MONO-ETHNIC TO MULTI-ETHNIC: EXPLORING CHANGE IN FOUR SCHOOLS WHICH WENT FROM MONO-ETHNIC TO MULTI-ETHNIC
STUDENT POPULATIONS
Krizan Vekic, B. Ed -Arts, M. Sc.
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Ph.D.
Supervisor: Dr PJ Sexton School of Education Mater Dei Institute of Education A College of Dublin City University
DECLARATION
I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the program of study leading to the award of Ph.D., is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor, PJ Sexton. Thank you for encouraging me to take ownership of this dissertation. Your guidance and support throughout the last four years has been invaluable. Your calming demeanour and ability to empathise epitomises the ideal teacher-student relationship. I must also thank Dr Gabriel Byrne and Dr Kevin Williams in Mater Dei. Meeting them in and around the institute was always a delight. They always had words of encouragement to offer. I wish to thank all of the office, canteen and library staff at Mater Dei.
I want to thank the principals, teachers, Board members and secretaries of all four schools involved in this study. Your support, time and flexibility ensured that I was able to gather my data quickly and with little trouble. To the four principals in particular, thank you for accommodating me at every turn. I must also thank members of the Christian Brothers and Sisters of Charity in Ireland for their support.
I owe much to my friends Ian Barron, Scott Boldt, and Maeve O'Brien. Ian, thanks for helping me try and get my head around statistics. Scott and Maeve, thank you for always being so positive and insightful.
I save my biggest and most heartfelt thanks for my wife Linda and my three children, Luka, Lara and Max. Thank you for your love, patience and understanding. Linda, thank you for believing in me when I found it hard to do so. Luka, Lara and Max, thank you for understanding when daddy had to go to the library to 'write his book’. I tried not to take from family time, but when I did, you were all so very accepting. Linda, I must also thank you for having such wonderful parents and a great sister. To Joe, Teresa and Sarah, thank you for your support and the countless times you took the children, thus giving me a chance to work.
Finally, to the two most important migrants in my life - mum and dad. Thank you for instilling in me a value for education, a love for learning and a work ethic. Thank you for working tirelessly to ensure we were afforded the best when growing up, including the newest and best set of encyclopaedias.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER ONE
Exploring Change in Multi-Ethnic Schools: The Irish and
International Literature ... 9
1.0 Introduction ... 9
Section One: Setting the Scene ... 10
1.1 Immigration into Ireland: The Celtic Tiger Years ... 10
1.1.1 Immigrant Settlement Patterns in Ireland ... 12
1.1.2 Dublin's North Inner-City: An area of Migrant Concentration ... 13
1.1.3 Distribution of Minority Ethnic Students across Irish Schools ... 14
1.1.4 The DEIS School ... 15
Section Two: Research on the Education of Minority Ethnic Students ... 18
1.2 Typology in Traditional Countries of Immigration: A Focus on Achievement ... 18
1.2.1 Typology in Ireland: A Focus on Issues Pertaining to Language and Integration ... 21
1.2.2 Recent Studies in Ireland on the Education of Minority Ethnic Students ... 25
Section Three: School Change as a Result of Student Demographic Change ... 26
1.3.1 Teaching Minority Ethnic Students ... 27
1.3.1.1 A Noticeable Trait: Ambition ... 29
1.3.1.2 An Onerous Challenge: Limited Language Competence ... 30
1.3.1.3 Challenges Pertaining to Irregular Enrolment and the Absence of Student Information 32 1.3.2 Minority Ethnic Students and Academic Achievement 34 1.3.2.1 Two Schools of Thought: Ethnic Disadvantage and Ethnic Success ... 36
1.3.2.2 Academic Achievement and Gender Differences ... 40
1.3.2.3 Minority Ethnic Students and their Disposition to Maths and Science ... 41
1.3.3 Student Relations: Attitudes, Interaction and Racism 43 1.3.3.1 Student Interaction in Multi-Ethnic Schools 45 1.3.3.2 Incidences of Racism in Schools ... 48
1.3.4 School Identity and the Phenomenon of White Flight 50 1.3.5 Adapting to Religious Diversity in Irish Schools ... 55
1.3.5.1 The Catholic School and Roman Catholic Traditions ... 57
Section Four: Identifying a Gap in the Research ... 60
1.4 Proposing an 'Evolutionary View' ... 60
1.4.1 A Focus on the Particular and not the Universal ... 61
1.4.2 A Gap in the Research ... 63
1.5 Conclusion ... 63
CHAPTER TWO Exploring Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: The Research Process ... 66
2.1 Exploring the Notion of Change ... 66
2.1.1 A Philosophical Perspective ... 67
2.1.2 An Educational Perspective ... 69
2.2 Shaping the Research Design: The Need for a Paradigm ... 71
2.2.1 Adopting an Interpretive Paradigm ... 74
2.3 Gaining Insight: The Initial Literature Review ... 77
2.4 Formulating the Question ... 77
2.5 Case Study Design ... 78
2.6 Selecting the Case Study Schools ... 80
2.6.1 Defining a Multi-Ethnic School ... 81
2.6.2 Preliminary Research ... 82
2.7 The Fieldwork ... 83
2.7.1 Interviews and Focus Groups ... 84
2.7.2 Gathering Enrolment Records and Leaving Certificate Results ... 86
2.7.3 Documentary Evidence and Observation ... 87
2.7.4 Triangulation ... 88
2.8 The Research Sample in the Case Study Schools ... 89
2.8.1 Reaching Saturation ... 89
2.9 The Analysis of Data ... 92
2.10 Ethical Considerations ... 94
2.11 Reflexive Analysis: Making Explicit the Researcher's Position 96 2.12 Conclusion ... 99
CHAPTER THREE Responding to the Needs of the Time: Rice, Aikenhead and the Four Schools ... 100
Section One: Society, Education and the Four Schools in the
19th and 20th Century ... 101
3.1 Education and Poverty in Ireland in the Early 19th Century .... 101
3.1.1 Educating the Poor: The State Response ... 103
3.1.2 Educating the Poor: The Response of the Catholic Church ... 103
3.2 Responding to the Needs of the Poor: Edmund Ignatius Rice 104 3.2.1 The Original Rice Vision ... 105
3.3 Responding to the Needs of the Poor: Mary Aikenhead ... 107
3.3.1 The Original Aikehead Vision ... 108
3.4 The Founding of the Four Schools ... I l l 3.5 The Introduction of the Intermediate Education Act (1878) .... 113
3.6 The Establishment of the Department of Education, 1924 116
3.7 The Introduction of Free Post-Primary Education, 1967 118
3.8 Dealing with Educational Disadvantage, the 1990's 119
Section Two: The Four Schools from 2000 to 2010, Responding to a New Population ... 121
3.9 From Mono-ethnic to Multi-ethnic ... 121
3.9.1 Patterns of Minority Ethnic Student Enrolment ... 122
3.9.2 Reasons for Initial Enrolment ... 123
3.9.3 Reasons for Successive Enrolment ... 125
3.9.4 Enrolment of Minority Ethnic Students: The Impact on Student Numbers ... 126
3.10 Conclusion ... 128
CHAPTER FOUR Exploring Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: The Findings ... 130
4.1 The Classroom: Changes to Teaching and Learning ... 130
4.1.1 The Initial Period of Student Enrolment ... 131
4.1.1.1 Teaching and Learning in School 1 133
4.1.2 Establishing a System for Language Support ... 133
4.1.3 Changing Patterns of Student Enrolment ... 135
4.1.4 A Multi-Ethnic Classroom compared to a Mono-Ethnic Classroom ... 135
4.1.4.1 Minority Ethnic Students and their Favourable Disposition to Learning: A Noticeable Trait ... 136
4.1.5 A Synopsis of Changes to Teaching and Learning .... 139
4.2 Changes to Academic Achievement: Analysis of Leaving Certificate Results between 2000 and 2010 140
4.2.1 Change in School Academic Standards ... 140
4.2.2 Academic Achievement along Ethnic and Gender Lines ... 143
4.2.3 Changes in Ethnic Make-up o f’High-Achievers' ... 145
4.2.4 Changes in the up-take of Higher Level Maths and Science ... 146
4.2.4.1 Minority Ethnic Students and Achievement Levels in Maths ... 147
4.2.5 A Synopsis of Changes to Academic Achievement .. 148
4.3 Peer Relations: Changes in the Relationship between Irish and Minority Ethnic Students ... 149
4.3.1 Initial Reaction of Irish Students towards Minority Ethnic Students ... 149
4.3.1.1 Inter-Ethnic Student Interaction ... 150
4.3.1.2 Racist Tension and Incidences ... 150
4.3.2 An Improvement in Peer Relations ... 152
4.3.3 The Exposure of Irish students to Students of Different Cultures ... 153
4.4 Changes in School Identity ... 156
4.4.1 A New Identity ... 156
4.4.2 Irish Flight: Change in Irish Student Enrolment Patterns ... 157
4.4.2.1 School Identity and School 4 159
4.4.3 School Identity: A Gradual Acceptance ... 160
4.4.4 A Synopsis of Changes to School Identity ... 162
4.5 Changes in School Ethos ... 163
4.5.1 A New Dimension to the Catholic Ethos ... 163
4.5.1.1 Interpretation of Catholic Ethos ... 165
