRU“DQXPEHURIYRWHVURXJKO\SURSRUWLRQDWHWRKLVRUKHU WRZQ’VSHUFHQWDJHVKDUHRIWKHWRWDOSRSXODWLRQRIWKH&RXQW\.”
,QDGGLWLRQWKHIHGHUDOFRXUWVKDYHWZLFHRUGHUHGFRXQWLHVWRDGRSW ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVFKHPHVWR UHPHG\ PDODSSRUWLRQHGGLVWULFWV ,Q WKH86 'LVWULFW &RXUWIRUWKH 6RXWKHUQ'LVWULFW RI1HZ<RUNRUGHUHG 5RFNODQG&RXQW\WRUHPHG\LWVPDODSSRUWLRQHGGLVWULFWVE\UHGLVWULFWLQJ RU E\ DGRSWLQJ ZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ6LPLODUO\ LQ DIWHU QXPHURXV
IDLOHGDWWHPSWVWRDGRSWDGLVWULFWLQJSODQWKH86'LVWULFW&RXUWIRUWKH :HVWHUQ 'LVWULFW RI 1HZ <RUN RUGHUHG (ULH &RXQW\ WR PDLQWDLQ LWV H[LVWLQJGLVWULFWVDQGXVHZHLJKWHGYRWLQJWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKHRQH SHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW:LWKQHDUO\DFHQWXU\RIXVHFRXQW\ZLGH
ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJLVILUPO\HQWUHQFKHGLQ1HZ<RUNDVDQDSSRUWLRQPHQW PHFKDQLVPWKDWHQDEOHVFRXQWLHVWRSUHVHUYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUSROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQVLQWKHLUOHJLVODWLYHERGLHV
,,:(,*+7('927,1*$1'32/,7,&$/68%',9,6,216
7KHFRQVWLWXWLRQDO SULQFLSOHRI“RQHSHUVRQRQHYRWH”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
5R[EXU\7D[SD\HUV$OO)GDWKROGLQJWKDWZKHUHXQHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWV DUHXVHGZHLJKWHGYRWLQJPD\EHXVHGWRSURYLGHYRWHUVZLWKD“GHJUHHRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRQWKH governing body that is proportionate to the percentage that the district’s population bears to the SRSXODWLRQRIWKHSROLWLFDOXQLWDVDZKROH”
,GDW
)6XSS1'1<
,GDW
$EDWHY5RFNODQG&W\/HJLVODWXUH)6XSS6'1<
.RUPDQY*LDPEUD1R&9(65:/DW:'1<$XJ
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
DUJXHVWKDWZHLJKWHGYRWLQJV\VWHPVUHPHG\HDFKRIWKHVHSUREOHPVE\ SUHVHUYLQJWKHLQWHJULW\RIORFDOJRYHUQPHQWERXQGDULHV
$5HPHG\IRU3ROLWLFDO*HUU\PDQGHULQJ
(TXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ KDV OHG WR WKH SUREOHP RI SROLWLFDO JHUU\PDQGHULQJ 7KH ERXQGDULHV RI VLQJOHPHPEHU HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWVPXVWEHUHGUDZQHYHU\WHQ\HDUVWRPDLQWDLQSRSXODWLRQHTXDOLW\ 7KH UHGLVWULFWLQJ SURFHVV RQFH SUDLVHG DV DQ HIIHFWLYH UHVSRQVH WR PDODSSRUWLRQHG GLVWULFWV LV QRZ ZLGHO\ FRQGHPQHG DV “DQ RSHQ LQYLWDWLRQ WR JHUU\PDQGHULQJ” 3ROLWLFLDQV GHOLEHUDWHO\ PDQLSXODWH district boundaries “WR SURWHFW LQFXPEHQWV DQG WR PDLQWDLQ RU H[WHQG DGYDQWDJHVHQMR\HGE\WKHGRPLQDQWSDUW\”5HGLVWULFWLQJLVEODPHGIRU
UHGXFLQJWKHQXPEHURIFRPSHWLWLYHHOHFWLRQGLVWULFWVDURXQGWKHQDWLRQ GHFUHDVLQJ JRYHUQPHQW UHVSRQVLYHQHVV DQG FUHDWLQJ D VHQVH WKDW HOHFWLRQV DUH PHDQLQJOHVV ,Q KLV 6WDWH RI WKH 8QLRQ $GGUHVV
3UHVLGHQW %DUDFN 2EDPD IODJJHG JHUU\PDQGHULQJ DV RQH RI WKH IXQGDPHQWDOSUREOHPVZLWK$PHULFDQSROLWLFVDQGFDOOHGIRUDQHQGWRWKH
practice of drawing districts so that “politicians can pick their voters, and not the other way around.”
6HH$VKLUD3HOPDQ2VWURZ(PHUJLQJ&RXQWLHV"3URVSHFWVIRU5HJLRQDO*RYHUQDQFH LQWKH:DNHRI0XQLFLSDO'LVVROXWLRQ<$/(/-)–KWWS\DOHODZMRXUQDO
RUJIRUXPHPHUJLQJFRXQWLHVSURVSHFWVIRUUHJLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHLQWKHZDNHRIPXQLFLSDOGLVV ROXWLRQHYDOXDWLQJREVWDFOHVWRUHJLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH
*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDW–
,GDW
,G DW 0LFKDHO : 0F&RQQHOO7KH 5HGLVWULFWLQJ &DVHV 2ULJLQDO 0LVWDNHVDQG &XUUHQW &RQVHTXHQFHV +$59-/ 38%32/’<VWDWLQJ JHUU\PDQGHULQJ “contributes to the popular perception that elections do not matter”); Carl Hulse, 6HHNLQJWR(QG
Gerrymandering’s Enduring Legacy1<7,0(6-DQKWWSZZZQ\WLPHVFRP
XVSROLWLFVVHHNLQJWRHQGJHUU\PDQGHULQJVHQGXULQJOHJDF\KWPO"BU TXRWLQJ H[SHUWV who state that “[p]eople are so upset that their votes don’t count anymore”).
