Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

The Sentence 55. Period Fault 56. Comma Fault 57. Fused Sentences 58. Misuse of

_Dependent

Clauses 59. Related Ideas 60.

_Rambling

Sentences 61.

_Choppy

Sentences 62.

_{Incompleteness}

63. Word Order 64.

_Split

Constructions 65.

_Dangling

Modifiers

66. Mixed and

_Illogical

Con-structions 67.

_Comparisons

68. Parallel Structure 69. Point of View

70. Coordination and Subordi-nation

71.

_Emphasis

72.

_Variety

73. Achievement Tests The

_Paragraph

74.

_Topic

Sentence 75. Substance of a

Paragraph

76. Methods of

_Development

77. Order of Ideas 78. Transitional Devices 79.

_Proportion

and

_Length

80. Mechanics of the

_Paragraph

The Whole Theme

81. Choice of

_Topic

82. Outlines

83.

_Beginnings

_and

_Endings

84.

_Manuscript

Form

85. Revision and

_Proofreading

The Research

_Paper

86.

_Using

the

_Library

87.

_Choosing

the

_Topic

88.

_Taking

Notes

89.

_Preparing

the Outline

90.

_Writing

the

_Paper

91.

_Making

Footnotes

92.

_Making

a

Bibliography

The

Precis and

the

_Paraphrase

93. The Precis

94. The

_Paraphrase

Writing

for

_Special

Purposes

95. Business Letters 96.

_{Report Writing}

97. Social Letters

Listening

and

_Thinking

98.

_Backgrounds

of Writers

and Thinkers

99.

_Testing

Your

_Logic

100.

_{PropagandaTechnique}

Appendix

101.

_Taking

Tests

102. Sentence

_Analysis

McGraw-Hill

HANDBOOK

OF

ENGLISH

VIRGINIA SHAFFER

Head of English Department, Forest Park _High School, Baltimore, Mary-land;

Coordinator of _Writing, Mc-Coy

College of The Johns Hopkins

University

HARRY SHAW

Formerly Director, Workshops in

Composition, New York _University

Second Edition

WEBSTER _DIVISION, McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

COPYRIGHT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank these

authors,

pubhshers,

and other holders

of

_copyright

for

_permission

to use the

following

_excerpts

from

copyrighted

materials:

The

_excerpts

from

_{Sportsmanlike}

_Driving.

_Reprinted

_by

_permis-

_sion

of the American Automobile Association. ^ The

_excerpt

from

_{High Jimgle,}

_by

William Beebe.

_Reprinted

_by

_permission

of

Duell,

Sloan and Pearce, Inc.^ The _excerpt from

_My

Sister

Eileen,

_copyright

1938,

_by

Ruth

_McKenney.

_Reprinted

_by

per-mission of Harcourt, Brace and

_Company,

Inc. and

_Rupert

Hart-Ltd. i^ The

_excerpt

from

_Anything

Can

_Happen,

_by

and Helen

_Papashvily.

_Reprinted

_by

_permission

of

_Harper

rs. i^ The

_excerpt

from This I

Remember,

by

Eleanor

Reprinted

by

permission

of

_Harper

" Brothers and

n and

Company.

"^* The

_excerpt

from We Took to the

y Louise Dickinson Rich.

Copyright

1942,

by

Louise ^n Rich.

_Reprintedby

_permission

of

_J.

B.

_Lippincott

pany and Willis K.

Wing,

i"" The

excerpt

from Mirror

for

Man,

_{by Clyde}

Kluckhohn.

_Copyright

" 1949

_by

the

McGraw-Hill Book

_Company,

Inc.

_Reprintedby

_permission

of the McGraw-Hill Book

_Company,

Inc. ^^ The

_excerpt

from

_Affairs

of

Dame Rumor,

by

Dav^d

_Jacobsen.

_Reprinted

_by

_permission

of Rinehart "

_Company,

Inc. '^"The

_excerpt

from "How to

_Stay

in

_College,"

_by

Robert U.

_Jameson.

_Reprinted

from the

_Saturday

Evening

Post article

_by

_permission

of the author.^' _The

excerpt

from Science Remakes Our

_World,

_by

_James

_Stokley.

_Reprinted

by

permission

of Ives

Washburn,

Inc.

Certain

_parts

of this book have

_previously

been

_copyrighted

under the titles

_Writing

and

_{Rewriting (1955)}

_by

_Harry

Shaw

and The

_Harper

Handbook

_of

_College

_{Composition (1957)}

_by

George

S.

_Wykoff

and

_Harry

Shaw and are

reprinted

with the

kind

_permission

of

_Harper

"

Brothers,

New York.

McGraw-Hill HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH

Copyright

(c)

1960

_by

McGraw-Hill,

Inc. All

_Rights

Reserved.

Copyright

1952

_by

_Harry

Shaw and

_Virginia

Shaffer. All

_Rights

Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book,

or _parts

thereof,

may not be

reproduced

in any form without

permission

of the

_publishers.

IX

CONTENTS

Preface vii

Guide to Exercises x

10.

_Diagnostic

Tests in

_Usage

64

11.

_Subject

and Verb

_Agreement

70

12. Pronoun and Antecedent

_Agreement

84

13. Reference of Pronouns 91

14. Case of Pronouns 97

15.

_Principal

Parts of Verbs 112

16. Tense of Verbs 122

17. Mood 129

18.

_Adjective

and Adverb

_Usage

134

19.

_Preposition

and

_{ConjunctionUsage}

143

20. Achievement Tests in

_Usage

146

iCapitalization

I

21. Use of

_Capital

Letters 152

CONTENTS

Punctuation!

22.

_Diagnostic

Test on

Commas,

Semicolons,

Colons,

_Apostrophes,

Quotation

Marks 161

23. The Comma 164

24. The Semicolon 192

25. The Colon 197

26. The

_Apostrophe:

Possessives and Plurals 201

27.

