Research Component (Part 1)

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Research Component (Part 1)

• Provide an overview of what makes the fauna of the region unique, this can include habitat adaptations found amongst some of the fauna that live in the alpine region (200)

The Australian Alps region is home to more than forty species of native mammals, two hundred bird species, thirty reptile species, fifteen amphibians, fourteen native fish species and many species of invertebrates (Australian Alps National Parks, 2014). Each species that live in the region are unique as they have the ability to adapt to the challenging climates of the region throughout each season. During the winter months they must be able to

withstand the cold, dampness, lack of food availability and depth of snow (Green & Osborne, p. 48). Then be able to adapt to the hot, humid and dry summer months. Adaptions of fauna found in the Australian Alps can be seen below:

Mammals:

o Size of the smaller mammals are influenced by the size of the subnivean space (air pockets/space between snow and vegetation) and there is a maximum size above which a species cannot inhabit this restrictive environment (Green & Osborne, p. 25)

o The presence of snow may make food unavailable for long periods, which is why the wombat, with its prodigious digging ability, is the only large native herbivore to be able to reach the deeply buried plants (Green & Osborne, p. 50)

o Two groups: 1: hibernate during the period that snow covers the ground (bats, mountain Pygmy Possum and Echidna) 2: mammals that remain active throughout the year (species whose locomotion and food gathering is not generally affected by the presence of snow – arboreal species such as the ringtail possum & ground dwelling species whose existence depends upon their ability to overcome the

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o An active mammal must either be small enough to forage beneath the snow throughout the winter or large enough to be able to bear sufficient insulation to keep itself warm above the snow. As mammals decrease in size they become less able to carry thick fur (Green & Osborne, p. 50).

o If a mammal is to live above the snow, it must have some means of reaching its food despite the snow cover (Green & Osborne, p. 50).

Birds:

o Bird adaptions: In order to sustain flight, birds are light in weight and constantly maintain their bodies at high temperatures. Somewhat more suited to cold climates than mammals because they can fluff out their feathers, thus altering the degree of insulation according to the circumstances (Green & Osborne, p. 76).

o Birds: Their feet and legs contain almost no muscle, so that their movements on foot are not inhibited by cold. At night birds may reduce their heat loss by up to 12% by sleeping with their head amongst the feathers of the shoulder. They can increase their heat production by increased metabolism (means that they spend more time feeding) and by shivering, which produces heat my muscular action. It has been found that many birds can tolerate a drop in night body temperature of up to 10°C (Green & Osborne, p. 77). Hibernation is very uncommon amongst birds.

o Birds are endotherms (warm blooded) and require a high level of food intake in order to stay warm and to fly. In winter the high country cannot support the high numbers of birds found there in summer. Birds found there in winter, are generalist feeders – birds that take a significant proportion of their food from tree trunks or branches.

Reptiles:

o Number of reptile species decreases markedly with increasing altitude (Green & Osborne, p. 98).

o All reptiles in the snow-‐country are heliotherms – bask in the sun to gain warmth. o The main advantage of heliothermy at higher altitudes is that the high insulation

allows reptiles to raise their body temperatures rapidly above air and substrate temperatures, thus allowing them to remain active for longer periods.

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o An adaption thought to benefit reproduction in reptiles at high altitudes is the overwinter storage of sperm by females that have mated at the end of summer (Green & Osborne, p. 99).

Frogs:

o Their daily activity patterns are strongly influenced by the need to reduce water loss. In response to higher temperatures most frogs are nocturnal. During daylight they require moist sites in which to shelter and regain water lost by evaporation during activity (Green & Osborne, p. 115).

o Cold can delay breeding and slow down the rate of embryonic and larval

development, thus greatly influencing the timing of life-‐history events (Green & Osborne, p. 115).

o Only seven species occur above the level of winter snowline

Insects:

o Plant productivity, and hence available food, decreases as altitude increases, leading to a decrease in the number of insect species (Green & Osborne, p. 131).

o A low number of species but a high number of individuals of those species is common in mountain areas (Green & Osborne, p. 132).

o Adaptions: wing atrophy, increased hairiness (increase the insulation, allowing it to maintain activity into cooler parts of the day without being immobilized by heat loss and they also prevent the absorption of excessive does of ultra-‐violet light in the higher, thinner air, increased melanism (darkening) (occurs in places where it is cloudy) and decrease in size (reducing the amount of growth required in short, mountain summer and it also has the advantage that insects are able to occupy sheltered microclimates in locations such as under stones) (Green & Osborne, p. 132-‐133).

o Insects that remain in the snow-‐country may avoid death from freezing in three ways: by super cooling, by tolerating freezing or by sheltering in the soil or leaf litter – least stressful of these is sheltering. The deeper an insect digs / hibernates, the safer it is (Green & Osborne, p. 133).