+XOVHVXSUDQRWH
$OWKRXJKWKH&RXUWKDVWZLFHKHOGWKDWSDUWLVDQJHUU\PDQGHULQJFDQ YLRODWH WKH &RQVWLWXWLRQ LW KDV \HW WR GHYHORS D ZRUNDEOH WHVW IRU
GHWHUPLQLQJZKHQWKDWRFFXUV,Q'DYLVY%DQGHPHUWKH6XSUHPH
&RXUWUHFRJQL]HGDFDXVHRIDFWLRQIRUSROLWLFDOJHUU\PDQGHULQJKROGLQJ WKDW DQ HOHFWRUDO SURFHVV YLRODWHV WKH ULJKW WR YRWH LI LW UHVXOWV LQ WKH
“FRQVLVWHQW>@ GHJUDG>DWLRQ@RI YRWHUV’ LQIOXHQFH RQ WKH SROLWLFDO SURFHVV DVDZKROH”7KH“FRQVLVWHQWGHJUDGDWLRQ”VWDQGDUGKDVEHHQ
GLIILFXOWWRDSSO\OHDYLQJVFKRODUVDQGFRXUWVVWUXJJOLQJWRXQGHUVWDQGWKH FRQWRXUVRIWKLVDVSHFWRIWKHULJKWWRYRWH
,QLQ9LHWKY-XEHOLUHUWKH&RXUWUHYLVLWHGLWVWHVWIRUSDUWLVDQ
JHUU\PDQGHULQJ$SOXUDOLW\LQ9LHWKZRXOGKDYHUHYHUVHG%DQGHPHUDQG GHFODUHG SDUWLVDQ JHUU\PDQGHULQJ QRQMXVWLFLDEOH 0HDQZKLOH WKUHH
GLVVHQWV SURSRVHG VHSDUDWH VWDQGDUGV IRU GHWHUPLQLQJ ZKHQ SDUWLVDQ GLVWULFWLQJYLRODWHVWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQ$V-XVWLFH.HQQHG\REVHUYHGLQ
KLV FRQFXUULQJ RSLQLRQ “WKHUH DUH \HW QR DJUHHG XSRQ VXEVWDQWLYH SULQFLSOHVRIIDLUQHVVLQGLVWULFWLQJ”DQGDVDUHVXOW“ZHKDYHQREDVLVRQ ZKLFKWRGHILQHFOHDUPDQDJHDEOHDQGSROLWLFDOO\QHXWUDOVWDQGDUGVIRU PHDVXULQJWKHSDUWLFXODUEXUGHQDJLYHQSDUWLVDQFODVVLILFDWLRQLPSRVHV RQUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOULJKWV”
7KH &RXUW’V VWUXJJOH WR LGHQWLI\ XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO SDUWLVDQ JHUU\PDQGHULQJ UHIOHFWV WKH FRQIOLFW LQKHUHQW LQ OHJLVODWLYH GLVWULFWLQJ :KHQ HOHFWHG RIILFLDOV DUH FKDUJHG ZLWK GUDZLQJ WKHLU RZQ GLVWULFW ERXQGDULHV WKH\ZLOOLQHYLWDEO\GRVRZLWK DQ H\HWRZDUG UHWDLQLQJRU LQFUHDVLQJWKHLUSRZHU$V3URIHVVRU-DPHV*DUGQHUKDVREVHUYHG“$OO
6HH 9LHWK Y -XEHOLUHU 86 SOXUDOLW\ RSLQLRQ UHMHFWLQJ QXPHURXV
VWDQGDUGVIRUPHDVXULQJSROLWLFDOJHUU\PDQGHULQJ/HDJXHRI8QLWHG/DWLQ$P&LWL]HQVY3HUU\
86(finding that the appellants had not provided “a reliable standard for
Ldentifying unconstitutional political gerrymanders”).
86SOXUDOLW\RSLQLRQ
,GDW
9LHWK 86 DW282 (“In the lower courts, the legacy of the plurality’s test [in
%DQGHPHU] is one long record of puzzlement and consternation.”); Samuel Issacharoff, -XGJLQJ 3ROLWLFV7KH(OXVLYH4XHVWIRU-XGLFLDO5HYLHZRI3ROLWLFDO)DLUQHVV7(;/5(9
(“Bandemer is a mass of confusion on what the Court actually belieYHVLVWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDO harm.”); 6WHSKDQRSRXORVVXSUDQRWH, at 1382 (“Scholars puzzled over what values the standard sought to capture . . . .”).
86SOXUDOLW\RSLQLRQ
,GDW
6HHLGDW6WHYHQV-GLVVHQWLQJSURSRVLQJLQTXLU\IRFXVHGRQSDUWLVDQLQWHQW
LG DW – 6RXWHU - GLVVHQWLQJ SURSRVLQJ EXUGHQVKLIWLQJ IUDPHZRUNLG DW – %UH\HU-GLVVHQWLQJSURSRVLQJWHVWEDVHGRQrisk of “unjustified entrenchment” by political PLQRULW\
,GDW–.HQQHG\-FRQFXUULQJ
6HHHJLGDW–PDMRULW\RSLQLRQ(indicating that partisanship is an “ordinary and lawful motive” in redistricting)
GLVWULFWLQJLVLQVRPHVHQVHJHUU\PDQGHULQJVRPHRQHVWDQGVWRJDLQRU ORVHIURPDQ\FRQFHLYDEOHUHGUDZLQJRIGLVWULFWOLQHV”
&RPPHQWDWRUV KDYH SURSRVHG QXPHURXV UHIRUPV LQFOXGLQJ YDULRXV VXEVWDQWLYH FRQVWLWXWLRQDO VWDQGDUGV RI IDLU SROLWLFDO FRPSHWLWLRQ
VRSKLVWLFDWHG PHDVXUHV RI GLVWULFW FRPSDFWQHVV DQG SURFHGXUDO
UHIRUPV VXFK DV WKH XVH RI LQGHSHQGHQW GLVWULFWLQJ FRPPLVVLRQV RU
DSSURYDOE\UHIHUHQGXP
(DFKRIWKHVHSURSRVDOVVHHNVWRUHIRUPWKHUHGLVWULFWLQJSURFHVVLWVHOI :HLJKWHG YRWLQJ SURYLGHV DQRWKHU DYHQXH IRU UHIRUP 5DWKHU WKDQ WLQNHULQJZLWKDQLQKHUHQWO\SROLWLFDOSURFHVVZHLJKWHGYRWLQJDYRLGVLW DOO WRJHWKHU :HLJKWHG YRWLQJ VDWLVILHV WKH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH
UHTXLUHPHQWE\DGMXVWLQJWKHQXPEHURIYRWHVLQWKHOHJLVODWXUHUDWKHUWKDQ E\DGMXVWLQJWKHOLQHVRQDPDS:HLJKWHGYRWLQJWKXVHOLPLQDWHVWKH
*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDW
6HH%HUQDUG*URIPDQ *DU\.LQJ7KH)XWXUHRI3DUWLVDQ6\PPHWU\DVD-XGLFLDO7HVW IRU3DUWLVDQ*HUU\PDQGHULQJ$IWHU/8/$&Y3HUU\(/(&7,21/-–DUJXLQJIRUD
VWDQGDUGRIV\PPHWULFDOSDUWLVDQELDVIRUHYDOXDWLQJWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RIGLVWULFWLQJSODQVVHH DOVR6DP+LUVFK7KH8QLWHG6WDWHV+RXVHRI8QUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV:KDW:HQW:URQJLQWKH/DWHVW 5RXQGRI&RQJUHVVLRQDO5HGLVWULFWLQJ(/(&7,21/-DUJXLQJIRUDVWDQGDUGRI