4.5.2 The Re-emergence of the Original Visions ... 166
4.5.3 A Synopsis of Changes to School Ethos ... 168
4.6 Conclusion ... 169
CHAPTER FIVE Exploring Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: A Discussion on the Changes to Five Key Areas of School Life ... 170
5.0 Introduction ... 170
5.0.1 Re-Setting the Scene ... 171
5.1 The Classroom Setting: Changes to Teaching and Learning ... 173
5.1.1 A 'Shock': Teaching English Speakers to non-English Speakers ... 173
5.1.1.1 Compounding the Shock: Irregular Enrolment Patterns ... 175
5.1.2 An Improvement in the Teaching Experience ... 176
5.1.2.1 Easing the Burden: Language Support and the Changing Nature of ME Student Enrolment .... 177
5.1.2.2 Re-affirming the Position that Minority Ethnic Students have a Positive Disposition to Learning ... 179
5.1.2.3 The Multi-Ethnic Classroom: It Became
Far Easier ... 180 5.2 Changes in Academic Achievement ... 183
5.2.1 An Improvement in School Academic Standards
Over Time ... 184 5.2.1.1 Declining Academic Standards: The Case
of School 1 186
5.2.2 Academic Achievement and Gender: The Superior
Achievement of Minority Ethnic Females ... 187 5.2.3 Changes to the 'High-Achieving' Student Group:
Minority Ethnic Students Replace Irish Students ... 188 5.2.4 The Predisposition of Minority Ethnic Students to
take Higher Level Maths and Science ... 189 5.2.5 A Historical Perspective on Academic Achievement:
Reflecting on Previous Changes in the Academic Focus of
the Four Schools ... 191 5.3 Changes in the Relationship between Irish and Minority Ethnic
Students ... 195 5.3.1 The Initial Hostile Welcome: Targeting African
Students ... 195 5.3.2 An Improvement in Relations: Students Coming
through the Primary System ... 199 5.3.2.1 Racism - No Longer an Issue? ... 200 5.3.3 Exposing Irish Students to Minority Ethnic Students:
Enriching their Lives ... 201 5.4 Changes in School Identity ... 203 5.4.1 The Initial Fear: The Image of a Black School ... 203
5.4.1.1 A Mono-Ethnic or Multi-Ethnic Identity:
The Dichotomy ... 205 5.4.2 Irish Flight: As the number of Minority Ethnic
Students Increase, the Number of Irish Students Decrease 206 5.4.3 School Identity in 2010: Just a Working Class School 207
5.4.4 A Historical Perspective on School Identity: The Case
of Academic Flight as opposed to Irish Flight ... 208
5.5 Changes in School Ethos ... 211
5.5.1 School Ethos in 2010: An Inclusive Catholic School 211 5.5.1.1 Interpretation of Ethos: The Inclusive/Exclusive Debate ... 215
5.5.2 School Ethos in 2010: 'Evoking the Echoes' of the Original Rice and Aikenhead Visions ... 216
4 5.6 Conclusion ... 219
CHAPTER SIX Changes to Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: Profound and Positive ... 225
6.0 Introduction ... 225
6.1 A Review of the Research Process ... 225
6.2 Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: An Evolutionary View ... 227
6.3 Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: A Philosophical View ... 228
6.4 Change in Four Inner-Urban DEIS Schools: The Key Findings 228 6.5 This Study's Contribution to Research ... 231
6.6 Limitations to this research ... 232
6.7 Personal Reflections ... 233
6.8 Directions for Future Research ... 234
Bibliography ... 236
GRAPHS AND TABLES
Table 2a, Number of ME Students Enrolled in Each
School, 2010 ... 83
Table 2b, Total Number of Participants Interviewed in
Each School ... 91
Table 2c, Total Number of Teachers Involved in Focus
Groups in Each School ... 92
Table 3a, Description of Schools at the time they were
founded ... 112
Graph 3b, Total of Student Population in all four schools
for years 1993/94 and 1999/00 ... 121
Graph 3c, Enrolment of Minority Ethnic Students
between 2000/01 - 2009/10 ... 123
Graph 3d, Student Population in all four schools without
Minority Ethnic Students between 2000/01 - 2009/10 127
Graph 3e, Total Student Population in all four schools
between 2000/01 - 2009/10 127
Graph 4a, Average number of Points in all four schools
combined, 2001 -2010 141
Graph 4b, Average number of Points in each School,
2001 -2010 ...:... 142
Graph 4c, Average Leaving Certificate Results for
Minority Ethnic Students (ME) and Irish students,
2001 -2010 ... 144
Graph 4d, Average number of Leaving Certificate Points
based on Gender and Ethnicity, 2001 - 2010 144
Graph 4e, Top Ten Percent LC Students Results ,all four
schools, 2001-2010 145
Graph 4f, Enrolment of Minority Ethnic (ME) students and Irish students in School 3 for period 2000/01
-2009/10 158
Graph 4g, Enrolment of ME students and Irish students in
School 1, 2000/01 - 2009/10 269
Graph 4h Enrolment of ME students and Irish Students in
School 2 2000/01 - 2009/10 ... 269 Graph 4i, Enrolment of ME students and Irish students in
School 4 2000/01 - 2009/10 ... 270 Table Al, Number of Students who took >1 Higher Level LC
Subjects ... ^58 Table A2, Number of Students who took Higher Level LC
English ... 258
Table A3, Number of Students who took 8 LC subjects or more 259
Table A4, Number of Students who failed >1 LC subjects ... 260 Table A5, Number of Students who took Higher LC Level
Maths ... 262 Table A6, Number of Students who took Foundation Level LC
Maths ... 262
Table A7, Number of Students who took LC Science Subjects 262
ABSTRACT
This thesis explores change in four inner-urban DEIS schools which went from mono-ethnic to multi-ethnic student populations between 2000 and 2010. Lightfoot argues that work in the area of education is 'ahistorical' offering a 'snapshot' of school life. Thus, this research adopts an 'evolutionary view' seeking to unravel changes to key areas of school life over a period of time. In order to explore change, this inquiry employed case studies. Four secondary schools, with 'high' concentrations of minority ethnic students, were selected. Qualitative data from interviews and focus groups was collected. Quantitative data, in the form of enrolment records and Leaving Certificate results were gathered. Official school- based documents were also reviewed. The research process unearthed changes to five key areas of school life. It reveals that the classroom became more conducive to teaching and learning, school academic standards improved, and that relations between Irish and minority ethnic students evolved. It further uncovers that staff came to accept a new school identity and that over the ten year period all four schools became inclusive Catholic schools. In general, the changes brought about by the demographic shift in the student populations, were profound and positive.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ME - Minority Ethnic LC - Leaving Certificate
DEIS - Delivering Equality and Opportunity in Schools ESRI - Economic and Social Research Institute
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PISA - Programme for International Student Assessment
JMB - Joint Managerial Body
AMCSS - Association of Management of Catholic Secondary Schools VEC - Vocational Education Committee
1
INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of immigration into Ireland, as opposed to emigration, began with the dawn of the Celtic Tiger in the late 1990s. From this time returned Irish migrants, people seeking asylum and migrants from EU and non-EU countries came into Ireland.1 Their impact on the Irish landscape was significant. By 2007, over fifteen percent of people living in Ireland were bom outside the country.2
Akin to international settlement patterns, migrants in Ireland settled in large urban centres.3 The literature in Ireland and abroad indicates that immigrants tend to settle in areas that have succumbed to socio-economic deprivation. Dublin’s north inner city was one such area, attracting migrants for a number of reasons. This area provided migrants with private-rented accommodation and access to an immediate network for social and employment opportunities. Equally, this part of the city housed a large percentage of people seeking asylum. As a result, migrant children enrolled and attended a select number of schools in the area. In line with international trends, these schools tended to be under-subscribed designated disadvantaged (DEIS) schools.4
This study explores change in a select number of these schools. It does not set out to measure change. A total of four DEIS secondary schools which went from mono-ethnic to multi-ethnic student populations between 2000 and 2010 were selected purposely for this study. In 2010, Smyth and her colleagues maintained that most secondary schools in Ireland had Minority Ethnic (ME) student populations ranging from two to nine percent; anything exceeding ten percent was considered
1 Piaras M ac Einri, Immigration into Ireland: Trends, Policy Responses, Outlook, first part o f research project for EU Commission Contract VS/2000/0312 (Cork: ICMS, University College Cork, 2001), p. 5.