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• Select a one significant species for each of the 3 different environment types to be visited on the long walk (i.e. alpine, sub-‐alpine and dry environment of the Snowy River).

• Include details on habits, food, breeding season, climatic influences, and impact of European settlement on each of these species. Include brief comments on any research that has been conducted on the species.

Alpine

Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus) Video links: • https://youtu.be/vjmES6iMlN4 • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCQyOfCMJ9I Article links: • http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a158d52b-‐1b60-‐49f2-‐9909-‐ 029ba1adb5b3/files/tsd05mountain-‐pygmy-‐possum.pdf • http://www.zoo.org.au/healesville/animals/mountain-‐pygmy-‐possum • http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-‐ bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=267

The Mountain Pygmy Possum, is the smallest species of possums and is regarded as

critically endangered with low population numbers left in the Australian Alps (Zoos Victoria, 2014).

Habits: The Mountain Pygmy Possum builds its nest in well-‐protected locations, such as in rock crevices, where large predators cannot reach them. They are Australia’s only

hibernating mammal and hibernate for up to

seven months of the year. The remaining months of the year, they can be found collecting seeds, breeding and fattening in the pre-‐hibernation period on moths (Green & Osborne, p. 56-‐57).

Food: Their main food source is the Bogong Moth (40% of their diet) which are available as a food source during the summer months. During the winter, they may awaken from

hibernation and feed on cached seeds and fruits of heathland shrubs (10% of their diet), which they collect and store in and around their nest. They also consume beetles,

http://cesaraustralia.com/latest-‐news/all/a-‐genetic-‐rescue-‐of-‐the-‐ critically-‐endangered-‐mountain-‐pygmy-‐possum-‐at-‐mt-‐buller

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caterpillars, grasshoppers and spiders (25% of their diet) (Department of the Environment, 2015).

Breeding season: Breeding and mating occurs in spring. Each litter is generally up to four and they are born in November. The young leave the mothers pouch in December and are weaned at eight to nine weeks. The average lifespan of the Mountain Pygmy Possum is 11 years in the wild (Green & Osborne, p. 56-‐57).

Climatic influences / habitat: They live exclusively in the alpine and sub-‐alpine regions. Where the temperatures are cool during the summer and cold with snow cover during the winter. Their favoured areas are in rocky areas, rock tors and glacial moraines. Interestingly the total area of suitable habitat in the Snowy Mountains is a tiny 8𝑘𝑚$_{(Department
of
the} Environment, 2015).

Impact of European settlement: European settlement has brought with it many threats to the Mountain Pygmy Possums. These include, snow sports and the development of snow sport facilities in their habitats, introduced predator species such as foxes and feral cats and human impact of rubbish and litter as well as rat traps and poison (Department of the Environment, 2015).

Other species found in Alpine regions (Green & Osborne) • Bush rat

• Broad-‐toothed Rat

• 30 bird species recorded, most common Richard’s Pipit and Little Raven • High Plains Skink, Snowy mountains rock skink

• Common Eastern Froglet and Alpine Tree Frog

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Subalpine

Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) Video links: • http://www.arkive.org/corroboree-‐frog/pseudophryne-‐ corroboree/video-‐00.html • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tcxkxjlTMx8 • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgY5LjcLAhU (Wiggles song -‐ Charlie might like this!)

Article links: • http://www.corroboreefrog.com.au/corroboree-‐frog • http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/australian-‐ endangered-‐species/2014/05/endangered-‐southern-‐ corroboree-‐frog • http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-‐ bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1915

The Corroboree frog is visually spectacular with their distinct pattern and vibrant yellow and black colouring. Since 1980’s they have become critically endangered due to the chytrid fungus which decimated the frog species, making the species decline by 99%, leaving less than 50 individuals in the wild in 2014 (Amphibian Research Centre, 2014).

Habits: The Corroboree frog moves between its distinct breeding and non-‐breeding sites. Adults are capable of dispersing over 300 m into surrounding woodland. Their

advertisement call is a short and nasal ‘wrrankk…erkk….erkk’ which is repeated infrequently (Green & Osborne, p. 118).