SDUWLVDQ IDLUQHVV UHVSRQVLYHQHVV DQG DFFRXQWDELOLW\ 6DPXHO ,VVDFKDURII*HUU\PDQGHULQJ DQG 3ROLWLFDO&DUWHOV+$59/5(9–6DPXHO,VVDFKDURII 3DPHOD6.DUODQ
:KHUH7R'UDZWKH/LQH"-XGLFLDO5HYLHZRI3ROLWLFDO*HUU\PDQGHUV83$/5(9–
5LFKDUG*1LHPLHWDO0HDVXULQJ&RPSDFWQHVVDQGWKH5ROHRID&RPSDFWQHVV6WDQGDUG LQD7HVWIRU3DUWLVDQDQG5DFLDO*HUU\PDQGHULQJ-32/LGHQWLI\LQJDQG
FODVVLI\LQJ WKH FRPSRQHQWV RI FRPSDFWQHVV 'DQLHO ' 3ROVE\ 5REHUW ' 3RSSHU7KH 7KLUG &ULWHULRQ&RPSDFWQHVVDVD3URFHGXUDO6DIHJXDUG$JDLQVW3DUWLVDQ*HUU\PDQGHULQJ<$/(/
32/’<5(9–SURSRVLQJYDULRXVFRPSDFWQHVVVWDQGDUGV
%UXFH(&DLQ5HGLVWULFWLQJ&RPPLVVLRQV$%HWWHU3ROLWLFDO%XIIHU"<$/(
–
0LFKDHO 6 .DQJ'H5LJJLQJ (OHFWLRQV 'LUHFW 'HPRFUDF\ DQG WKH )XWXUH RI 5HGLVWULFWLQJ5HIRUP:$6+8/5(9
0LFKDHO+DOEHUVWDP3URFHVV)DLOXUHDQG7UDQVSDUHQF\5HIRUPLQ/RFDO5HGLVWULFWLQJ (/(&7,21/-46, 449 (2012) (“Redistricting is inherently political . . . because it involves competition and bargaining between interest groups about the allocation of political power.”);.DQJ
VXSUDQRWHDW–DUJXLQJWKDWUHGLVWULFWLQJLVDQLQKHUHQWO\SROLWLFDOSURFHVV-XVWLQ/HYLWW
(VVD\ :HLJKLQJ WKH 3RWHQWLDO RI &LWL]HQ 5HGLVWULFWLQJ /2</$/5(9
DUJXLQJWKDWUHGLVWULFWLQJLVDQLQKHUHQWO\SROLWLFDOSURFHVV“in that multiple complex tradeoffs are required among multiple goals, with no outcome that clearly serves all of the population equally”). :HLJKWHGYRWLQJGRHVQRWHOLPLQDWHWKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWPXQLFLSDOERXQGDULHVWKHPVHOYHV PLJKWEHDOWHUHGWRDIIHFWHOHFWRUDORXWFRPHV,QGHHGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWERXQGDULHVDUHQRWRULRXVO\ GUDZQDORQJVRFLRHFRQRPLFDQGUDFLDOOLQHVWRH[FOXGHORZLQFRPHUHVLGHQWVDQGUDFLDOPLQRULWLHV
6HH0LFKHOOH:LOGH$QGHUVRQ&LWLHV,QVLGH2XW5DFH3RYHUW\DQG([FOXVLRQDWWKH8UEDQ)ULQJH
8&/$/5(92VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW$FRPSOHWHDQDO\VLVRIWKH
LQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQPXQLFLSDOERXQGDU\FKDQJHVDQGHOHFWRUDOSROLWLFVLVEH\RQGWKHVFRSHRIWKLV $UWLFOH)RUWKHPRPHQWVXIILFHLWWRVD\WKDWPXQLFLSDOERXQGDULHVKDYHDQLGHQWLW\DQGSXUSRVH WKDW WUDQVFHQGV HOHFWRUDO SROLWLFVDQG DUH OHVV OLNHO\ WR EH DOWHUHG WR IXUWKHU SDUWLVDQ JRDOV $V
UHGLVWULFWLQJSURFHVVWKDWJLYHVULVHWRFODLPVRISDUWLVDQJHUU\PDQGHULQJ
%7KH5ROHRI/RFDO*RYHUQPHQWV
(TXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWVDUHDOVRLQFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHFRQFHSWLRQRI ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVDVLQGHSHQGHQWSROLWLHVDQGDVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDUPVRI WKHVWDWH,JQRULQJORFDOJRYHUQPHQWERXQGDULHVLQHOHFWRUDOGLVWULFWLQJ
XQGHUPLQHV WKHLU VWDWXV DV LQGHSHQGHQW GHPRFUDFLHV ,URQLFDOO\ LWLV
EHFDXVH ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV DUH FRQVLGHUHG LQGHSHQGHQW SROLWLFDO FRPPXQLWLHVWKDWWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWHYHQDSSOLHVDW WKH ORFDO OHYHO $V D PDWWHU RI IHGHUDO FRQVWLWXWLRQDO ODZ ORFDO
JRYHUQPHQWVKDYHWUDGLWLRQDOO\EHHQWUHDWHGDVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDUPVRIWKH VWDWH ,Q WKH VHPLQDO FDVH RI+XQWHU Y &LW\ RI 3LWWVEXUJK WKH
6XSUHPH &RXUW FKDUDFWHUL]HG ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV DV “SROLWLFDO VXEGLYLVLRQVRIWKHVWDWHFUHDWHGDVFRQYHQLHQWDJHQFLHVIRUH[HUFLVLQJ VXFK RI WKH JRYHUQPHQWDO SRZHUV RI WKH VWDWH DV PD\ EH LQWUXVWHG WR WKHP”
8QGHU+XQWHU ORFDO JRYHUQPHQW IRUPDWLRQ UHVWV LQ WKH“DEVROXWH GLVFUHWLRQ”RIWKHVWDWHVWDWHVDUHIUHHWRHQDEOHWKHIRUPDWLRQRIORFDO
JRYHUQPHQWV RU DEROLVK WKHP FRPSOHWHO\ ,I DV+XQWHUVXJJHVWV ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWVDUHPHUHFUHDWXUHVRIWKHVWDWHWKHQWKHRQHSHUVRQRQH YRWH UHTXLUHPHQW VKRXOG QRW DSSO\ WR ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV ,QVWHDG DV
Richard Briffault has argued, “D VWDWH RXJKW WR EH DEOH WR GHVLJQ ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV DORQJ WKH OLQHV LW GHHPV DSSURSULDWH WR HIIHFWXDWH LWV
purposes.”