_Quotation

Marks 208

28. Achievement Tests on Punctuation 212

29. The Period 216

30. Exclamation Points and

_Question

Marks 217

31. The Dash 218

32. The

_Hyphen

and

_{Syllabification}

220

33. Parentheses and Brackets 222

34. Italics 224

35. Abbreviations 226

36. Numbers 227

I

The

Word!

37. Use of the

_Dictionary

231

38. Pronunciation 242 39.

_Spelling

244 40.

_Vocabulary

Growth 259 41. Provincialisms 268 42.

_{Colloquiahsms}

268 43. Idioms 269 44.

_Vulgarisms

273 45.

_{Improprieties}

273 46.

_Slang

274 47. Triteness 275 48.

_Jargon

278

49. Concrete and

_Specific

Words 280

50. "Fine"

_Writing

282

51. Wordiness 285

CONTENTS

83.

_Beginnings

and

_Endings

of Themes 396

84.

_Manuscript

Form 396

85. Revision and

_Proofreading

397

JThe

Research

Paper

|

86.

_Using

the

_Library

398

87.

_Choosing

the

_Topic

of a Research

Paper

407

88.

_Taking

Notes 410

89.

_Preparing

the Outline 414

90.

_Writing

the

_Paper

415

91.

_Making

Footnotes 417

92.

_Making

a

BibHography

421

[The

Precis and the

Paraphrase

|

93. The Precis 422

94. The

_Paraphrase

424

[Writing

for

Special Purposes

|

95. Business Letters 425

96.

_{Report Writing}

439

97. Social Letters 446

[Listening

and

Thinking

98.

_Backgrounds

of Writers and Thinkers 453

99.

_Testing

Your

_Logic

456

100.

_{Propaganda Techniques}

462

[Appendix

[

101.

_Taking

Tests 469

102. Sentence

_Analysis

and

Diagraming

480

PREFACE

The McGraw-Hill Handbook of _English, Second _Edition,

is

_designed

to

help

the student build the skills he needs to

express himself with

clarity,

ease, and appropriateness. It

describes American

_English

as it is

actually

used

by

careful

speakers

and writers and shows

_why

some kinds of _expres-sion

are considered more effective than others. In addition

to _stating the facts about

_language

that educated

people

must know, this book

emphasizes

the _importance of clear

thinking

as an essential both to effective expression and to

intelligentreading

and

_listening.

_Types of

_faulty

_thinking

are

analyzed

and exercises are

provided

to

develop

the

student's

_ability

to _recognize and avoid such errors in his

own writing and

speaking.

This new edition of the McGraw-Hill Handbook of Eng-lish

contains a number of new features which the authors

believe will enhance the usefulness of the book. A new

format

_employing

a second color gives increased promi-nence

to rules,

principles,

and section numbers.

_Expanded

sections on levels of _usage, the use of the

dictionary,

and

report writing

provide

materials for instruction and refer-ence

essential to the student's work in

_English

and his other

studies as well. A section on

taking

tests acquaints the stu-dent

with the form and content of

college

entrance and

placement

tests and shows him

ways in which he can im-prove

his

_performance.

A

_{comprehensive}

review of sentence

diagraming

brings together

in one

place

all of the

principles

of sentence

analysis

and

provides

the

explanations

and _prac-tice

sentences the student needs to master them.

PREFACE

This book makes a

completely

functional

approach

to

grammar,

usage,

and mechanics. Rules are

clearly

stated,

illustrated,

and

_{immediatelyapplied.}

Abundant drill ma-terial

enables the student to familiarize himself with im-portant

principles

and

_helps

him to see how

they apply

to

his own

_writing.

The

_{natural-sounding}

_practice

sentences in the

McGraw-Hill Handbook of

_English

_greatly

_simplify

the task of both teacher and student. These sentences were not written

solely

to

embody

an error.

They

are drawn from more than

seven thousand student themes

analyzed

for this purpose. Often these sentences _appear in the form of a

paragraph

on safe

driving,

travel,

or an

illuminating

incident from the

lifeof a

literary

figure,

so that the student adds to his knowl-edge

and broadens his cultvu-al outlook as he studies his

grammar.

The authors make a

special

effortto

pro\'ide

for different

levels of instruction. The drillthat follows each

_{major prin-}

_ciple

is

_arranged

in two sections. The first

_begins

with _easy

sentences and moves on to the kind of sentences that nor-mally

appear in careful student

writing.

The second section

provides

sentences of

_greater

_maturity.

These _may be used for

_superior

students or for review with students who have

mastered the

_simpler

sentences.

Thus,

the teacher who

wishes to use

homogeneous

grouping

can

readily

do so.

In

_recognition

of the fact that

_{language changes,}

the authors of the McGraw-Hill Handbook of

_English,

Second

Edition,

have scrutinized _every

_explanation,

illustrative

example,

and

_practice

sentence to ensure its

appropriate-

ness

in a handbook

reflecting

modern American _usage.

While

_making

clear that the standards of

_Enghsh

_change

with the needs of those who use it,the authors are careful

to remind the student that at _any

_given

time there are

standards. This book describes

_fully

and

_accurately

the standards of written

_{Englishtoday.}

VIRGINIA SHAFFER HARRY SHAW

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For assistance in

_preparing

the

_manuscript,

the authors

are indebted to a number of

people.

Miss EHzabeth Con-nelly,

former Head of the

_{English Department}

at the Patter-son

Park

_High

School in Baltimore, and Mrs. Thea Hodes,

former teacher of

_superior

children at School No. 49 in Bal-timore,

read _parts of the

_manuscript

and offered valuable

advice on the

adjustment

of the material to suit the needs of

students of

_varying

_ability.

Mrs.

_Philip

_Edwards, Director

of

_Young

_People's

Work at the Enoch Pratt Free

_Library,

and her assistants _gave invaluable

_help

in

_locating

illus-trative

paragraphs

in books

_popular

with _young

_people.