Food: Juveniles main food sources are beetles, ants, bugs and insect larvae. Adults eat fewer prey types being beetles, ants (main food source) and mites. Its food intake is greatly

reduced in winter, with some individuals not feeding at all (Amphibian Research Centre, 2014).

Breeding season: The Corroboree Frogs breed in a variety of habitat types such as wet tussock grasslands, pools and bogs and wet heat and ferns. They generally breed in water bodies that are dry during breeding season which are suitable sites for tadpole

development. They breed in late December and early January. Males build simple nest chambers in damp soil or moss on the edges of pools. The female will lay an average of 26 (can be 10-‐40) eggs in the nest at the same time the male fertilizes the eggs. The eggs hatch in two or three weeks, but the tadpoles remain there until the nest floods (they can spend

http://www.australiangeographic .com.au/blogs/australia

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up to six months in egg jelly). Once the nest floods, they then begin to develop into a frog (Green & Osborne, p. 118).

Climatic influences / habitat: The habitat of the species is entirely within Kosciuszko National Park between about 1300 and 1760 m elevation in the subalpine regions. They shelter in sub-‐alpine woodland, sheltering in dense litter and under rocks and logs and are found in tall heath regions near breeding areas (Australian Geographic, 2014).

Impact of European settlement: Human impacts are the biggest threat to the species, such as climate change, fire, the planting of exotic trees, such as Willows, introduced feral animals and habitat disturbance (Australian Geographic, 2014).

Other species found in Sub-‐alpine regions: (Green & Osborne)

• Echidna – right up to the tree line (tracks on the snow are uncommon) • Common Ringtail possum

• Wombats

• Dusky & Brown Antechinus

• 60 bird species recorded, most common during summer: Crimson Rosella (can remain in winter as it feeds on mature fruit and insect galls present on Snow Gums), Flame Robin, Grey Shrike-‐thrush, Grey Fantail, White-‐browed Scrubwren, Brown Thornbill, Striated Thornbill, White-‐throated Treecreeper, Red Wattlebird, Yellow-‐ faced Honeyeater and Pied Currawong (Green & Osborne, p. 76)

• Frogs: five species, Eastern Banjo Frog, Victorian Froglet, Baw Baw Frog, Corroboree Frog and the Southern Toadlet (Green & Osborne, p. 115).

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Dry Environment of the Snowy River (Montane):

Dusky Antechinus (Antechinus swainsonii) Video links: • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1ROzOhT-‐fE Article links: • http://museumvictoria.com.au/discoverycentre/infosheets/dusky-‐antechinus/ • http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Antechinus_swainsonii/

Habits: The Dusky Antechinus species are very soliarty, and a nocturnal animal (although, it can sometimes be seen during daylight). It is very active for up to eight hours each day, where it uses its long claws to dig and make holes in search for food. It is a good climber, but generally stays on the ground and lives in burrows under rocks or in tree hollows (Green & Osborne, p. 62).

Food: Their diet changes very little with altitude. Their diet is mainly comprised of beetles, moths, bugs, grasshoppers, flies and other invertebrates, depending on what is easily available in the region (Museum of Zoology, 2013).

Breeding season: Breeding occurs in early to mid-‐September. A unique and strange fact about breeding is that within two weeks of mating all of the males die. The gestation period is approximately 30 days and between eight to ten in each litter are born (once a year). The young are carried in the rudimentary pouch for around eight weeks. When the young leave the mothers pouch they then ride on the mother’s back, until they are weaned in mid to late January (Green & Osborne, p. 62).

Climatic influences / habitat: The Dusky Antechinus is commonly found at all alpine regions, it is found anywhere from sea level to 2000m. This species may be present anywhere that there is adequate ground cover of shrubs, trees or boulders for sheltering and protection from predator (Museum Victoria, 2012).

http://www.biodiversitysnapshots.net.au/bdrs-‐ core/public/species

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Impact of European settlement: There is no dramatic impact from European settlement on the Dusky Antechinus species. Largest human impact, comes from habitat disturbance and destruction from tree clearing (Museum Victoria, 2012).