,Q$YHU\Y0LGODQG&RXQW\KRZHYHUWKH&RXUWUHMHFWHG+XQWHU’V
XQLGLPHQVLRQDOYLHZRIORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVDVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDJHQWVDQG LQVWHDGUHFRJQL]HGWKDWLQSUDFWLFH“WKH6WDWHVXQLYHUVDOO\OHDYHPXFK
Professor James Gardner explains, “[w]e simply do not draw city or county lines for the purpose RI PDNLQJ FLW\ DQG FRXQW\ HOHFWLRQV FRPSHWLWLYH VXFK MXULVGLFWLRQV DUH XQGHUVWRRG WR KDYH SROLWLFDOLGHQWLWLHVGLVWLQFWIURPDQGIDUPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQWKHPHUHSDUWLVDQDIILOLDWLRQRIWKH residents who happen to inhabit them at any given moment.”*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDW 0&48,//,1/$:2)081,&,3$/&25325$7,216GHGQRWLQJWKDWORFDO governments serve both “to assist in the government of the state as an agent of the state” and “to UHJXODWH DQG WR DGPLQLVWHU WKH ORFDO DQG LQWHUQDO DIIDLUV RI WKH WHUULWRU\ LQ ZKLFK LW LV incorporated”).
$YHU\Y0LGODQG&W\86UHFRJQL]LQJWKDWORFDOJRYHUQPHQWV
H[HUFLVHDXWRQRPRXVSROLF\PDNLQJDXWKRULW\LQDYDULHW\RIDUHDV
6HH%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWHDW
,GDW
86
,GDW
,G
%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWHDW
86
SROLF\ DQG GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ WR WKHLU JRYHUQPHQWDO VXEGLYLVLRQV” ,Q
$YHU\WKH&RXUWFRQVLGHUHGWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKH&RPPLVVLRQHUV&RXUW RI 0LGODQG &RXQW\ 7H[DV ZKLFK KDG EHHQ GLVWULFWHG WR HQDEOH D WLQ\ UXUDOPLQRULW\WRHOHFWDPDMRULW\RIWKHERG\’VPHPEHUV7KH&RXUW
QRWHGWKDWWKHJRYHUQPHQWDWLVVXHDFRXQW\ZLGHFRPPLVVLRQHUVFRXUW SHUIRUPHGDQXPEHURIIXQFWLRQVWKDWJHQHUDOO\DIIHFWHGWKHUHVLGHQWVRI WKHFRXQW\LQFOXGLQJWKHLPSRVLWLRQRIFRXQW\ZLGHSURSHUW\WD[HVDQG WKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIZHOIDUHVHUYLFHV,QUHTXLULQJORFDOJRYHUQPHQWV
WRFRPSO\ZLWKWKHHTXDOSRSXODWLRQVWDQGDUGWKH&RXUWUHFRJQL]HGWKDW ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVIXQFWLRQHGDVLQGHSHQGHQWGHPRFUDWLFJRYHUQPHQWV ZLWKFRQVWLWXHQWVRIWKHLURZQ
(TXDOSRSXODWLRQ DSSRUWLRQPHQW SODQV WKDW GLVUHJDUG ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWERXQGDULHVDUHWKXVLQFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHCourt’s own view RIORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVDVGHPRFUDWLFDOO\DFFRXQWDEOHJRYHUQPHQWERGLHV DQG LQ IDFW SUHYHQW WKHP IURP VHUYLQJ DV D ORFXV RI SROLWLFDO SDUWLFLSDWLRQAs Professor Gardner has argued: “A boundary that is
FRQWLQXDOO\ PRYLQJ LV RQH WKDW LV XQOLNHO\ WR VHUYH DV DQ\ NLQG RI LPDJLQDWLYHIRFDOSRLQWIRUFRPPXQDOLGHQWLW\PXFKOHVVDVDGLYLGLQJ
line between genuinely distinct political communities.”
,Q DGGLWLRQ HTXDOpopulation districting interferes with the state’s
DELOLW\WRXVHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVSDUWLFXODUO\FRXQWLHVDVDGPLQLVWUDWLYH DJHQWV &RXQWLHV VHUYH DV WKH SULPDU\ DGPLQLVWUDWLYH VXEXQLW RI VWDWH JRYHUQPHQWFKDUJHGZLWKSHUIRUPLQJVWDWHIXQFWLRQVDQGGHOLYHULQJVWDWH VHUYLFHV ZLWKLQ FRXQW\ WHUULWRU\ ,Q WKDW FDSDFLW\ FRXQWLHV FDUU\ RXW
VWDWH IXQFWLRQV VXFK DV UXQQLQJ HOHFWLRQV DVVHVVLQJ FROOHFWLQJ DQG GLVWULEXWLQJSURSHUW\RSHUDWLQJKLJKZD\ DQGURDGQHWZRUNV UHFRUGLQJ OHJDO GRFXPHQWV OLNH GHHGV DQG PDUULDJHV RSHUDWLQJ MDLOV DQG FRXUWKRXVHVDQGDGPLQLVWHULQJSXEOLFDVVLVWDQFHSURJUDPV8QWLOWKH
UHDSSRUWLRQPHQW HUD FRXQWLHV DOVR VHUYHG DV WKH SULPDU\ XQLW RI UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ VWDWH OHJLVODWXUHV (TXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ HOLPLQDWHV WKDW SRVVLELOLW\ DQG UHTXLUHV VWDWHV WR ILQG RWKHU PHDQV RI VWUXFWXULQJWKHLULQWHUQDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQ
,GDW
,GDW
,GDW
6HHLGDW–VHHDOVR,QUH5HDSSRUWLRQPHQWRI&ROR*HQ$VVHPEO\3G &RORHQEDQFQRWLQJWKDW“>F@RXQWLHVDQGWKHFLWLHVZLWKLQWKHLUERXQGDULHV DUHDOUHDG\HVWDEOLVKHGDVFRPPXQLWLHVRILQWHUHVWLQWKHLURZQULJKWZLWKDIXQFWLRQLQJOHJDODQG SK\VLFDOORFDOJRYHUQPHQWLGHQWLW\RQEHKDOIRIFLWL]HQVWKDWLVRQJRLQJ”).