2 Peter W right, Labour M obility within the E U in the Context o f Enlargement and the
Functioning o f the Transitional Arrangements, Country Studies, Ireland (Nuremberg:
European Integration Consortium. Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Directorate General o f the European Commission, 2007), p. 6.
3 Piaras Mac Einri and Allen White, ‘Immigration into the Republic o f Ireland: A Bibliography o f Recent Research*, Irish Geography, 41 (2) (2008), p. 8.
2
‘high’.5 By 2010, all four schools had an ME student population exceeding twenty five percent. This ensured that, for the Irish case, such schools were ‘unique’ compared to the norm. Further, it allowed for comparative discussion between ‘high’ concentration multi-ethnic schools in Ireland and in other countries.
The topic and research question:
W hat ch a n g es o c c u rre d in f o u r sch o o ls w h ich w e n t f r o m m o n o -e th n ic to m u lti-e th n ic stu d en t p o p u la tio n s?
emerged following an extensive review of the literature. Much of the work conducted in multi-ethnic settings offers what Lightfoot argues is a ‘snapshot’ view of school life where the ‘worth of a school’ is measured at one single moment in time. Lightfoot maintains that schools are ‘changing institutions’ and therefore social scientists should adopt an ‘evolutionary view’ in the way they study them.6 This study adopts Lightfoot’s ‘evolutionary view’ as it attempts to unravel changes to key areas of school life resulting from the increased enrolment of ME students over a ten year period.
This research is positioned within an interpretive paradigm. Quinn-Patton contends that such an approach attempts to understand a social reality as lived by those within it. 7 Additionally, it recognises that schools are ‘complex’
o
environments. The researcher is aware that other paradigms exist. A positivist approach was deemed unsuitable as it relies heavily on quantitative-based measures, ‘over-simplifies’ the human experience and may exclude what is considered ‘human and important’ .9 Likewise, this research seeks to explore change rather than affect change. Thus, a critical theory paradigm would have been unbefitting of the research question.
5 Emer Smyth, Merike Darmody, Frances McGinnity and Delma Byrne, Adapting to
Diversity: Irish Schools and Newcomer Students (Dublin: Economic and Social Research
Institute, 2009), p. 68.
6 Sara L. Lightfoot, The Good High School (United States of America: Perseus Books
Group, 1983), p. 24.
7 Michael Quinn-Patton, Qualitative Research and Evaluation M ethods, 3rd ed. (California: Sage Publications, 2002), p. 69.
8 Marilyn Cochran-Smith and Susan L. Lytle, ‘Research on Teaching and Teacher Research: The Issues that Divide’, Educational Researcher, 19 (2) (1990), p. 3.
9 Anne B. Ryan, Post-Positivist Approaches to Research. Researching and Writing your
Thesis: a Guide fo r Postgraduate Students (MACE: Maynooth Adult and Community
In order to explore change this research employed case studies. Widely used in education, Umit maintains that case studies describe and understand what is happening within a specific context.10 Case studies utilise multiple sources of evidence to provide what Noor contends is a 'holistic view of a certain phenomenon or series of events.’ 11 It does not seek to ‘enumerate frequencies’ or provide ‘scientific generalisations’, yet it attempts to provide a ‘detailed examination of a small sample.’12
This research primarily focuses on the experiences of staff who worked in the four schools during this time. Interviews, focus groups and a follow-up focus group were conducted with staff in all four schools. While much work to emanate from other countries centres on academic achievement, Irish authors acknowledge that, due to limited methods of data collection, the opportunities to conduct achievement- focussed research have been impeded.13 It is within this context that this research seeks to break new ground by gathering Leaving Certificate (LC) results over a ten year period, desegregating these results along ethnic and gender lines. Additionally, student enrolment records for the period, 2000 to 2010, were also gathered. Further, official school documents and relevant literature on the schools and on education in Ireland were reviewed. Finally, observational notes were taken throughout the process.
The analysis of qualitative data was guided by the thematic framework set out by Elliot and Timulak.14 All statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Analysis Software (SAS® v9.2, SAS® Institute Inc, Cary, NC). The analysis of qualitative and quantitative data ensured triangulation was achieved as the statistical
10 Hakan Umit, ‘Case Studies’, in Méthodologie de la Recherche en Sciences de Gestion, (Université Catholique de Louvain, Institut d ’Adm inistration et de Gestion Louvain-la- Nueve, June, 2005), p. 2.
11 Khairul Bharein Mohd Noor, ‘Case Study: A Strategic Research M ethodology’, American
Journal o f A pplied Sciences, 5 (11) (2008), p. 1603.
12 Hamel, Dufour and Fortin cited in Umit, p. 2; M alcom Tight, ‘The Curious Case o f Case Study: A V iew point’, International Journal o f Sociology Research M ethods, 13 (4) (2010), p. 337.
13 D iversity at School, ed. by Anne Lodge and Kathleen Lynch (Dublin: Equality Authority, 2004), p. 65.
14 Robert Elliot and Ladislav Timulak, ‘Descriptive and Interpretive Approaches to Qualitative R esearch’, A Handbook o f Research M ethods f o r Clinical and Health
Psychology, ed. by Jeremy Miles and Paul Gilbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005),
4
data was used to critique the data to emerge from the qualitative process. Yin describes this as a model of convergence whereby all of the sources of evidence described above - interviews, focus groups, statistical data, and documentary evidence - lead to establishing what occurred across the four schools between 2000 and 2010.15 Moreover, triangulation was further attained as the research process ensured a ‘multiplicity of perspectives’ was gained.16 In this case, the researcher sought the perspectives of an array of staff in all four schools, along lines of gender, years of teaching and across a broad spectrum of subject areas.
In essence, this study concludes that, across the four schools, as the decade progressed and the number of ME students increased, the classroom became more conducive to teaching and learning, and school academic standards improved. Further, over the decade the relationship between Irish and ME students evolved whilst staff came to accept a new school identity. Finally, by 2010, all four schools had become ‘inclusive’ Catholic schools. This also resulted in a re-emergence of the original ethos as outlined by Edmund Rice and Mary Aikenhead. In general, the demographic shift of the student population along ethnic lines was profound and positive.
The Term ‘Minority Ethnic’
Prior to 1999, the official term used to describe any migrant who did not have at least one Irish bom grandparent was ‘alien’. This was replaced by the term ‘non national’. 17 This was adopted by the Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform and the Department of Education and Skills.18 Researchers in Ireland employ
15 Case Study Research: Design and M ethods, by Robert K. Yin, 4 th ed. (USA: Sage Publications, 2008), p. 117.
16 Research M ethods in Education, by Louis Cohen, Lawrence M anion and Keith M orrison,
6th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 241.
17 Bryan Fanning and Fidele Muttwarasibo, ‘Nationals/non-nationals: Immigration, Citizenship and Politics in the Republic o f Ireland’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30 (3) (2007), p. 449.