• Refer to management strategies that currently exist to aid conservation and regeneration of endangered species in the Australian Alpine region (250)

There are multiple management strategies put in place in the Australian Alps to protect and aid conservation and regeneration of endangered fauna species. The main management strategy is to protect the habitats in which they live in, by reducing human impact and educating park users (Australian Alps National Parks, 2014). Through scientific studies on native animal populations, data has been found on species behaviour and life cycles. This data has assisted in creating effective management strategies to protect endangered species in this environment. Close to ¾ of the Australian Alps has been declared a National Park (Australian Alps National Parks, 2014). The National Park areas are managed by teams of people who have set up environmental acts such as the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974) in NSW, the National Parks Act (1975) in Victoria and the Nature Conservation Act (1980) in the ACT with the intention to protect habitats and endangered species. These acts are currently proving to be successful with educating visitors on minimal impact techniques. Educating park users to stay on tracks, avoid trampling and removing flora, camping away from streams to reduce water contamination and take out all the rubbish that you take in (Australian Alps National Parks, 2014).

There are also many Individual regeneration strategies specific to particular species that are, and have been implemented in the Australian Alps region. Such as ‘Saving Our Species’ which is a conservation program set up to protect the Corroboree frog as well as the ‘Recovery Plan for the Mountain Pygmy-‐Possum’ which has been implemented in New South Wales and Victoria.

Due to our human impact, without management strategies put in place in these delicate ecosystems, the biodiversity of the region would deteriorate exceptionally rapidly resulting in a large amount of endangered and extinct fauna species. Below is a list of aims that the

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• Increasing Indigenous engagement

• Building ecosystem resilience in a changing climate • Protecting diversity

• Maintaining and re-‐establishing ecosystem functions • Reducing threats to biodiversity

• Getting measurable results • Improving and sharing knowledge

• Implementing robust national monitoring, reporting and evaluation

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References:

Amphibian Research Centre (2012). Corroboree Frog. Retrieved from http://www.corroboreefrog.com.au/corroboree-‐frog

Australian Geographic (2015). Southern corroboree frog. Retrieved from http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/australian-‐endangered-‐ species/2014/05/endangered-‐southern-‐corroboree-‐frog

Australian Government & WWF-‐Australia (2013). Australian Threatened Species – Mountain Pygmy Possum. Retrieved from

http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a158d52b-‐1b60-‐49f2-‐9909-‐ 029ba1adb5b3/files/tsd05mountain-‐pygmy-‐possum.pdf

Department of the Environment (2015). Burramys parvus — Mountain Pygmy-‐possum. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-‐

bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=267

Department of the Environment (2015). Pseudophryne corroboree — Southern Corroboree Frog. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-‐

bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1915

Foundation for National Parks and Wildlife (2001). Kosciuszko National Park. Retrieved from http://www.fnpw.org.au/parks-‐and-‐reserves/new-‐south-‐wales/snowy-‐

mountains/kosciuszko

Green, K & Osborne, W. (2004). Wildlife of the Australian Snow-‐Country. Chatswood NSW, Reed Books Australia Ltd

Green, K & Osborne, W. (2012). Wildlife of the Australian Snow-‐Country. Chatswood NSW, Reed New Holland Publishers Pty Ltd

Museum of Zoology (2013). Antechinus swainsonii dusky antechinus. Retrieved from http://museumvictoria.com.au/discoverycentre/infosheets/dusky-‐antechinus/ NSW Government (2011). Australian Alps -‐ biodiversity. Retrieved from

http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/bioregions/AustralianAlps-‐Biodiversity.htm NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2014). Kosciusko National Park. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/visit-‐a-‐park/parks/Kosciuszko-‐National-‐Park NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2015). Iconic species -‐ Southern corroboree frog

conservation program. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/Conservation-‐programs/iconic-‐species-‐ southern-‐corroboree-‐frog-‐conservation-‐program

Parks Victoria (2015). Fauna of the Australian Alps. Retrieved from https://theaustralianalps.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/fauna.pdf

Slattery, D. (1998). Australian Alps: Kosciuszko, Alpine and Namadgi National Park. NSW, Australia, University of New South Wales Press Ltd

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Wildscreen Arkive (2009). Corroboree frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) Retrieved from http://www.arkive.org/corroboree-‐frog/pseudophryne-‐corroboree/video-‐00.html Wordpress (2012). Australian Alps National Parks. Retrieved from

www.theaustralianalps.wordpress.com

Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tcxkxjlTMx8 https://youtu.be/vjmES6iMlN4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCQyOfCMJ9I Zoos Victoria (2015). Mountain Pygmy-‐possum. Retrieved from

http://www.zoo.org.au/healesville/animals/mountain-‐pygmy-‐possum