*DUGQHUVXSUDQRWHDWIRRWQRWHRPLWWHG
6HH2VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW
6HH$QGHUVRQVXSUDQRWHDW
&5HJLRQDO*RYHUQDQFH
(TXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ LQKLELWV WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI UHJLRQDO JRYHUQPHQWV0RGHUQPHWURSROLWDQUHJLRQVVSDQFLW\FRXQW\DQGVWDWH ERUGHUV0RVW$PHULFDQVOLYHLQDVPDOOJHQHUDOSXUSRVHPXQLFLSDOLW\
VXFK DV D YLOODJH RU FLW\ ORFDWHG ZLWKLQ D PXFK ODUJHU PHWURSROLWDQ UHJLRQ7KLVQHVWHGJURZWKSDWWHUQ—LQGHSHQGHQWPXQLFLSDOLW\ZLWKLQ
LQWHUGHSHQGHQW UHJLRQ—LV WURXEOLQJ IRU D YDULHW\ RI UHDVRQV )URP D VRFLRHFRQRPLF SHUVSHFWLYH LW KDV SRODUL]HG PHWURSROLWDQ UHJLRQV LQWR DUHDVRIFRQFHQWUDWHGZHDOWKDQGFRQFHQWUDWHGSRYHUW\7KHVXEXUEVJURZ DWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHXUEDQFRUHUDLVLQJFRQFHUQVUHJDUGLQJGLVWULEXWLYH MXVWLFHDQGWKHHFRQRPLFZHOIDUHRIWKHPHWURSROLWDQUHJLRQDVDZKROH
)URPDOHJDODQGSROLWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKHQHVWHGJURZWKSDWWHUQJLYHV ULVH WR D MXULVGLFWLRQDO PLVPDWFK 0XQLFLSDO DFWLRQ KDV DQ LPSDFW IDU EH\RQGPXQLFLSDOERXQGDULHV<HWWKHUHLVQRSROLWLFDOO\DFFRXQWDEOH
XQLW RI JRYHUQPHQW FRWHUPLQRXV ZLWK WKH UHOHYDQW WHUULWRU\ ZLWK WKH FDSDFLW\WRDGGUHVVUHJLRQDOFRQFHUQV
(TXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ PDNHV LW QHDUO\ LPSRVVLEOH WR FUHDWH D UHJLRQDO OHJLVODWXUH ,Q IDFW DQ LQVLVWHQFH RQ HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ
GLVWULFWLQJ UHVXOWHG LQ WKH GLVVROXWLRQ RI WZR H[LVWLQJ UHJLRQDO JRYHUQPHQWV—1HZ <RUN &LW\’V %RDUG RI (VWLPDWH ZKLFK KDG EHHQ
2VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW–
/DXULH5H\QROGV/RFDO*RYHUQPHQWVDQG5HJLRQDO*RYHUQDQFH85%/$:
–
2VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW–VHH0LFKHOOH:LOGH$QGHUVRQ'LVVROYLQJ&LWLHV <$/(/-–GHVFULELQJVXEXUELQL]DWLRQDQGDQDO\]LQJLWVLPSDFWRQUDFLDO DQGHFRQRPLFSRODUL]DWLRQ
2VWURZVXSUD DW GHVFULELQJ H[WUDWHUULWRULDO LPSDFW RI ORFDO JRYHUQPHQW DFWLYLW\6HH JHQHUDOO\$VKLUD 3HOPDQ 2VWURZ/DQG /DZ )HGHUDOLVP (025</-
–DUJXLQJWKDW LQWKHDJJUHJDWHORFDO JRYHUQPHQW DFWLYLW\FDQKDYHVLJQLILFDQW UHJLRQDODQGQDWLRQDOFRQVHTXHQFHV
6HH/LVD7$OH[DQGHUThe Promise and Perils of “New Regionalist” Approaches to
6XVWDLQDEOH&RPPXQLWLHV)25'+$085%/-–GHVFULELQJWKHIDLOXUHRI
ORFDO JRYHUQPHQW ODZ WR DFFRXQW IRU ORFDO DFWLRQV -DQLFH & *ULIILWK5HJLRQDO *RYHUQDQFH 5HFRQVLGHUHG -/ 32/ QRWLQJ D PLVPDWFK EHWZHHQ JRYHUQPHQWDO
VWUXFWXUHVWKDWDOORFDWHSRZHUWRVPDOOORFDOLWLHVDQGWKHUHJLRQDOHFRQRP\5H\QROGVVXSUDQRWH
DW–QRWLQJMXULVGLFWLRQDOPLVPDWFK
%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWH, at 404 (“[E]qual population representation may impede city FRXQW\FRQVROLGDWLRQVUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWVRUVLPLODUHIIRUWVWRFUHDWHJRYHUQDQFHVWUXFWXUHV FDSDEOHRIDGGUHVVLQJPHWURSROLWDQDUHDwide problems.”); Cain, VXSUDQRWHDWQRWLQJ WKDW HTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWLQJSUHYHQWVWKHIRUPDWLRQRIUHJLRQDO IHGHUDWLRQV 7KH6XSUHPH &RXUW-XVWLFHVZKRRSSRVHGH[WHQGLQJWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWWRORFDOJRYHUQPHQWV
H[SUHVVHGWKLVFRQFHUQ6HH+DGOH\Y-XQLRU&ROO'LVW86–
+DUODQ-GLVVHQWLQJLGDW%XUJHU&-GLVVHQWLQJ$YHU\Y0LGODQG&W\86–
+DUODQ - GLVVHQWLQJLGDW – )RUWDV - GLVVHQWLQJLG DW 6WHZDUW -GLVVHQWLQJ
FRPSRVHGRIWKHILYHERURXJKVRI1HZ<RUN&LW\DQGWKHUHJLRQDO
JRYHUQPHQWRIWKH6HDWWOHPHWURSROLWDQDUHDZKLFKKDGEHHQFRPSRVHG RI KXQGUHGV RI LQGHSHQGHQW PXQLFLSDOLWLHV LQ WKH 6HDWWOH PHWURSROLWDQ DUHD6LPLODUO\DSURSRVDOWRHVWDEOLVKDUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWLQWKH
6DQ)UDQFLVFR%D\DUHDZDVGHIHDWHGZKHQLWVSODQQHUVFRQFOXGHGWKDW WKH\ FRXOG QRW SUHVHUYH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRU LQGLYLGXDO PXQLFLSDOLWLHV ZLWKLQWKHUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQW
2I FRXUVH HTXDOSRSXODWLRQ GLVWULFWLQJ LV QRW WKH RQO\ REVWDFOH WR UHJLRQDOLVP3URSRVDOVIRUWKHIRUPDWLRQRIPHWURSROLWDQVFDOHPXQLFLSDO JRYHUQPHQWV ZLWK JHQHUDO WD[LQJ DQG UHJXODWRU\ DXWKRULW\ KDYH IDFHG LQVXUPRXQWDEOHSROLWLFDORSSRVLWLRQDQGKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\IDLOHGWR\LHOG UHVXOWV $QG ZKLOH ORFDOLWLHV KDYH EHHQ ZLOOLQJ WR SDUWLFLSDWH LQ
HIILFLHQF\RULHQWHGLQLWLDWLYHVWKDWFUHDWHHFRQRPLHVRIVFDOHLPSURYHWKH TXDOLW\RIPXQLFLSDOVHUYLFHVRUGHFUHDVHORFDOWD[HVWKH\UHVLVWHTXLWDEOH LQLWLDWLYHV WKDW UHGLVWULEXWH UHVRXUFHV SURPRWH UDFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF LQWHJUDWLRQRUFRQVWUDLQORFDOODQGXVHDXWKRULW\
1RQHWKHOHVV D QXPEHU RI IDFWRUV PD\ LQFUHDVH WKH GULYH WRZDUG UHJLRQDO UHIRUP )LUVW DV HFRQRPLF DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO SUREOHPV LQFUHDVLQJO\WUDQVFHQGORFDOERXQGDULHVHYHQVPDOOPXQLFLSDOLWLHVPLJKW EHQHILW IURP FROODERUDWLQJ RQ FRPSOH[ PXOWLMXULVGLFWLRQDO SUREOHPV
0RUHRYHUDQLQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURIVWDWHDQGIHGHUDOSURJUDPVUHTXLUHWKH IRUPDWLRQRIUHJLRQDOHQWLWLHVWRDGGUHVVPXOWLMXULVGLFWLRQDOSUREOHPV
%GRI(VWLPDWHY0RUULV86UXOLQJWKDWJRYHUQPHQWDOLQWHUHVW
LQSUHVHUYLQJUHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUHDFK%RURXJKFRXOGQRWMXVWLI\DVHYHQW\HLJKWSHUFHQWGHYLDWLRQ IURPWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
&XQQLQJKDPY0XQLFLSDOLW\RI0HWUR6HDWWOH)6XSS:':DVK
KROGLQJ JRYHUQPHQWDO LQWHUHVW LQ SUHVHUYLQJ UHJLRQDO OHJLVODWXUH GLG QRW MXVWLI\ ODUJH GHYLDWLRQIURPRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQW
&DLQVXSUDQRWHDW
2VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW
,G DW FI+(15< &,61(52686'(3’7 2) +286 85%$1'(9
5(*,21$/,607+(1(:*(2*5$3+<2)23325781,7<–9 (1995) (distinguishing “things UHJLRQDOLVP” aimed at systems maintenance and efficiency from “peopleregionalism” aimed at OLIHVW\OHLVVXHVDQGHTXLW\
%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWHDW–GLVFXVVLQJWKHQHHGIRUUHSUHVHQWDWLYHJRYHUQPHQW WKDWKDVWKHFDSDFLW\DQGSHUVSHFWLYHWRDGGUHVVFKDQJLQJVRFLHW\ 2VWURZVXSUDQRWHDW (“In a world where capital and information flow freely across national and subnational ERXQGDULHVIHZUHJXODWRU\PDWWHUVFDQEHFDELQHGZLWKLQWKHMXULVGLFWLRQDOOLQHVRIDVLQJOHVWDWH let alone a single locality.”).
)RUH[DPSOHVRIIHGHUDOSURJUDPVWKDWUHTXLUHWKHIRUPDWLRQRIUHJLRQDOHQWLWLHVVHH 6XVWDLQDEOH &RPPXQLWLHV 5HJLRQDO 3ODQQLQJ *UDQW 3URJUDP $GYDQFH 1RWLFH DQG 5HTXHVW IRU
&RPPHQW)HG5HJ)HESURYLGLQJJUDQWVWRUHJLRQDOFRQVRUWLXPLQ
order to promote “regional planning efforts that integrate housing and transportation decisions, DQGLQFUHDVH>WKHFDSDFLW\RIFRPPXQLWLHVWRPRGHUQL]H@ODQGXVHDQG]RQLQJ>SODQV@”); 0$5.
62/2)1-(56(<75$1633/$11,1*$87+,1&+,6725< 2)0(75232/,7$13/$11,1*
25*$1,=$7,216 KWWSZZZQMWSDRUJJHWPHGLDEDIGIGHGEE
:HLJKWHGYRWLQJSURYLGHVRQHPHFKDQLVPIRUVWUXFWXULQJDUHJLRQDO HQWLW\New York’s countyZLGH ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ SODQV LOOXVWUDWH WKLV DSSURDFK(DFKWRZQZLWKLQWKHFRXQW\HOHFWVDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHZKRVHYRWH LVZHLJKWHGLQSURSRUWLRQWRWKHSRSXODWLRQRIWKHWRZQ:HLJKWHGYRWLQJ VDWLVILHVWKHRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHUHTXLUHPHQWDQGHQDEOHVHDFKWRZQWR EHUHSUHVHQWHGDVDWRZQGHVSLWHGLVSDUDWHSRSXODWLRQV:HLJKWHGYRWLQJ WKXV SUHVHUYHV UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRU LQGHSHQGHQW PXQLFLSDOLWLHV LQ D UHJLRQDOERG\
,,,,1(48$/,7,(6,1/(*,6/$7,9(5(35(6(17$7,21
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
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHLVHOHFWHGDWODUJHIURPWKHGLVWULFWDVDZKROH$VLQRWKHU DWODUJH VFKHPHV D JHRJUDSKLFDOO\ FRQFHQWUDWHG PLQRULW\ JURXS WKDW ZRXOGFRQVWLWXWHDPDMRULW\RIDQHTXDOSRSXODWLRQGLVWULFWPD\FRQVWLWXWH RQO\DPLQRULW\RIDODUJHUPRUHSRSXORXVZHLJKWHGYRWLQJGLVWULFW$V DUHVXOWWKHPLQRULW\JURXSPD\EHXQDEOHWRHOHFWDQ\UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV
HFE032KLVWRU\SGIDVS[VXPPDUL]LQJIHGHUDOOHJLVODWLRQWKDWUHTXLUHGUHJLRQDO SODQQLQJ
7KRUQEXUJY*LQJOHV86“7KLV&RXUWKDVORQJUHFRJQL]HGWKDW