Miss Bernice Wiese,

Supervisor

of School Libraries in Balti-more,

examined the section on the use of the

library.Sug-

gestions

from Mr. Simeon Round, Mrs. Anna Bloom, and

Mr. Ellis Newton on "The Theme" and "The Research

Paper"

have been

_incorporated

in the revision. The authors

are

grateful

to all these

people

and to the students at the

Forest Park

_High

School and at

_McCoy

_College

of The

Johns

Hopkins

University,

who have made

_helpful

_suggestions

while

_using

the materials in this book.

GUIDE

TO

EXERCISES

Asterisks indicate

_key

exercises and achievement tests.

Grammar " adjectives, recognition of, 25; adverbs, recog-nition

of, 26; clauses, *

achievement test on kinds of, 44-45;

recognition of _adjective, 39-40; _recognition of _adverbial,

41-42; _recognition of _noun, 43-44; _nouns, capitahzing, 2;

feminine of, 3; nominative and _objective case of, 7; plurals,

3; phrases, ^achievement test on kinds of, 36-37; recogni-tion of

_adjective,

_{33-34; recognition} of adverbial, 34-35; function and _recognition of _noun, 31-32; sentences, choppy, 51-52; combining simple, 51-52; kinds of, 49-50; ^variety

in, 51-52; verbs, principal parts of, 14; verbals and, 17.

USAGE " '^achievement tests in, 146-151; adjectives and

adverbs, 135-136, 141-143; ^agreement, pronoun and an-tecedent,

87-90; subject and verb _review, 80-84; verb and

single subject, 72-73, 76-77; verb and _{compound subject,} 78-79; ""case, of _personal

pronouns, 99-102, 104-105; of relative

pronouns, 108-112; diagnostic tests, 64-69; lie and

lay,121-122; like and

as, 145; prepositions and conjunctions, 145; _pronoun, reference _{of, 94-97;} sit and _{set, 122;} '^

tense,

sequence of, 126-128; verbs, past tense and past participle, 118-120; review, 128-129; subjunctive, 132-133.

CAPITALIZATION"

*capitoZzzafion,

157-159.

PUNCTUATION" flbbreDiaiions, 227; ^achievement tests

in, 212-215; "^apostrophe, 205-207; capital letter and comma

198-GUIDE TO EXERCISES

201;

comma, with

appositives

and

limiting

expressions,

188-189;

before coordinate

_conjunction,

165-168;

after intro-ductory

element, 170-172;

with nonrestrictive

_expressions,

183-184;

with

_{parenthetical}

_expressions

and terms of ad-dress,

178-180;

review, 186, 187, 190-92;

in series,

174-176;

dash, 219;

_diagnostic

tests,

161-164;

end,

220;

hyphen,

222;

italics,

225; numbers,

228-229;

parentheses

and

brackets,

223-224;

_quotation

marks, 211-212; semicolon,

194-196,

WORD

"

diction,

alliteration and

rhyme,

290-291;

choice

of, 276-277;

*review of

choice, 287, 302-4306;

simple,

284-285;

specific

words,

281, 282;

_dictionary,

243^247;

"fine"

writing,

284-285;

idiom, 271-272;

_prgon,

279-280;

_{pro-nunciation,}

243-244;

_spelling,

245-248;

_adding

suffixes,

256-258;

of

_plurals,

254;

_spelling

lists,

248-251;

_vocabulary,

of

business

_words,

_261-262;

of

_foreign

words,

263;

growth,

260-261;

_matching

exercises,

265-267;

of medical terms,

264;

of musical _terms,

264;

of scientific terms,

264;

words

that are

similar,246,

247;

^wordiness,

and

wordy,

286-289.

SENTENCE

" achievement test on

elective

sentences,

360-363;

_analysis

and

_diagraming,

489^90;

_comparison,

340-342; clauses,

errors in the use

of,

315;

emphasis,

354-355;

illogical

constructions,

338-339;

modifier,

*

dangling,

330-332,

333,

334-336;

_'misplaced,

324-327;

_'parallel

structure,

344-348;

sentences,

balanced, 355;

choppy,

319; effective,

352; fused,

312;

_incomplete,

309, 321-322;

loose and

_peri-

_odic,

354;

review

_(incomplete,

"run-on,"

fused),

312-314;

"run-on," 311;

unity

in, 317,

318,

319;

_variety

in,

358-360;

shifts

in

_{construction,}

in verb _tense,

_349-350;

_split

construc-tions,

329;

word

order,

324-327.

PARAGRAPH

"

^coherence,

through

order of

ideas,

375-377;

_through

transitional

_expressions,

380-381;

letters,

in-coherent,

377;

_topic

sentence,

367, 373-374;

"^

GUIDE TO EXERCISES

WHOLE THEME"

*^^^^'^^^"

392-395.

RESEARCH PAPER"

*^^^^"^!/.

use of card

catalogue,

401;

use of Readers'

Guide,

406;

use of reference

books, 402;

limiting

topic,

409;

note

_taking,

412,

414.

PRECIS AND THE PARAPHRASE"

F^cfs

and para-phrase, 423-424.

WRITING FOR SPECIAL VURVOSES"

betters,

*bread-and-butter,450;

formal invitations and

_replies,

447;

friendly,

452;

'informal invitations and

_replies,

450; order, 438-439;

*request

for

_adjustment,

439;

_sympathy,

450;

_*thank-you,

450; report

writing,

445.

LISTENING AND THINKING" ""

listening,

background

of

_speakers

or

writers,

454-455;

propaganda techniques,

464;

name-calling,

464;

_thinking,

about

advertisements,464;

logic

in,

459^61,

466-467;

in

_reading

_statistics,

466.

TESTS " achievement in effective sentences,

360-363;

achievement in

_punctuation,

212-215;

achievement in us-age,

146-151;

_College

Entrance,

476-479;

completing

anal-ogies,

474-476;

kinds of

clauses,44-45;

kinds of

_phrases,

36-37;

_punctuation

_diagnostic,

161-164;

_usage

_diagnostic,

Grammar

Grammar is not a static

thing.

It

changes

and _grows as

men _put new life into it, and it has different levels for

different occasions. In the casual

_English

of informal con-versation,

many

people

today

are

using

"It's me," or "Drive

slow"; but these forms would _not, of _course,

appear in

formal

_writing.

Grammar is for use. The definitions and

explanations

given

in this _part of the book are valuable

only

when

they

help

the student to write and

_speak

more

effectively.

Be-cause

the _types of words defined here function in

many

different kinds of _sentences, it is

_important

to remember

that a

given

word is not

always

used as the same _part of

speech.

It

may be a noun in one sentence, a verb in

another, an

adjective

in a third. How a word is used

determines what _part of

_speech

it is.

Sailing

is my favorite _{sport. (Noun)} We were

sailing

across the

bay.

(Verb)

Far off we could see a small

sailing

vessel.

(Adjective)

In the

pages that follow, the essential

principles

of gram-mar

are reviewed. If there has been some

tendency

to

permit

variations of the forms

_commonly

_accepted

as _correct, these

variations are

presented.

A

_glossary

of

_grammatical

terms _appears on _pages

52-61. If

any

grammatical

terms used in this book are un-familiar

to _you, turn to the

glossary.

"

CI^IS

NOUNS

1. NOUNS

la.

Definition.

A noun isthe name of a _person,

place,

or

thing.

man,

officer,

Thomas

Jefferson,

park,

street,

desk,

team, courage

lb.

Kinds

of

nouns.

A common noun is the name of _any one of a class of

persons,

places,

or

things.

It is not written with a

capital

letter.

horse, child,

_{garden,alley,}

tub, book,

engineer

A _proper noun is the name of a

particular

_person,

place,

or

thing.

Itis written with a

capital

letter.

(

See Section

21g.

)

General Grant, President

Lincoln,

Patterson

Park,

Linden

Avenue, Soil Conservation Service

An abstract noun isthe name of an idea or a

quality

_apart

from

any

object.

honesty,

intelligence,

grace

A collective noun names a

_group

of persons or

objects.

class,crowd,

_army,

fleet,

_family

Note: Abstract nouns and collective nouns are

usually

common nouns.

EXERCISE 1

Identify

the proper nouns in the

following

listand write

them with a

capital

letteron a

separate

sheet of _paper.

company

maryland

southern

high

high

school north school

NOUNS

Ic-d

tuesday

junior

1c.

Number.

general

electric company house of

repre-sentatives

automobile lincoln

_park

doctor

Nouns _may

be

_singular

or

plural.

If a noun names one person,

place,

or

thing,

it is

singular

in number. If itmeans

more than _one, it is

plural

in number. Field is

singular;

fields

is

_plural.

EXERCISE 2

Study

Section 39d. Then on a sheet

of

_paper write

the

correct

_plural

form of each of the

_following

words:

tomato

lady

sister-in-law

phenomenon

James

Id.

Gender.

Nouns have four

_genders:

masculine

_(man,

_boy),

_feminine

(

woman,

girl

)

,

and neuter

₍

_desk,

road

₎

. When a noun may

be either masculine or

feminine,

it has common

gender

(person,

playmate,

companion).

EXERCISE 3

Write on _{your paper} the feminine form

(or

equivalent)

"

"^B

NOUNS 1e. Case.

Nouns have tlireecases: nominative,

objective,

possessive.

Nouns in the nominative and

_objective

cases have the same

form:

_boy

_{(nominative),}

_boy

_(objective).

The

_possessive

case

requires

an

apostrophe

(

boys'

)

or an

apostrophe

and 5

(boy's).

(See

Section

_26.)

If. Uses of nouns in the nominative case.

The most

_important

uses of nouns in the nominative case

are the

following:

1.

_Subject

_of

a verb.

(See

Section

3.)

S. V.

The storm

_caught

the

_ship

in mid-ocean.

s. V.

Suddenly

the winds roared in a _great blast of

fury.

V. s.

Across the deck _swept

_huge

waves.

S. V. s.

The _passengers rushed to their cabins when the waves

V.

rolled over the deck.

2. Predicate _noun, also called

_{predicatecomplement,}

predicate

nominative, or

subjectivecomplement.

(See

Section

_14b.)

A

_predicate

noun is a noun used in the

predicate

(see

Glossary

of Grammatical

_Terms)

to

_point

back to the sub-ject. Itfollows the verb be

₍

_{am, is,are, was,}

been, be,

were

)

or some other

linking

verb

(

become,

seem).

s. V. p.n.

Jerry

is the

_hoy

to

play

halfback.

s. V. p.n.

The Anwricans are the

people

who have led the

struggle

for

_liberty.

s. V. _p.n.

NOUNS

19

s. V. p.n.

The man on the witness stand seemed a _person of hon-esty.

3. Noun in direct address.

₍

See Section 23f

.

)

Bruce, will _you ride to the

canyon with me?

4. Noun in an absolute

expression.

(

See Section 72e.

)

Night having

fallen,

we

camped

near the trail.

5.

_Appositive

with a noun in the nominative case.

(See

Section

_14j.)

Melody,

my

horse,

saw me from the corral.

1g.

Uses

of

nouns in

the

objective

case.

The most

_important

uses of nouns in the

objective

case

follow.

_(For

further

_explanation,

see Section 14. See also Section 4d for adverbial

_objective.)

1. Direct

_object

_of

a

verb.

We won the _game.

(Game

isthe direct

object

of the verb

won.)

Jean

gave a

_party.

(Party

is the direct

object

of the verb

gave.

)

2. Indirect

_object

_of

a verb

(object

of to or

for

under-stood

)

.

Shall I

_give

Ted a sweater at Christmas?

{Ted

is the in-direct

object

of the verb. Sweater isthe direct

_object.)

3.

_Object

_of

a

preposition.

Mother

_brought

some souvenirs from Atlantic

City. {At-

lantic

City

is the

_object

of the

_{prepositionfrom.)}

4.

_Appositive

with a noun in the

objective

case.

(See

1h

_NOUNS

5.

_Objective

_complement,

or

predicate

objective.

(See

Section 14i.

₎

We elected Walter

_president.

I consider her a

good player.

6.

_Subject

_of

an

infinitive.

(

See Section

14g.

)

I wanted

John

to _go to the movies.

Sally

asked the chairman to take a walk with her.

7.

_Object

_of

an

infinitive.

(

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

His desire to

_please

the voters was

_great.

The

_ship

was anchored to save

fuel.

8.

_Object

_of

a

participle.

(

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

Waving

his

hat.

_Rusty

galloped

down Main Street.

Emily

isthe

_girl

_driving

the car.

9.

_Object

_of

a

gerund.

(

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

Catching

a

_mustang

is not an _easy

job.

Playing

tennis is

_good

exercise.

10. Adverbial

_objective

_(noun

used as

adverb).

The ranch was sold last year.

We

_stayed

home all

_day.

1h. Uses of nouns in

the

possessive

case.

There are two

important

uses of nouns in the

possessive

case:

1. Before a _noun, to show

ownership

or some other close

relationship

that

_might

be

_expressed

_by

of

or

for

the use

of.

The child's

ball,

his

mother,

a

days

journey,

members

lounge

2. Before a

gerund.

(

See Sections

3g

and 26h.

)

Have _you heard about Ruth's

_winning

the contest?

NOUNS "

EXERCISE 4

Arrange

the

nouns in these sentences in two columns.

Put those in the nominative case in one column and those

in the

_objective

case in another column. Beside each noun,

write

the

reason

why

_you have listed it as nominative or

objective.

Example:

NOMINATIVE _OBJECTIVE

leopard

subject

zoo

object

of

preposition

Recently

a

leopardescaped

from a zoo in Ohio. Some hunt-ers

had

_caught

the animal on Christmas and

shipped

it to the

United States for

_display

in a new zoo where the animals were

not confined in _cages but were allowed to roam at will over a

wide

_territory

surrounded

_{by deep}

moats. The animals could not

escape because the moats were too broad for even the

leopard

to

_leap.

Or so

thought

the

keepers

of the zoo. But this

leopard

was a

wily

beast. He

apparently

figured

the distance

carefully

and with a

_great

bound

jumped

across the moat. From

one end of the

_country

to

_another,

the _newspapers carried

_big

headlines that told of the chase. Armed _groups

_sought

him in

the

_park

near the zoo and in the

surrounding

neighborhood.

At

firstthe

_{superintendent}

of the zoo wanted the beast to be

caught

alive,

but after a few

hours,

the

danger

seemed so

_great

that

hunters were told to shoot the animal at

_sight.

Because the

keepers

considered the

_leopard

to be a _very

dangerous

beast,

they

warned the

_peoplenearby

to

_keep

their children inside

and to look for

any evidence that would lead to the

capture.

For two

_days

the whole

_country

read the news

avidly.

Then the

headlines announced that the zoo would

_try

to

_trap

the animal

with food.

_By

this time some

people

had

begun

to consider the

zoo and the

police

to be _very ineffectual. Then

_huge

_pieces

of

drugged

meat were

placed

on the

ground

near a _cage in which

the

_leopard's

mate was

held,

and the next

morning

the

hungry

animal was found

hardly

able to stand _up because the

_drug

was

2a-b

2a.

Definition.

PRONOUNS

2. PRONOUNS

A _pronoun is a word used in

place

of a noun,

2b.

Kinds

of

_pronouns.

There are several kinds of _pronouns:

personal,

relative,

demonstrative,

_{interrogative,}

_reflexive,

intensive,

indefinite,

and

_reciprocal.

1. A

_personal

_pronoun is a direct substitute for a noun.

Like a noun, it has

number,

gender,

and case. It also has

person. Person is shown in pronouns

by

a

change

of form

to indicate the _person

_speaking

_(first

_person),

the _person

spoken

to

₍

second _person

₎

, or a person or

thing

other than

the

_speaker

and the one

spoken

to

(third

person).

See the

following

table of forms of

_personal

_pronouns:

Singular

Grammatical

_{problemsfrequently}

arise from the fact

that,

unlike _nouns,

_personal,

relative,

and

_{interrogative}

pronouns have distinct case forms. These

problems

are

discussed in Section 14.

2. A relative _pronoun relates or connects a clause to its antecedent " the noun to which it refers. The most often

PRONOUNS

used _{relative pronouns} are

who,

which,

and that. Who-ever,

whichever,

and whatever are less

frequently

em-ployed

compound

forms; whosoever, whichsoever,

and

whatsoever have almost

_entirely

_gone

out of current use.

Who and whoever are the

only

relative _pronouns with

complete

case forms. Relative pronouns do not show

changes

in form for _person,

_gender,

or number. See the

following

table of case forms for

who

and whoever:

The choice of a relative pronoun is determined

by

its

antecedent;

the case form for who and whoever is deter-mined

by

the _{way the pronoun} isused in the relative clause.

(See

Section

_14.)

Who is used to refer

_only

to _persons;

which is used to refer to

_things

_(inanimate

_objects

and

animals),

and to _persons considered as a

_group;

that may be

used to refer to either _persons or

things.

The flierwho served in World War II is now an airline

oflBcial.

Radar

_equipment

which is to be used for small

_ships

must be installed

_carefully.

The crew which won the race was excused from classes.

The hat that I

_bought

lastsummer is now out of fashion.

The man that I saw was named Mortimer

Taylor.

3. A demonstrative _pronoun

_points

out and identifies.It

has number but no

gender

or case. The demonstrative

pronouns

are

this,

that,these,

those.

This is _{the way} to kick a

spiral.

That is _my new television set.

These are _your

books;

those on the desk are mine.

4. An

_{interrogative}

_pronoun

_(who,

_whom,

_whose,

_which,

intro-PRONOUNS duces a

question.

The case forms for the

interrogative

_pro-noun

who and the relative _pronoun who are the same.

Who shall demand that a

pardon

be

granted?

Which is the route we should take from Hammond?

What do _you have in mind? Whom do _you

_recognize?

5. A

_reflexive

_pronoun is used for reference to the sub-ject

of the sentence. It is

_composed

of one of the

personal

pronouns

plus

self

or selves:

myself,yourself,

himself,

her-self,

itself,

ourselves,

_yourselves,

themselves. These _pronouns

are also called

compound

personal

_pronouns. In formal

speech

or

writing,

these pronouns are not used as

subjects.

Wrong:

Helen,

Sue, and

_myself

went on a hike.

Right:

His

_laboratory

assistant burned

himself.

Right:

They

appointed

themselves as cheer leaders.

6. An intensive _pronoun is used for

_emphasis.

Intensive

pronouns and reflexivepronouns have the same form.

Right:

The nurse

herself

was at fault.

Right:

We students ourselves are

whollyresponsible.

7.

_Indefinite

_pronouns are somewhat less exact in

meaning

than other _pronouns.

_Among

the more

frequently

used in-definite

pronouns are

another,

_{any, anyone,}

anything,

_every-body, everyone,

everything,

few,

many,

nobody,

none, one,

several,

some, each. The _pronoun one and its

compound

forms,

and

_compound

forms built on the element

-body

form

the

_possessive

case in the same _way as nouns

(anyone's,

everybody's).

Indefinite _pronouns involve

_grammatical

problems

which are discussed in Section lid.

8. A

_reciprocal

_pronoun indicates an

interchange

of action

suggested

by

the verb. This

_interchange

_may be seen in the

following

sentences

_involving

the

_only

two

_reciprocal

_pro-nouns

in

_English:

The two teams

complimented

each other.

3a-b

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

3. ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS 3a.

Definition.

A verb _expresses action or state of

being,

Morgan

kicked the ball with all his

_strength.

Be

_ready

at

_eight

o'clock.

Howard became a statesman and wrote a number of

books.

3b.

Kinds

of

verbs.

Verbs are classifiedas

transitive,intransitive,

or

linking.

A transitive verb is

_regularly

_accompanied

_by

a direct

object.

V. o.

The

_engineers

threw a

bridge

across the river.

V. o.

The

_refugees

ate bits of bread found on the road.

V. o.

An old woman seized a

squawking

_goose and ran into

the house.

An intransitive verb

_requires

no

object.

Automobiles from Paris

_crept

_along

the roads.

People

ran

wildly

in _every direction.

Many

verbs can be used in either a transitive or an in-transitive sense.

We read the news with

_great

care.

(Transitive)

We read until late at

_night.

_{(Intransitive)}

I won the firstset.

(Transitive)

I won

easily.

(Intransitive)

A

_linking,

or

copulative,

verb shows the

relationship

of the

_subject

to the

_predicate

noun.

Washington

was our first

president.

^^ _{ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS}

3c.

_Auxiliary

verbs.

Auxiliary,

or

helping,

verbs,

such as _{may, can, must,}

would,

should,do, did,

shall,

will,

and all forms of be and

have,

are often used with other verbs to _express

particular

shades of

_meaning

"

usually

of time

(see

Section

3f)

or

voice

_(see

Section

_3d).

Such combinations are called verb

phrases.

I have known

_Jerry

since the first

_grade.

(Time)

This theme was rewritten three times.

(Voice)

Sd.

Voice.

Transitive verbs are further classifiedas to voice " active

or

passive.

A verb is in the active voice when its

_subject

_performs

the action.

We built a

large

house in the

_country.

The

_engineers

Jiave

_developed

new

_types

of electrical

refrigerators.

The Marshall Plan

_helps

the reconstruction of

_Europe.

A verb is in the

_passive

voice when its

_subject

receives the action. Notice that some form of the verb be

(am,

is,

are, was, were,

been,

be)

is used with another verb in the

passive

voice.

A

_large

house was built in the

_country.

The doors were bolted from the inside.

3e.-

Mood.

The mood of a verb shows the mood or manner in which

the

_speaker

thinks of the action.

A verb in the indicative mood states a fact or asks a

question

of fact.

The farmer

_planted

his

crop

early.

What time is it?

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

A verb in the

_imperative

mood _expresses a command.

Clean _your room.

Open

your books to page 10.

A verb in the

_subjunctive

mood indicates a condition

contrary

to fact or a wish. The

subjunctive

is discussed in

Section

_17c-g.

If you were in

Europe,

_you would iind life very different.

I wish I were in the South where it is

always

warm.

3f. Tense"

Tense indicates the time of

the

action or state

expressed

by

a verb.

Every

verb has three

_principal

_parts

which are used as

a basis for the formation of tenses.

Many

mistakes are

made in _usage because

_people

do not understand how to

form these tenses or how to use them.

(

See Sections 15 and

16.)

The

_principal

_parts

of a verb are the

present, past, past

participle.''^

If the second and third

_principal

_parts

of a verb add

-d,-ed,

or _{-t,the verb} iscalled a

regular

verb. Otherwise it is

an

irregular

verb,

and its

_parts

should be memorized. Notice

the

_irregular

verbs in the

_preceding

list.

* _{A fourth}

principalpart, the present participle,is sometimes also

given. The _{present participle}is made by adding -ing to the _present

tense form of a verb: talk,talking.The four principalparts are given

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS EXERCISE 5

Write the

_principal

_parts

of each of the

_following

verbs. Then write sentences

_using

each of these verbs in the

_past

tense.

₍

For a discussion of tenses and their _use, see Section

16.)

Understanding

the difference between verbs and verbals

will

_help

_you to avoid one of the most serious errors in

writing,

the half sentence or

fragment.

A verb is used as

the

_{simplepredicate}

of a sentence; with the

subject,

the verb

may make a

complete

statement. A verbal cannot be used

as a

simplepredicate

of a sentence.

(

See Section 55.

)

He kicked the ball.

(Verb)

Kicking

the ball

(Verbal)

To kick the ball

_(Verbal)

There are three

types

of verbals:

participles,

gerunds,

and

infinitives.

(For

help

in

_using

_verbals,

see Sections

14k,

16i

and

_j,

and 65.

₎

1. A

_participle

is a word which has the function of both

verb and

_adjective.

The

_present

_participle

_always

ends in

-ing

{speaking,

singing).

The

_past

_participle

is the third

principal

part

of the verb. The

perfectparticiple

consists

of

_having

or

having

been

plus

the

_past

participle

(having

spoken,

having

been

_driven).

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

Notice the

_past

_participles

in the

_following

listof

_principal

parts

:

PAST PARTICIPLE

walk walked walked

smile smiled smiled

drive drove driven

draw drew drawn

see saw seen

sing

sang sung

bring

brought

brought

Notice that some of

the

_past

participles

end in -ed and some in _-n; others

change

the vowel

(sung);

and stillothers

change

their form

_completely

₍

_brought

₎

.

The

_participle

can

take an

object

and be modified

by

an adverb. When it

does,

the

_group

of words taken

_together

is called a

participial

phrase.

(

See Section 6b.

₎

The ball kicked

_by

the

_player

went into the stand.

(Parti-

ciple

used as an

adjective)

1 2

The crowd

_cheering

the team could be heard a mile _away.

(1:

participle

used as an

adjective

in a

participial

phrase;

2:

_object

of

_participle)

1 2

We followed the

crowd,

_{cheeringlustily.}

(1:

participle

used as an

adjective

in a

participial

phrase;

2: adverb

modifyingparticiple)

2. A

_gerund

isa verbal noun. Gerunds have the same form as

_present

or

perfect

participles,

but are used as nouns

instead of

_adjectives.

A

_gerund

_may take an

object

and be

modified

_by

an adverb or an

adjective.

1 2

Discovering

the

_plans

of the

enemy was the

job

of the

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

1 2

Working intelligently

is no _easy task.

(1:

gerund;

2: ad-verb

modifier)

2 1

Our music teacher dislikes loud

_{singing. (1:}

_gerund;

2:

_adjective

modifier)

3. An

_infinitiue

is the form of the verb

_usually

_preceded

by

to.

to walk to observe to have

enjoyed

An infinitive_may be used as a _noun, an

adjective,

or an

adverb.

My

greatest

pleasure

isto travel.

_(Infinitive

used as

noun)

We have four

_days

to

spend

in

_Billings.

_(Infinitive

used

as

adjective)

Bruce was

glad

to have come.

(Infinitive

used as

adverb)

Sometimes the word to is omitted from the infinitive.

Let me _go with _you.

Will _you

_help

me

pack?

The infinitive_may take an

object

and be modified

by

an

adverb or an adverbial

phrase

or clause.

1 2

To reach the mountain we walked _twenty miles.

(1:

in-finitive;

2:

_object

of

infinitive)

1 2

George

and I tried to walk _faster.

_(1:

infinitive;2: adverb

modifier)

1 2

The snow

began

to

_drift

_along

the

_slope.

(1:

infinitive;

2: adverbial

_{phrasemodifying}

infinitive)

1 2

I intend to _stay here until

you arrive.

(1:

infinitive;2: adverbial clause

_modifying

_infinitive)

ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS _"9

EXERCISE 6

From

the

_following

_paragraph,

list in one column all

verbs that are used as

simplepredicates;

in another

column,

listall verbals. The

_listing

has been made for the firsttwo sentences.

Verbs Verbal

had to _go

liked had named

Shelley,

the

_English

_poet,

had a

tragic

death. He liked to _go

out on the Mediterranean Sea in a

light

sailboat which

he had named Ariel. But because he was _very unskillful as a

sailor,

some of his friends worried about him

constantly.

Shelley,

however,

loved the

_beauty

of the sea and the

graceful

fashion

in which the boat

_slipped

over the waves. One

day,

after

visiting

some

friends,

he set out for his home in Lerici in

_spite

of a

warning

of a storm.

Wishing

to

protect

Shelley,

his friend

Trelawny,

who was a

good

sailor,

wanted to _accompany the

writer in a

larger

boat named

Bolivar;

but he had not obtained

port

clearance _papers, and the

_port

authorities

_kept

him from

leaving.

Shelley

was in a

hurry;

so he set out,

leavingTrelawny

fuming

at the shore. The sailors on

Trelawny

's

boat,

gready

concerned about

_Shelley,

watched the black clouds

_gathering.

When the storm

_finally

broke,

_Trelawny,

worried about his

friend,

tried to

_get

news of him. Meantime,

Shelley's

wife waited at

Lerici,

_feeling

sure that

Shelley

could not have been so foolish

as to set out in the storm.

_Finally

she decided to _go to

Leghorn

to

see what had

happened

to him.

_Reaching

the

_city,

she

_begged

for

news and was told that

Shelley

had indeed set out

_just

before the

storm.

Panic-stricken,

Mary

made

_inquiries

in _every

direction,

but

getting

news of her husband was difiicult.At last she and

Trelawny

learned that

_parts

of a wreck had been cast _up on the

shore at

_Viareggio.

_They

stilldid not

_give

_up

_hope,

but several

days

later the

_body

of

_Shelley

_was washed _up on the shore. He

S

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4ci-b

MODIFYING words: _ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

4. MODIFYING WORDS:

_ADJECTIVES

AND ADVERBS

4a, Definition of

_adfective.

An

_adjective

modifies a noun or a

_pronoun.

4b. Uses of

_adjectives.

By

describing

or

limiting,

an

adjective

makes more

nearly

exact the

_meaning

of the word it modifies.

_Adjectives

tell what kind

_of,

how _many, ivhich one.

Adjectives

are of two

general

kinds:

1.

_Descriptive:

a red

convertible,

an _easy

job,

a broken

window

2.

_Limiting:

the

_first

_day,

his

_former

_roommate,

_five

times

Note: A noun or _pronoun in the

possessive

case _may be

considered an

adjective

since itlimits the

meaning

of another noun.

The articles_{a, an,} and the are

adjectives.

A is used before

a word

beginning

with a consonant

sound;

_an, before a

word

_beginning

with a vowel sound. Remember that it is

the

_sound,

not the

_spelling,

that determines which article

should be used. A word

_beginning

with silent h

_actually

starts with a vowel. The sound of y before a vowel is a

consonant sound and calls for _a, whether the word

_begins

with y or with a vowel

having

the sound of y, such as

long

u.

an

apple,

an

hour,

an

opportunity,

a

hero,

a

European,

a

university

An

_adjective

is called a

predicate

adjective

or

predicate

complement

when it is related to the

_subject

_by

a

linking

verb

_{(be, feel,}

_become,

_{taste, seem, appear,}

look,

sound,

for

_example

₎

.

The water feltwarm.

24

MODIFYING WORDS: _ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS EXERCISE 7

In one

column,

list each word

(including

verbals)

used as an

adjective

in this

paragraph.

In another

column,

listthe

noun that each

adjective

modifies.

Across a sea that was now

turquoise,

now

emerald,

we could

watch the Venezuelan coastline with the

_purple

Andes in the

background.Flying

fish stood a moment on their

tails,

flew a

little

_distance,

and dived back into the sea. The air was still.

The fresh odor of the sea

mingled

with the

heavy

smell of

sweat from the stevedores' bodies. In a few moments a dozen

small boats had reached the side of our

ship,

and their

brown-skinned

_occupants

were

slipping

into the clear water to find

the _{money that the passengers had thrown} down for them.

4c.

Definition

of

adverb.

An

adverb

modifies a

verb,

an

adjective,

or another adverb

by describing,

limiting,

or in some other _way

making

the

meaning

more

nearly

exact.

4cl.

Uses

of

adverbs.

An adverb tells

how, when, where,

_why,

to what extent.

(Adverbs

that tell

_why

are

usually

in the form of

phrases

or clauses rather than

single

words. See Sections 6 and

7.)

We saw a

paraderecently.

(When)

We

_certainly

did

_enjoy

the music

_playedby

the bands.

(

To what extent

₎

Here we saw soldiers from _many countries.

(Where)

The taxi drove

_slowly

down the street.

(How)

If we teU how

slowly

the taxi

drove,

we have an adverb

modifying

another adverb.

I

quite

1

The taxi drove -" _very I

slowly

down the street.

4cl

MODIFYING WORDS: _ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The

_following

_examples

show adverbs used to

modify

adjectives

:

When the

_day

was over, our

guide

was _very tired.

(Very

modifies the

_adjective

tired.

₎

He was almost sick with

fatigue.

{

Almost modifies the

adjective

sick.

₎

Occasionally

a noun is used as an adverb.

(The

use of a noun is called the adverbial

objective.)

After _{the game} we went home.

Neither

_adjectives

nor adverbs should be used

profusely..

Overuse of either robs sentences of conciseness and force.

Both

_adjectives

and adverbs can

help

to make

Vxriting

_spe-cific

and vi\ id.but

_writing

that is heavilv larded with them

is weak and

_flabby.

Particular

_problems

in the use of ad-jectives

and adverbs are discussed in Sections IS and 63.

EXERCISE 8

In one column on _{your paper,} list each word

(including

verbals)

used as an adverb in the

following

paragraph.

In a second

column,

list the word that each adverb modifies.

Have _you read Tlie Ancient Mariner? _{Many very}

_interesting,

stories are told about the author of the _poem, Samuel Cole-ridge.

Among

them are some

particularly

good

tales of the

poet's

love for

_talking.

One

_{day Coleridge}

met Lamb

walking

rapidly

to-work and

_stopped

to talk to liim. Lamb, who was

hurrying

tO'

reach his

_job

on time, moved awav; but

Coleridgequickly

grabbed

the button of liislistener'scoat and insisted _upon finish-ing his

_story.

For a few minutes Lamb waited

patiently,

but

Coleridge

was

apparently

preparing

for a

long

talk.

Presently

Lamb took a knife from his

pocket

and carefullv cut ofi: the

button that

_Coleridge

was

holding.

That

evening

Lamb,

return-ing

from work, saw

Coleridge

still

holding

the button and still

JOINING WORDS: _{PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS}

5ci-b

5.

JOINING

WORDS: PREPOSITIONS

AND

_CONJUNCTIONS

5a.

Definition

of

_preposition.

A

_preposition

is a

linking

word used to show the relation-ship

of a noun or _pronoun to some other word in the

sentence. It is

_usually

followed

_by

an

object.

5b.

List

of

_{prepositions.}

Here isa listof common

prepositions:

The

_meaning

of a sentence is sometimes confused if

prepositions

are not used

correctly

in combination with

other words.

_(See

Section

_43.)

Between isused when two are considered.

Among

isused when more than two are

considered.

I must choose between

_dancing

and tennis.

The _money was divided _among six heirs.

Note: In casual

_speech,

between is sometimes used when