18 M athew W allen and Helen Kelly-Holmes, ‘I Think They Just Think it’s Going to Go A w ay at Some Stage: Policy and Practice in Teaching English as an Additional Language in Irish Prim ary Schools’, Language and Education, 20 (2) (2006), p. 141.
th e term 'm ig ra n t stu d en t’ , 19 'n e w c o m e rs’ ,20 o r 'im m ig ra n t stu d e n ts’ .21 T h e u se o f 'in te rn a tio n a l stu d e n t’ is m o st co m m o n for th o se stu d y in g th e ex p e rien ce s o f n o n - Iris h b o m stu d en ts at th ird le v e l.22 L o d g e and L y nch u tilise th e p h ra se 'm in o rity eth n ic g ro u p ’, w h ilst N o w lan em ploys th e term ‘m in o rity eth n ic s tu d e n t’ . 23 T h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u catio n an d S kills, at tim es, a d o p te d m o re ed u c a tio n a lly - a p p ro p ria te term in o lo g y , m o st o f w hich fo c u ses o n th e la n g u a g e n e e d s o f students. L an g u a g e M in o rity Students, E nglish as a F o reig n L an g u a g e (E F L ), E n g lish as a S eco n d L an g u a g e (E S L ) and m ore re c e n tly E n g lish as an A d d itio n a l L a n g u a g e (E A L ) h a v e all b e e n em p lo y ed.24
In E n g lan d , L eung no tes that th e term 'im m ig ra n t’ h as re ced ed from p u b lic d isc o u rse a n d has been replaced by 'm in o rity e th n ic ’. A rsh a d an d o th ers arg u e th a t th is ap p lie s to stu dents w h e th e r they are n e w arriv als (a sy lu m seek ers, re fu g ee s o r from th e E u ro p e a n U n io n and beyond) o r w h e th e r th ey are d esc en d an ts fro m settled eth n ic co m m u n itie s. In the U n ited States th e term ‘m in o rity ’ w as p re v io u sly u sed in re fe re n c e to A frican A m erican s and la te r H isp a n ic s,25 b u t it is n o w u se d b y th e
19 Dympna Devine and Mary Kelly, 'I Just Don’t Want to Get Picked on by Anybody: Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion in a Newly Multi-Ethnic Primary School’, Children
and Society, 20 (2006), pp. 128-139; Taguma and others, p. 15.
20 Emer Smyth, Merike Darmody, Frances McGinnity and DeLma Byrne, A dapting to
Diversity: Irish Schools and Newcomer Students (Dublin: Economic and Social Research
Institute, 2009).
21.Delma Byrne, Frances McGinnity, Emer Smyth and Merike Darmody, ‘Immigration and School Composition in Ireland’, Irish Educational Studies, 29 (3) (2010), pp. 271-288.
22 Gerard W. Boucher, ‘Irish Acculturation Ideologies: Mixing Multiculturalism,
Assimilation and Discrimination’, Cultivating Pluralism: P sychological Social and Cultural
Perspectives on a Changing Ireland, ed. by Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O’Connell
(Dublin: Oak Tree Press, 2000); Martina Flavin, The Cultural and Intercultural Experiences
o f International Students in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Council for International Students, 2000);
Suarez-Orozco, p. 287; Diversity at School, ed. by Anne Lodge and Kathleen Lynch (Dublin: Equality Authority, 2004); Emer Nowlan, 'Underneath the Band Aid: Supporting Bilingual Students in Irish Schools’, Irish Educational Studies, 27 (3) (2008), pp. 253-266. 23 D iversity at School, ed. by Anne Lodge and Kathleen Lynch (Dublin: Equality Authority, 2004); Emer Nowlan, ‘Underneath the Band Aid: Supporting Bilingual Students in Irish Schools’, Irish Educational Studies, 27 (3) (2008), pp. 253-266.
24. Wallen and Kelly-Holmes, p. 141.
25 Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco, ‘Becoming Somebody: Central American Immigrants in U.S Inner City Schools’, Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18 (1987), p. 287. United States Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Service, High Standards f o r All Students: A Report fro m the National Assessment o f Title I on Progress and Challenges
Department of Education to include all minorities, immigrants and non immigrants.26
This research acknowledges that not all minority ethnic students are necessarily minority language students. Nevertheless, almost all of the minority ethnic students who enrolled in the four schools between 2000 and 2010 were also minority language students. In light of the above, this research adopts the term 'minority ethnic’ (ME). This refers to all students who belong to a minority ethnic group, whether they or their parent/s were bom in a country outside of Ireland.
Furthermore, throughout this dissertation terms such as 'Irish’, 'local’, 'academic’, 'non-academic’ and 'DEIS’ are employed in reference to students who belong to the majority ethnic group. While this study distinguishes between these students based on where they lived, their social background and at times, academic dispositions, they are all Irish and in general, were all bom in Ireland. Equally, terms which may not be considered nuanced, such as 'non-national’ or 'foreign’, are found in this study. While the author does not endorse the use of these terms they were used by participants involved in this research. In order to stay true to the data, the views and responses of all participants were transcribed verbatim and thus employed appropriately.
This research consists of six chapters. Chapter One provides an extensive review of the literature on ME education in Ireland and from more traditional countries of immigration - Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom. This chapter sets the context, outlining the recent trends in immigration, migrant settlement patterns and the distribution of ME students across schools in Ireland. A description of the research typologies in Ireland and abroad is also offered. Additionally, Chapter One explores how ME students have changed schools in Ireland and in other countries. The final section identifies a vacuum in the research offering reasons why the current study was undertaken.
Chapter Two outlines the research process. It briefly introduces the notion of change, from a philosophical and an educational position. Following this, the chapter
25 United States Department o f Education, Planning and Evaluation Service, High Standards
f o r A ll Students: A Report fro m the National Assessm ent o f Title I on Progress and
considers different research paradigms and offers reasons why an interpretive paradigm was deemed most suitable. This chapter presents a rationale as to why this research employed case studies. In so doing it offers a detailed description of the research sample, the fieldwork and the analysis of data. Finally, ethical considerations are highlighted as the researcher makes clear his ontological position and recognises his own biases.
In keeping with Lightfoof s ‘evolutionary view’, the focus of Chapter Three positions the four schools within the historical context of Irish education and society from the 18th century to the year 2000. Titled, ‘Responding to the Needs of the Time’, the first section of this chapter explores life in 19th century Ireland. It considers the response to the educational needs of the poor by two notable figures in Irish history: Edmund Rice, founder of the Christian Brothers, and Mary Aikenhead, founder of the Sisters of Charity. A history of the four schools is then presented and positioned within significant periods of Irish educational history. These include the introduction of the Intermediate Education Act (1871), the establishment of the Department of Education in 1924 and the introduction of free education in 1967. The period of the 1990s, when the four schools evolved into DEIS schools, is also explored.
The second section of Chapter Three documents the patterns of ME student enrolment between 2000 and 2010. This section outlines how the schools became ‘high’ concentration multi-ethnic schools by 2010. In essence, it considers why ME students initially enrolled in the four schools, why they continued to enrol over the decade and the impact this had on student numbers across the four schools.
Chapter Four presents the findings to emerge from the research process. For purposes of clarity the findings are presented under five categories. These categories emerged from the data and correspond to changes to five key areas of school life. These are teaching and learning, academic achievement, peer relations, school identity, and school ethos. Direct quotations, tables, and graphs are presented throughout this chapter. Additional quotations, tables and graphs are numbered accordingly and presented in the Appendices.
The introduction to Chapter Five provides a brief synopsis of the history of the four schools and the patterns of ME student enrolment between 2000 and 2010.
T h is d isc u ssio n ch a p te r p o sitio n s the fin d in g s fro m C h ap ter F o u r w ith in th e Iris h and in te rn a tio n a l literatu re o n M E education. It fu rth e r p o sitio n s so m e o f th e fin din gs w ith in th e h isto rical con tex t o f th e fo u r schools.
C h a p te r Six draw s on the n arrativ es o u tlin e d in the p re v io u s ch a p te rs and p re se n ts th e m a in co n clu sio n s o f th e re search . It ach iev es th is b y b rie fly re v ie w in g th e researc h p rocess. It then high lig hts the stu d y ’s k ey fin d in g s o ffe rin g both an e v o lu tio n a ry an d a p h ilo so p h ic al view o f th e ch an g es w h ich o c c u rre d in fo u r inner- u rb a n D E IS sch o o ls b etw e en 200 0 an d 2 010. T h is ch a p te r fu rth e r c o n sid ers the co n trib u tio n th is study has m ad e to Irish research , an d tak es into a c c o u n t the lim itatio n s o f th e study. F o llo w in g th is a p e rso n a l re flectio n is p re s e n te d as are futu re d ire c tio n s for research.
CHAPTER ONE
Literature
Exploring Change in Multi-Ethnic Schools: The Irish and International
1.0 Introduction
A lite ratu re re v ie w is sig n ifican t fo r a n u m b e r o f reaso n s. F irst, it allo w s th e re se a rc h e r to g ain g reater in sigh t into th e to p ic at h and, thu s id en tify in g ‘g a p s ’ in th e re se a rc h a re a.1 S econd, it serves ‘as the fo u n d atio n upo n w h ic h a stu d y is b u ilt’ 2 an d th ere fo re g u id es the d esig n o f a study, d eterm in in g th e ap p ro p ria te re se a rc h m eth o d s to e m p lo y. 3 T his rev iew pro cess to o k tw o form s. A n in itia l m an u al filterin g o f lite ratu re in Ire la n d an d ab ro ad w as carried out, fo llo w in g th e p a th o f lite ratu re o f k e y au th o rs in th e area. T h e ex tensive b ib lio g ra p h ie s o n th e issu e s o f m o d e m Irish im m ig ra tio n p ro d u ced by C otter and su b seq u e n tly by M ac E in ri an d W h ite p rov ed h e lp fu l. 4 T h e second p a rt o f th e pro cess in v o lv e d th e u se o f in te rn e t-b a se d search e n g in e s.5
T h e re v ie w o f literatu re b elow is d iv id ed into fo u r p arts. T h e first sets the scen e o f re c e n t im m ig ra tio n into Irelan d fro m th e late 1990s u n til th e late 200 0s. It o u tlin e s th e settlem en t p attern s o f re cen t im m ig ra n ts to Ire la n d fo c u sin g o n th e n o rth in n e r c ity o f D ublin. T h is sectio n charts th e d istrib u tio n o f M E stu d e n ts across
1 Chris Hart, D oing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination (London: Sage Publications, 2002), p. 11.
2 Timothy J. Ellis and Yair Levy, ‘Towards a Guide for N ovice Researchers on Research Methodology: Review and Proposed M ethods’, Issues in Inform ing Science and Information
Technology, 6 (2009), p. 324.
3 Ellis and Levy, p. 324.
4 Gertrude Cotter, A Guide to Published Research on Refugees, Asylum Seekers and
Imm igrants in Ireland (Dublin: Integrating Ireland, 2004); Piaras M ac Einri and Allen
White, ‘Imm igration into the Republic o f Ireland: A Bibliography o f Recent Research’, Irish
Geography, 41 (2) (2008), pp. 151-179.
5 These included Scopus, Web o f Science, and Sage and for other theses, DART-Europe E- Theses Portal and Trove were used. For successful searches key words were offered. These included minority ethnic, students, immigrant, migrant, m ulti-ethnic, multi-cultural, schools, school change, school effectiveness, language acquisition, achievement, and academic.
se c o n d ary sch o o ls in Ireland. In keeping w ith in tern a tio n al trend s, M E stu d en ts are lik ely to en rol in urb an D E IS sch o o ls.6
T h e sec o n d sectio n p resen ts an o v erv ie w o f th e re se a rc h ty p o lo g y o n M E educatio n . It hig h lig h ts th e d o m inan t ‘a c h ie v e m e n t’ d riv en research to em an a te from m o re trad itio n al coun tries o f im m igration — th e U n ite d S tates, A u stra lia, C an ad a a n d d ev e lo p e d w e ste rn E u ro p ean countries. F u rth er, it sh ed s lig h t o n th e ty p o lo g y o f re se a rc h c o n d u c te d in Irelan d from the late 1990s to th e p re sen t, ac c e n tu a tin g k e y th em es w h ic h em erg e from m u ch o f the research : la n g u ag e an d in teg ratio n .
T h e th ird section p ro v id es an o v erview o f the Irish an d in tern a tio n al lite ra tu re o n M E ed u c atio n w ith resp ect to sch o o l-b ased ch a n g e s in m u lti-e th n ic settings. It ex p lo re s the im p act M E students have h a d o n ac ad em ic an d n o n -a c a d e m ic a reas o f sch o o l life. T h e final sectio n o f this review b rie fly su m m arises th e lite ratu re w ith the v ie w to id en tify in g gaps in the research on M E e d u c a tio n in Ireland.
Section One: Setting the Scene
1.1 Immigration into Ireland: The Celtic Tiger Years
T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f im m ig ratio n into Irelan d, as o p p o se d to em ig ra tio n , fro m th e m id -1 9 9 0 s u n til the late 2000s, has been w e ll d o c u m e n te d.7 M u c h w o rk c o n c e n tra te s o n the re aso n s fo r im m igratio n, th e d iffe ren t ty p es o f im m ig ra n ts a n d the liv es o f m ig ran ts in Ire la n d. 8 T h e g row th o f th e h ig h sk ille d se c to r in th e late 1990s
-6 Delma Byrne, Francis McGinnity, Emer Smyth and M erike Darmody, ‘Immigration and School Composition in Ireland’, Irish Educational Studies, 29 (3) (2010), p. 285.
7 Piaras M ac Einri, Immigration into Ireland: Trends, Policy Responses, Outlook, first part o f research project for EU Commission Contract VS/2000/0312 ( Cork: ICMS, University College Cork, 2001); Piaras Mac Einri and Paddy W alley, L abour M igration into Ireland:
Study and Recommendations on Employment Permits, Working Conditions and the Integration o f Migrants ( Dublin: Immigrant Council o f Ireland, 2003); Imm igration and Social Change in the Republic o f Ireland, ed. by Bryan Fanning (Manchester: M anchester
University Press, 2007); Peter Wright, Labour M obility within the E U in the Context o f
Enlargement and the Functioning o f the Transitional Arrangements, Country Studies, Ireland (Nuremberg: European Integration Consortium. Employment, Social Affairs and
Equal Opportunities Directorate General o f the European Commission, 2007); Mac Einri and W hite (2008).
11
in fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo g y and p h arm aceu ticals - attra cted a h ig h -sk ille d , h ig h e r p a id p o p u la tio n to th e Irish lab o u r m arket. T h is in tu rn sp u rre d a n in cre ase in liv in g stan d ard s an d su b seq u e n tly a dem and fo r lab o u r for a g ro w in g serv ic es sector. T h e sh o rtfall in th is d em an d w as satiated by a y o u n g , lo w -p aid , a lth o u g h n o t n e c e s s a rily a lo w skilled , m ig ran t p o p u la tio n.9 It w a s in th e lo w -sk ille d o cc u p atio n s th a t th e m a jo rity o f m ig ra n t w o rk ers w ere em p lo y ed.10
In o rd e r to q u an tify th e num ber an d ty p es o f im m ig ra n ts M ac E in ri classifie d th e m ain ty p es o f im m ig ratio n flow s into ca teg o ries. T h ese in clu d ed re tu rn e d Iris h m ig ran ts, im m ig ra n ts from o th er E u ro p e an U n io n (E U ) an d E u ro p e an E c o n o m ic A re a (E E A ) c o u n trie s, p eo p le seeking asy lu m a n d p ro g ra m m e re fu g ee s, h ig h -s k ille d m ig ran ts fro m n o n -E U and n o n -E E A c o u n trie s, a n d o th ers w h o m ig rated fro m n o n - E E A c o u n trie s.11
In itially , re tu rn ed Irish m igrants c o n stitu te d a larg e p e rc e n ta g e o f all m ig ra n ts 1 ?
in to Ireland. U p u n til 1999 th is n u m b er w a s at fifty five p ercen t. F ro m th e n on, Irelan d , lik e m a n y E u ro p ean countries, sa w a larg e n u m b e r o f im m ig ra n ts e n te r fro m n o n -E U c o u n trie s.13 P rio r to th e en larg em en t o f th e E U in 2 00 3 , Ire la n d a ttra c te d m o re im m ig ra n ts fro m n o n -E U coun tries th a n fro m o th e r m e m b e r s ta te s.14 B y 2 0 0 7 im m ig ra n ts fro m the E u ro p e an U nion (E U ) a c c e ssio n states, m o st n o ta b ly P o la n d , re p re se n te d the g re atest n u m b e r.15
F u rth erm o re , d u rin g th e early 2 0 00 s th e re w a s a n in cre ase in th e n u m b e r o f p eo p le see k in g asylum . B y 2002, over 11,500 p e o p le c la im e d asy lu m in Irelan d . T h is w as a sh arp in crease fro m 1994 w h e n ju s t o v e r 350 ap p lica tio n s w e re m a d e.16
S in ce th is p e a k in 2002 th e n u m b er co n tin u ed to d ec rea se th ro u g h o u t th e d e c ad e. In 2009 th e re w e re ju s t few er th an 2,700 a p p lic a tio n s m a d e. 17 T h is d e c lin e w a s
9 W right, p. 11.
10 M ac Einri and Walley, p. 12; Martin Ruhs, ‘Ireland from Rapid Immigration to R ecession’, Centre o f Migration Policy and Society, Oxford University, Sept. 2009, p. 4.
11 M ac Einri, p. 5.
12 M ac Einri and Walley, p. 5
13 W right, p. 6.
14 M ac Einri and Walley, p. 8.
15 M agdalena Kilmczak, ‘Island o f Hope: Polish Immigrants in Ireland’, Studies, A n Irish
Quarterly Review, 96 (381) (2007), p. 37.
16 Ruhs, p. 5.
17 Reception and Integration Agency, Monthly Statistics Report, June 2010 (Dublin: Statistics Unit, RIA).
a ttrib u te d to th e tigh tening o f law s w hich in clu d ed th e a b o litio n o f an au to m atic rig h t to citizen sh ip o f ch ild ren b o m to p aren ts w ho w e re n o t Irish . T h is m easu re, p a sse d
1 ft b y a re fe re n d u m in 2005, w as co n sid ered sev ere b y som e.
T h e im pact o f im m igration on th e c o u n try ’s p o p u latio n w a s s ig n ific a n t. 19 B y 20 200 7 , o v e r fifte e n p ercen t o f p eo p le liv in g in Irelan d w ere b o m o u tsid e th e cou ntry . D u rin g th is tim e im m igrants w ere d esc rib ed as you ng , w e ll-e d u c a te d an d a p ro m isin g ad d itio n to the Irish ec o n o m y. 21 N ev erth eless, im m ig ra tio n w a s so o n su p p la n te d b y em igratio n. B y th e end o f A p ril 2 0 1 0 th e n u m b e r o f im m ig ra n ts en terin g Ire la n d d ro p p ed from o v e r 109,000 in 2007 to ju s t o v e r 3 0,0 00 . D u rin g th e sam e p e rio d th e n u m b er o f p eo p le w ho em ig ra te d ro se fro m ju s t o v e r 4 2 ,0 0 0 to 7 6 ,0 0 0 .22T h e larg e st g ro u p to em igrate in 2 0 1 0 w e re Irish n atio n als, re p re se n tin g o v e r fifty p e rc e n t o f those w ho left Ireland. W h ile som e im m ig ra n ts w e re leav in g ,
23 fig u res fro m th e C en tral S tatistics O ffice re v e a le d th a t m an y w e re staying.
1.1.1 Immigrant Settlement Patterns in Ireland
T h e se ttle m e n t o f m igran ts in Ireland m ain ly clu stere d aro u n d th e in n er c ity areas o f D u b lin (in p a rtic u la r th e n o rth in n er city ), C o rk , L im erick an d G a lw a y - tre n d s in lin e w ith in tern a tio n al n o rm s o f settlem en t p a tte rn s.24 M ac E in ri an d W h ite co n ten d th a t Irelan d w a s u n iq u e in som e reg ard s as m ig ra n ts also settled in sm a lle r to w n s. T h e d e p a rtu re o f the in dig eno us p o p u latio n to larg e r u rb a n settin g s in sea rch o f h ig h e r-sk ille d an d hig her-p aid em p lo y m en t g en e rated a la b o u r sh o rta g e in th e
18 Eidin Ni She, Tom Lodge and Maura Adshead, A Study o f the N eeds o f Ethnic M inority
Imm igrants in County Clare (Clare: Health Service Executive, 2007), p. 8.
19 Mac Einri and Walley, p. 14.
20 W right, p. 6.
21 W right, p. 11.
22 Central Statistics Office (CSO), Census 2006, Non-Irish Nationals Living in Ireland (Dublin: Stationery Office, June 2008), p. 1.
23 CSO (2008), p. 1
services. T h is lab o u r shortfall w as filled by im m ig ra n ts.25 In to w n s like L o n g fo rd an d R o sc o m m o n m ig ran ts m ad e up to tw e n ty p ercen t o f th e p o p u la tio n.26
1.1.2 Dublin’s North Inner City: An Area of Migrant Concentration
B y 2 0 0 9 n o n -Irish /U K b o m m igrants co n stitu ted fifteen p ercen t o f D u b lin c ity ’s p o p u la tio n.27 T h e hig h est co n cen tratio n w a s in the n o rth ea st in n er c ity.28 D raw in g on th e 2 0 0 6 census, H eg arty rev ealed that,
... four o f the ten electoral divisions in this part o f Dublin have an ethnic minority population o f over 50%, while a further three in that area have an ethnic minority population o f over 25%.29
T h e b o rd e rs o f the n o rth in n er city e x ten d from th e d o c k la n d s in th e east to th e P h o e n ix P a rk in the w e st and from the N o rth C ircu lar R o a d /R o y a l C an al an d T o lk a R iv e r in the n o rth to the R iv er L iffey in th e south. It a ttra c te d m ig ra n ts fo r a n u m b e r o f in te r-d e p e n d e n t reasons. F irst, it affo rd ed m ig ran ts a c cess to an ‘im m ed iate so cial n e tw o rk ’ an d second, it p resen ted em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s.30 T h ird , th e n o rth in n e r c ity a t th e tim e w a s aw ash w ith p riv ate -ren te d a c c o m m o d a tio n.31
S im ilarly , the av a ila b ility o f acco m m o d atio n w a s k e y to w h y p eo p le see k in g asy lu m ‘te m p o ra rily ’ settled in the area. In 20 00 th e th en g o v e rn m e n t in tro d u ced ‘d ire c t p ro v is io n ’ to house asylum se e k e rs. 32 F o rm er h o te ls an d h o stels, leased b y the g o v ern m e n t, w ere scattered th ro u g h o u t th e area. In 2 0 0 2 , ele v e n o f the tw en ty n in e elec to ral d iv isio n s w h ich ho u sed m o re than 100 asy lu m see k ers in C o u n ty
25 Mac Einri and White, p.8; Brian McGrath, ‘Social Capital in Community, Family and Work Lives o f Brazilian Migrant Parents in Ireland’, Community, Work and Family, 13 (2) (2010), p. 148.
26 M ac Einri and White, p.8
27 Tony Fahey and Brian Fanning, ‘Immigration and Socio-spatial Segregation in Dublin, 1996-2006’, Urban Studies, 47 (8) (2010), p. 1632; M aria Hegarty, Towards Integration, A
City Fram ework (Dublin: Dublin City Council, 2009), p. 24.
28 Hegarty, p. 24.
29 Hegarty, p. 24.
30 Hegarty, p. 24.
31 Fahey and Fanning, p. 1632
32 Samantha K. Arnold, State Sanctioned Child Poverty and Exclusion (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council, 2011), p. 11.
14
D u b lin w e re in the n o rth in n er c ity.33 F o r K elly, th is re su lte d in a n u m e ric a l o v e r re p re se n ta tio n o f p eo p le seeking asylum in the a rea as w e ll as a sp atial one; th e g e o g rap h ic a rea o f the electo ral divisio ns in the n o rth in n er c ity w e re sm a lle r in size th a n in su b u rb a n areas, thus asy lum seekers m a d e u p a fa r g re a te r p ro p o rtio n o f the p o p u la tio n.34 K e lly fu rth e r discloses that, in th e sam e year, o f all th o se seek ing asy lu m in C o u n ty D ublin, tw en ty seven p e rc e n t w e re h o u se d in th e n o rth in n e r city. O f th is fig u re, o v er sixty p ercen t w ere fro m E u ro p e - w ith th irty sev e n p e rc e n t co m in g fro m R o m an ia - and ju s t o v er th irty p e rc e n t fro m A fric a n co u n trie s - n in e te e n p e rc e n t from N ig e ria.35
1.1.3 Distribution of Minority Ethnic Students across Irish Schools
T h e se ttle m e n t o f im m igran ts across Irish cities and to w n s ‘im p acted on th e c o m p o sitio n o f Irish sch o o ls.’ 36 In 2009, S m y th an d h e r co llea g u es fro m the E co n o m ic, S o cial and R esearch In stitute (E S R I) re v e a le d th a t a ro u n d n in e ty p e rc e n t o f p o st-p rim a ry schools in Ireland had M E stud en ts; m a n y o f th e m w ith p o p u la tio n s ra n g in g fro m tw o to n in e p e rc e n t. 37 T h e au th o rs e sta b lish e d n u m eric al crite ria c a te g o risin g sch o o ls w ith a low , m ed iu m an d h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n o f M E stu den ts. In th e p o st-p rim a ry sector, ‘h ig h ’ con stitu ted ten p ercen t o r m o re, re flectin g th e Irish situ atio n o f th e tim e.
U p o n fu rth e r exam ination , au th o rs d ed u c e d th a t th e re w as a n a b se n ce o f sch o o l se g re g a tio n b ase d on ethnic lines in Irish scho ols. U n lik e sch o o ls in m a n y E u ro p e an cities, th e M E stu d en t p o p u latio n s ac ro ss sch o o ls in Irelan d w e re n o t d o m in a te d b y a few ethnic g ro u p s.39 A s w ill b e e x p lo re d in m o re d etail in S ectio n T h ree, in so m e cou ntries this leads to a d ec rea se in th e en ro lm e n t o f th e n a tiv e
33 Darren Kelly, ‘Dublin Spatial Narrative, The Transition from Essentially M ono-Cultural Places to Poly-Cultural Spaces’, (unpublished Doctoral Thesis, St. Patrick’s College, Dublin, 2007), p. 450.
34 Kelly, p. 450.
35 Kelly, p. 452.
36 Byrne and others, p. 271.
37 Smyth and others, p. 68.
38 Smyth and others, p. 37-38.
stu d en t po p u latio n , otherw ise know n as ‘w h ite flig h t’ .40 D e sp ite th is, th e d istrib u tio n o f M E stu d en ts across Irish scho ols w as in k eep in g w ith in te rn a tio n a l tre n d s in th at M E stu d en ts w e re lik ely to atten d desig n ated d isad v an ta g ed s c h o o ls. 41
1.1.4 The DEIS School
U n d e r th e D e p artm en t o f E d ucation and S k ills’ social in clu sio n p ro g ra m m e schoo ls in Irelan d th a t are d esig n ated as d isad v an ta g ed sch o o ls are re fe rre d to as D E IS sch o o ls (D e liv e rin g E q u ality and O p p o rtu n ity in S cho ols). A u th o rs m a in ta in th at su ch sch o o ls d iffe r to n on -D E IS sch oo ls as teac h ers g e n e ra lly d ea l w ith a h ig h e r n u m b e r o f stu d en ts w ith literacy, n u m era cy an d b e h a v io u ra l d iffic u ltie s.42 W h ile m a n y are ‘u n d e r-su b sc rib e d ’ w ith resp ect to stu d en t n u m b e rs,43 e v id e n c e in E n g lan d su g g ests th a t in areas w h e re stu den t p o p u latio n s are d w in d lin g , th e a rriv a l o f M E ch ild re n p ro v id e s ‘a m uch needed b o o st.’ 44 D E IS sch o o ls in Ire la n d are g e n e rally p ro n e to a h ig h tu rn o v er o f s ta ff and h ig h e r rate o f te a c h e r a b s e n te e is m.45 T h o u g h D E IS statu s en title s scho ols to ad ditio nal reso u rces, L o d g e an d L y n c h c o n te n d th at the gap in re so u rces b etw e e n D EIS sch o o ls an d fe e-p a y in g sch o o ls in p artic u la r, re m a in s c o n s id e ra b le.46
T h e re a lity th at M E students are m o re th an lik e ly to a tte n d D E IS sch o o ls ra ise s co n cern s. B y rn e an d o th ers assert th a t th e d istrib u tio n o f M E stu d e n ts acro ss Irish sch o o ls is larg e ly d eterm in ed by sch o o l ad m issio n p o lic ie s - p o lic ie s w h ic h
40 Mi eke Van Houtte and Peter A.J. Stevens, ‘School Ethnic Com position and Aspirations o f Immigrant Students in Belgium’, British Educational Research Journal, 36 (2) (2010), p. 212
.
41 Byrne and others, p. 285.
42 Karl Kitching, ‘An Excavation o f the Racialised Politics o f V iability Underpinning Education Policy in Ireland’, Irish Educational Studies, 29 (3) (2010), p. 221; Smyth and others, p. 53.
43 Smyth and others, p. 53.
44 Grace Reynolds, The Impacts and Experiences o f M igrant Children in UK Secondary
Schools, Working Paper No. 47 (University o f Sussex, Centre for M igration Research,
2008), p. 5.
45 Aine Cregan, From Difference to Disadvantage: Talking Posh, Sociolinguistic
Perspectives on the Context o f Schooling in Ireland (Dublin: Combat Poverty Agency, June
2008), p. 56.
46 Kathleen Lynch and Anne Lodge, Equality and Pow er in Schools: Redistribution,
te n d to fa v o u r settled co m m u n itie s. 47 L od ge an d L y n ch attrib u te th is to the E d u c a tio n A c t (1998), w h ich req uires sch o o ls to re co g n ise so cial, cu ltu ral and re lig io u s differen ces, y et affords d en o m in atio n al scho ols, w h ic h m ak e up a su b stan tial c o h o rt o f all scho ols in Ireland, th e rig h t to p ro te c t th e ir re lig io u s e th o s.48
B ry a n ec h o es th is v iew as d o es L yons w ho d isco v ered th a t o n ly th irty p e rc e n t o f M E stu d en ts w e re fou n d in v o lu n tary seco n d ary sch o o ls w ith a p a rtic u la r relig io us e th o s.49 Issu e s p erta in in g to th e d iscrim in atio n o f n o n -C ath o lic stu d en ts in C ath o lic sch o o ls in o th e r countries has raised sim ilar co n c e rn s.50
A s n o te d above, th e d istrib u tio n o f M E stu d en ts ac ro ss D E IS sch o o ls in Ire la n d re flects intern atio n al trends. In th e 1970s an d 1980s, in A u stra lia and the U n ite d S tates, B u lliv an t and S u arez-O rozco re sp e c tiv e ly p o in te d to th e su btle system ic p attern s o f discrim in atio n w here ‘p o w e rle ss’ M E stu d en ts w ere ‘ro u te d ’ to d isa d v a n ta g e d sc h o o ls.51 T h is p attern o f d isc rim in a tio n is still o m n ip re se n t acro ss sch o o ls in A u stra lia today; m a n y low so cio -e co n o m ic statu s sch o o ls h a v e h ig h p ro p o rtio n s o f M E stu d en ts.52 In E u ro p ean co u n tries th ere is an o v e r-re p re se n ta tio n o f M E ch ild re n in sch o o ls fo r ch ild ren w ith sp ecial n e e d s.53 In B elg iu m , schools attra c t stu d e n ts from certain so cio -eco n o m ic b a c k g ro u n d s, a n d im m ig ra n ts com e fro m lo w e r statu s b a c k g ro u n d s. 54 T his h as led to th e u n in te n tio n a l creatio n o f ‘c o n c e n tra tio n ’ schools w here in som e h ig h co n cen trated sch o o ls M E stu d en ts m ade
47 Byrne and others, p. 285.
48 D iversity at School, ed. by Anne Lodge and Kathleen Lynch (Dublin: Equality Authority, 2004), p. 69.
49 Audrey Biyan, ‘Corporate Multiculturalism, Diversity M anagement, and Positive Interculturalism in Irish Schools and Society’, Irish Educational Studies, 29 (3) (2010), p. 258; Zachary Lyons, ‘Articulating a Deficit Perspective: A Survey o f the Attitudes o f Post- Primary English Language Support Teachers and Coordinators’, Irish Educational Studies, 29 (3) (2010), p. 292.
50 Michael S. Merry, ‘Social Exclusion o f Muslim Youth in Flemish and French-Speaking Belgian Schools’, Comparative Education Review, 49 (1) (2005), p. 36.
51 Brian M ilton Bullivant, The Ethnic Encounter in Secondary School, Ethnocultural
Reproduction and Resistance: Theory and Case Studies (London: Falm er Press, 1987), p.
55; M arcelo M. Suarez-Orozco, ‘Becoming Somebody: Central Am erican Immigrants in U.S inner-city Schools’, Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18 (1987), p. 289.
52 Khoo and others, cited in Joel Windle, ‘Shifting Concepts o f M igrant Educational (dis)advantage in A ustralia’, Paper presented at the Education, Social M obility, and Social Cohesion (EDUC) Workshop, ‘Economic Change, Quality o f Life & Social C ohesion’ (University o f Pompeu, Barcelona, EQUALSOC, 22-23 September, 2006), p. 10.
53 Friedrich Heckmann, Education and M igration: Strategies f o r Integrating M igrant
Children in European Schools and Societies (European Commission: Directorate-General
for Education and Culture, 2008), p. 15.
up o v e r fifty p ercen t o f the sc h o o l’s p o p u latio n . T h e sam e p h en o m en o n is re flected in S p ain55 an d in G e rm a n y.56
T h ere is a co rrelatio n betw een e th n icity a n d lo w so c io -e co n o m ic status. In the U n ite d S tates n ew im m igran ts are p ro n e to h ig h e r lev els o f p o v e rty an d as a re su lt th e y are ‘fo rc e d ’ to assim ilate in areas w ith u n d e r-re so u rc e d sc h o o ls.57 S u ch sch o o ls are o ften ill-p rep ared , ill-eq u ip p ed and, as H o o d m a in ta in s, tak e a long tim e to ad a p t to ‘w h o is h e re’ .58 R o b u st evid en ce su g g e sts th a t teac h ers in th ese sch o o ls a re p erceiv ed to h o ld low expectations w h ic h p re d e te rm in e u n d e ra c h ie v e m e n t an d c o n trib u te to stu d en t d isaffectio n.59 C eb o lla-B o ad o a n d M e d in a asse rt th a t teac h ers ten d to ad ap t to the level o f th e student b o d y an d in so d o in g create a less d em an d in g le a rn in g e n v iro n m e n t.60
N e v erth eless, n o t all M E stu d en ts c o m e fro m lo w so cio -e co n o m ic b ac k g ro u n d s a n d attend d isad van taged sch oo ls. D o b so n a n d his co llea g u es c lo sely ex a m in e the so cial b ac k g ro u n d and ac h ie v e m e n t le v e ls o f C h in e se stu d en ts in A u stra lia. T h e y argue that any disad v an tag e th ese stu d en ts h av e th ro u g h th e ir la c k o f ed u c atio n al ex p e rien ce in A u stralia is m o re th an c o m p e n sa te d fo r b y th e ir class. M o re th an h a lf resid e in h ig h -statu s p o stco d es an d th e ir p aren ts are p re p are d a n d a b le to in v est in th e ir ed u c atio n.61 S im ilarly stu d ies in th e U n ite d K in g d o m fin d th at stu d en ts from certain M E grou ps w ho atten d ‘m a in ly w h ite ’ sch o o ls o u tp erfo rm M E stu d en ts w ho atten d m u lti-eth n ic schools. H e n ce M E stu d en ts w h o c o m e fro m ‘e d u c a te d ’ and ‘sk ille d ’ backg ro un ds ten d to beg in o r co n tin u e th e ir ed u c atio n at
55 Hector Cebolla-Boado and Luis Garrido Medina, ‘The Impact o f Immigrant Concentration in Spanish Schools: School, Class and Composition Effects’, European Sociological Review (Advance Access Published June 21, 2010), p. 5.
56 Andreas Ammermueller, ‘Poor Background or Low Returns? W hy Immigrant Students in Germany Perform so Poorly in the Programme for International Student Assessm ent’,
Education Econom ics, 15 (2) (2007), p. 222.
57 Carola Suarez-Orozco, Hee Jin Bang, Erin O ’Connor, Francisco X. Gaytan, Juliana Pakes and Jean Rhodes, ‘Academic Trajectories o f Newcom er Immigrant Y outh’, Developmental
Psychology, 46 (3) (2010), p. 603.
58 Lucy Hood, Im m igrant Students, Urban High Schools: The Challenge Continues (New York: Carnegie Corporation o f New York, 2003), p. 3.
59 Suarez-Orozco and others, p. 152; Heckmann, p. 15.
60 Cebolla-Boado and Medina, p. 5.
61 Ian Dobson, Bob Birrell and Virginia Rapson, ‘The Participation o f Non-English- Speaking-Background Persons in Higher Education’, People and Place, 4(1) (1996), p. 49.
62 Tony Cline, Guida de Abreu, Cornelius Fihosy, Hilary Gray, Hannah Lam bert and Jo N eale, M inority Ethnic Pupils in M ainly White Schools (University o f Luton: Department o f Education and Skills, July 2002), p. 4.
n o n -d isa d v a n ta g e d sch o o ls w ith lo w er c o n c e n tra tio n s o f M E p u p ils. L ik e w ise th eir ac h ie v e m e n t is sim ilar o r h ig h er th an th a t o f n a tiv e s fro m sim ila r b a c k g ro u n d s.63
T h is sec tio n p ro v id ed a b rie f o v e rv ie w o f re c e n t im m ig ra tio n tre n d s in Ireland. It h ig h lig h te d that, in general, im m ig ra n ts w h o ca m e to Irelan d d u rin g th e re c e n t p e rio d o f eco n o m ic p ro sp erity settled in la rg e u rb a n settin g s. O n e s u c h setting w a s D u b lin ’s north inner city. T his a rea p ro v id ed ec o n o m ic m ig ran ts access to p riv a te -re n te d acco m m o d atio n and social an d em p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n itie s. It w a s also a w a sh w ith g o v ern m e n t-p ro v id ed a c c o m m o d atio n fo r m ig ra n ts w ith in th e asy lu m p ro c ess.
F u rth erm o re , S ectio n O ne ch arted the d istrib u tio n o f im m ig ra n t ch ild re n , th a t is, M E stu d en ts, across Irish schools. In lin e w ith in te rn a tio n a l tren d s, M E stu d en ts in Irelan d g e n e ra lly en ro lled in u rb an d isa d v a n ta g e d (D E IS ) sch ools. A u th o rs in Ire la n d an d ab ro ad h ave co m m en ted o n th e d is c rim in a to ry n a tu re o f th ese en ro lm e n t p attern s. T h e n e x t sectio n o f this ch ap ter fo c u ses o n th e n a tu re o f re s e a rc h co n d u c te d o n im m ig ra n ts, an d su b seq u e n tly on th eir ch ild ren , co m p arin g th is to th e ty p o lo g y to em a n a te fro m o th e r coun tries.
Section Two: Research on the Education of Minority Ethnic Students
1.2 Typology in Traditional Countries of Immigration: A Focus on Achievement
T h e fo c u s o f m u c h researc h on M E ed u c atio n to em a n a te fro m m o re trad itio n al c o u n tries o f im m ig ratio n centres on stu d en t ‘a c h ie v e m e n t’ an d ‘a tta in m e n t’ .64 A s d o c u m e n te d fu rth e r below , this is in stark c o n tra st to th e lim ite d y et g ro w in g b o d y o f w o rk w h ic h h a s b ee n co n d u c te d in Ireland. T h e m o s t c o m m o n fo rm o f th is e n q u iry h as b e e n c o m p arativ e in n atu re, attem p tin g to ex p la in th e a c h ie v e m e n t g ap b e tw e e n n a tiv e a n d M E students. T he w o rk o f C o le m a n a n d o th ers, w h o se n a tio n a l su rv e y o f stu d en t ac h ie v e m e n t h ig hligh ted the ‘p o o r’ p e rfo rm a n c e o f A frican A m eric an
63 Suarez-Orozco and others (2010), p. 603.
64 Grace Kao and Jennifer S. Thompson, ‘Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational A chievem ent and Attainm ent’, Annual Review o f Sociology, 29 (2003), p. 425.