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
$)XQFWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ
:HLJKWHG YRWLQJ V\VWHPV GR QRW SURYLGH HDFK YRWHU ZLWK DQ HTXDO GHJUHH RI IXQFWLRQDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 7KH YRWLQJ ULJKWV OLWHUDWXUH WUDGLWLRQDOO\ UHFRJQL]HV WZR IRUPV RI YRWH GLOXWLRQ—TXDQWLWDWLYH DQG TXDOLWDWLYH4XDQWLWDWLYHYRWHGLOXWLRQRFFXUVZKHQGLVWULFWVYDU\LQVL]H VR WKDW WKH YRWHV RI UHVLGHQWV LQ WKH PRUH SRSXORXV GLVWULFWV DUH QXPHULFDOO\ GLOXWHG 7KH RQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH FDVHV GHDO ZLWK
TXDQWLWDWLYHYRWHGLOXWLRQ4XDOLWDWLYHYRWHGLOXWLRQRFFXUVZKHQHOHFWRUDO SUDFWLFHV PDUJLQDOL]H WKH SROLWLFDO VWUHQJWK RI LGHQWLILDEOH JURXSV RI YRWHUV IRU H[DPSOH ZKHQ GLVWULFW OLQHV DUH JHUU\PDQGHUHG WR SUHYHQW UDFLDOPLQRULWLHVIURPFRQVWLWXWLQJDPDMRULW\RIDQHOHFWRUDOGLVWULFW,Q WKHVHFDVHVWKHTXDOLW\RIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLVUHGXFHGEHFDXVHWKHYRWHUKDV OHVVRSSRUWXQLW\WRHOHFWDFDQGLGDWHRIKLVFKRLFHGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWKLV YRWHLVZHLJKWHGHTXDOO\ZLWKDOORWKHUYRWHVFDVWLQWKHVDPHHOHFWLRQ
:HLJKWHGYRWLQJLPSOLFDWHVDWKLUGIRUPRIYRWHGLOXWLRQZKLFKWKLV $UWLFOHWHUPV“IXQFWLRQDOYRWHGLOXWLRQ”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
*UDQW0+D\GHQ7KH/LPLWVRI6RFLDO&KRLFH7KHRU\$'HIHQVHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV
$FW78//5(9.DUODQVXSUDQRWHDW
5HFRJQL]LQJ)XQFWLRQDO9RWH'LOXWLRQ
:HLJKWHGYRWLQJFRPSHQVDWHVUHVLGHQWVLQPRUHSRSXODWHGGLVWULFWVE\ JUDQWLQJWKHLUOHJLVODWRUVDGGLWLRQDOYRWHV<HWWKLVDGMXVWPHQWDGGUHVVHV RQO\RQHFRPSRQHQWRIOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ/HJLVODWRUVGRIDUPRUH WKDQ VLPSO\ YRWH 7KH\ SDUWLFLSDWH LQ SROLF\ PDNLQJ E\ VHUYLQJ RQ OHJLVODWLYH FRPPLWWHHV E\ SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ IORRU GHEDWHV DQG E\ GHYHORSLQJH[SHUWLVHLQYDULRXVSROLF\DUHDV)XUWKHUPRUHWKH\SURYLGH DUDQJHRIFRQVWLWXHQWVHUYLFHV—PDLQWDLQLQJFRQWDFWZLWKUHVLGHQWVDQG GLVWULFW VWDNHKROGHUV KHOSLQJ FRQVWLWXHQWV QDYLJDWH JRYHUQPHQW EXUHDXFUDFLHVDQGDOORFDWLQJIXQGVZLWKLQWKHGLVWULFW
,Q FRQWUDVW WR WKH QXPEHU RI YRWHV WKHVH IXQFWLRQDO DVSHFWV RI UHSUHVHQWDWLRQFDQQRWEHZHLJKWHG ,QDQHDUO\FDVHUHMHFWLQJZHLJKWHG YRWLQJ D 1HZ <RUN FRXUW QRWHG“,I YRWLQJ ZHUH WKH RQO\ LPSRUWDQW IXQFWLRQRIDOHJLVODWRU>ZHLJKWHGYRWLQJ@ZRXOGSUREDEO\QRWRIIHQG‘WKH EDVLF VWDQGDUG RI HTXDOLW\’ DPRQJ GLVWULFWV %XW OHJLVODWRUV KDYH QXPHURXV LPSRUWDQW IXQFWLRQV WKDW KDYH QRWKLQJ GLUHFWO\ WR GR ZLWK YRWLQJ.”6LPLODUO\DQRWKHUFRXUWREVHUYHG“7KHTXHVWLRQDULVHVDV
WRZKHWKHUDOHJLVODWRUIURP/LWWOH)DOOVLVSHUPLWWHGWRPDNHWLPHVDV PDQ\VSHHFKHVWLPHVDVPDQ\WHOHSKRQHFDOOVDQGKDYHWLPHVDVPXFK SDWURQDJH":KHQWKH\VHUYHRQDFRPPLWWHHWRJHWKHUGRHVRQHOHJLVODWRU KDYHWLPHVDVPXFKSRZHURQWKDWFRPPLWWHH"”
,Q DGGLWLRQ WR SHUIRUPLQJ OHJLVODWLYH WDVNV WKH QXPEHU RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVHDFKGLVWULFWHOHFWVVKDSHVWKHGHOLEHUDWLYHG\QDPLFDQG
6HH +HLQ] (XODX 3DXO ' .DUSV7KH 3X]]OH RI 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ 6SHFLI\LQJ &RPSRQHQWVRI5HVSRQVLYHQHVV/(*,6678'4RXWOLQLQJWKUHHYDULHWLHVRI
QRQSROLF\PDNLQJ UHVSRQVLYHQHVV VHUYLFH UHVSRQVLYHQHVV DOORFDWLRQ UHVSRQVLYHQHVV DQG V\PEROLFUHVSRQVLYHQHVV-RVKXD%RQH1RWH6WRS,JQRULQJ3RUNDQG3RWKROHV(OHFWLRQ/DZ DQG &RQVWLWXHQW 6HUYLFH <$/(/- OLVWLQJ WKUHH EURDG FDWHJRULHV RI
FRQVWLWXHQW VHUYLFH DFWLYLWLHV “ ‘UHSUHVHQWDWLYHDVRPEXGVPDQ’ LH D UHSUHVHQWDWLYH’V DWWHPSWVWRKHOSFRQVWLWXHQWVRUJURXSVQDYLJDWHJRYHUQPHQW EXUHDXFUDFLHV ‘DFFHVVLELOLW\’ LH D UHSUHVHQWDWLYH’V HIIRUWV WR NHHS LQ WRXFK ZLWK FRQVWLWXHQWV DQG SDUWLFXODUO\ GLVWULFW VWDNHKROGHUV DQG ‘DSSURSULDWLRQV’ LH D UHSUHVHQWDWLYH’V XVH RI LQIOXHQFH ZLWKLQ WKH OHJLVODWLYHSURFHVVWRGHOLYHUGLVFUHWLRQDU\IXQGVEDFNWRGLVWULFWLQWHUHVWV”
:0&$,QFY/RPHQ]R)6XSS6'1<QRWYDFDWHGDVWR
FRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RIIUDFWLRQDOYRWLQJDSSHDOGLVPLVVHG86aff’d86
YDFDWHGLQSDUWDVPRRW86VHHDOVR%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWHDW GHVFULELQJIXQFWLRQVRIOHJLVODWRUV*URIPDQ 6FDUURZVXSUDQRWHDW“Perhaps WKHPRVW FRQVSLFXRXVIHDWXUHRIDFRXUWGHFLVLRQZKLFKDSSURYHVZHLJKWHGYRWLQJLVWKDWLWDVVXPHVD YHU\QDUURZYLHZRIWKHUROHRIDQHOHFWHGUHSUHVHQWDWLYH”
0RUULV Y %G RI 6XSHUYLVRUV 1<6G – 6XS &W VHH DOVR
%ULIIDXOWVXSUDQRWHDW“$OHJLVODWRUIURPDODUJHGLVWULFWPD\EHJLYHQSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ PRUHYRWHVWKDQDOHJLVODWRUIURPDVPDOOGLVWULFWEXWVKHFDQQRWHQJDJHLQSURSRUWLRQDWHO\PRUH DFWLYLWLHVGHYRWHKHUVHOIWRWKHQHJRWLDWLRQRISURSRUWLRQDWHO\PRUHELOOVRUEHLQSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ PRUHSODFHVDWWKHVDPHWLPH”
LQIOXHQFHV WKH RXWFRPH RI WKH GHOLEHUDWLRQ ,Q VRPH FDVHV WZR
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVPD\EHPRUHHIIHFWLYHWKDQDVLQJOHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHZLWKD GRXEOH YRWH ,Q RWKHU FDVHV KRZHYHU D VLQJOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH ZLWK D
GRXEOHYRWHPD\ZLHOGGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHSRZHURQWKHOHJLVODWXUH$VRQH
court observed, “5HSUHVHQWDWLYHV RI WKH ODUJHU GLVWULFWV EHFDXVH RI WKH ZHLJKWLQJ RI WKHLU YRWHV QHFHVVDULO\ KDYH JUHDWHU LQIOXHQFH RYHU WKH
passage of legislation.”
5HVLGHQWVRIODUJHUGLVWULFWVPD\UHFHLYHPRUHVHUYLFHVDQGOHJLVODWLYH DWWHQWLRQ VLPSO\ EHFDXVH WKHLU UHSUHVHQWDWLYH KDV OHVV QHHG WR FRPSURPLVHRUEXLOGFRDOLWLRQVRQWKHOHJLVODWLYHERG\/REE\LVWVDQG
RWKHULQWHUHVWJURXSVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRIRFXVRQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVZLHOGLQJ DODUJHUYRWHUDWKHUWKDQGLYLGLQJWKHLUHIIRUWVHTXDOO\EHWZHHQPXOWLSOH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVHDFKZLHOGLQJDVLQJOHYRWH7KXVUHVLGHQWVRIVPDOOHU
GLVWULFWV PLJKW ILQG WKDW WKHLU LQWHUHVWV DUH FRQVLVWHQWO\ RYHUORRNHG :HLJKWHG YRWLQJ GHSULYHV WKHVH UHVLGHQWV RI WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR HOHFW D UHSUHVHQWDWLYH WKDW LV DV SRZHUIXO DV WKH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH HOHFWHG IURP D ODUJHUGLVWULFW
)XQFWLRQDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQDQGWKH(TXDO3URWHFWLRQ&ODXVH ,QWKHDIWHUPDWKRI5H\QROGVY6LPVZKLFKH[WHQGHGWKHRQHSHUVRQ RQHYRWH UHTXLUHPHQW WR VWDWH OHJLVODWLYH GLVWULFWV VHYHUDO VWDWHV FRQVLGHUHGDGRSWLQJZHLJKWHGYRWLQJVFKHPHVDVDPHDQVRIFRPSO\LQJ
*HUDOG()UXJ%H\RQG5HJLRQDO*RYHUQPHQW+$59/5(9
(“[T]he presence of people in the room—DQGQRWMXVWWKHLUYRWLQJSRZHU—KDVDQHIIHFWRQWKH RXWFRPH$GGLQJPRUHSHRSOHIURPWKHPRUHSRSXORXVWRZQVZRXOGFKDQJHWKHG\QDPLFRI the discussion.”):HLQVWHLQVXSUDQRWHDW“A deliberative democratic body—DOHJLVODWXUH DWLWVEHVW—requires application of the concept of ‘one man, one vote’ within the body itself, so that rational argument among equals can take place.”)
%DQQLVWHUY'DYLV)6XSS('/DVHHDOVR)UXJVXSUDQRWH
,DQQXFFLY%GRI6XSHUYLVRUVRI:DVK&W\1<6G$SS'LY
aff’d1(G1<VHH0RUULVY%GRI6XSHUYLVRUV1<6G6XS
Ct. 1966) (“All of the personal attributes and characteristics of the elected legislator, his diligence, LQWHOOLJHQFH DELOLW\ SUDFWLFDOLW\ LQWHUHVW DQG NQRZOHGJH FRQFHUQLQJ SHQGLQJ OLJLVODWLRQ >VLF@ VKRXOGQRWEHIUXVWUDWHGE\WKHZHLJKWRIDFROOHDJXHZKRPD\EHDEOHWRFDVWRUWLPHV his vote on any given issue.”).
:HVRORZVNLVXSUDQRWHDW
6HH :0&$ ,QF Y /RPHQ]R ) 6XSS 6'1< QRWLQJ WKDW
VPDOOHUGLVWULFWVDUHGLVDGYDQWDJHGEHFDXVHOREE\LVWV“ZLOOWHQGWRZRRRQO\WKRVHOHJLVODWRUVZLWK IXOOYRWHVVLQFHPRUHHIIRUWLVLQYROYHGLQFRQYLQFLQJDVHULHVRIOHJLVODWRUVZKRVKDUHRQHYRWH”
DSSHDOGLVPLVVHG86aff’d86YDFDWHGLQSDUWDVPRRW
86QRWYDFDWHGDVWRFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RIIUDFWLRQDOYRWLQJ
6HH$EDWHY5RFNODQG&W\/HJLVODWXUH)6XSS6'1<1RWH
7KH $SSOLFDWLRQRI 5H\QROGV +$59/5(9– DUJXLQJ WKDW YRWHUV LQ VPDOOHUGLVWULFWVZRXOGREMHFWEHFDXVHWKHLUUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVZRXOGKDYHIDUOHVVEDUJDLQLQJSRZHU WKDQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRIODUJHUGLVWULFWV