INTRODU
INTRODUCTION CTION ...22
CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 2 2 ...33 CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 3 3 ...55 CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 4 4 ...88
POSITION OF WOMEN AFT
POSITION OF WOMEN AFTER VEDIC AGE ER VEDIC AGE ...88
CHAPTER – 5 ... CHAPTER – 5 ...1010 CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 6 6 ...1111 CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 7 7 ...1414 CHAPTER CHAPTER – – 8 8 ...1818 CONCLUS
CHAPTER – 1
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The worth of a civilization can be judged by the place given to women in the society. One of The worth of a civilization can be judged by the place given to women in the society. One of several factors that justify the greatness of India's ancient culture is the honourable place several factors that justify the greatness of India's ancient culture is the honourable place grant
granted ed to to womenwomen..11 Manu, the great law-giver, said long ago, 'where women are honouredManu, the great law-giver, said long ago, 'where women are honoured there reside the gods'.
there reside the gods'.22
It is the common belief that Indian women have constantly had to fight for their identities as It is the common belief that Indian women have constantly had to fight for their identities as separate individuals. They have had to struggle to break the image of a subservient soul. separate individuals. They have had to struggle to break the image of a subservient soul. Th
They ey hahave ve bebeen en opopprpresessesed d if if ththey ey tritried ed to to chchalallenlenge ge ththe e wiwidedely ly heheld ld opopinine e of of a a mamalele dominated community. But this is not a right view, the position of a woman in ancient India dominated community. But this is not a right view, the position of a woman in ancient India was almost equivalent to that of a man and she was looked upon as one possessing a lot of was almost equivalent to that of a man and she was looked upon as one possessing a lot of power
power ..33
Unfortunately, this position started to deteriorate over a period of time due to commonly held Unfortunately, this position started to deteriorate over a period of time due to commonly held superstitions, the upcoming Varna system
superstitions, the upcoming Varna system 44 and prevalentand prevalent Brahmin Brahmin opinion, and a host of opinion, and a host of other reasons. The position of women deteriorated over the ages and women came to be other reasons. The position of women deteriorated over the ages and women came to be looked upon as things and properties, they had to face several
looked upon as things and properties, they had to face several hardships and were expected tohardships and were expected to treat their husbands as Gods. In medieval India serious practices and evils came to be forced treat their husbands as Gods. In medieval India serious practices and evils came to be forced on women such as sati, jauhar, etc. After that the position of women could never completely on women such as sati, jauhar, etc. After that the position of women could never completely be redeemed and although today Indian women have learnt to stand independently of men, be redeemed and although today Indian women have learnt to stand independently of men, make their own choices, enforce their rights, etc. one cannot say that women are treated with make their own choices, enforce their rights, etc. one cannot say that women are treated with the respect that they were treated with in the early Vedic period.
the respect that they were treated with in the early Vedic period.
1
1http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Huma/HumaSing.htmhttp://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Huma/HumaSing.htm, last visited on 23/03/2010., last visited on 23/03/2010. 2
2 Katherine K. Young, “Women and Hinduism,” Arvind Sharma (ed.), WOMEN IN INDIAN RELIGIONS, 1stKatherine K. Young, “Women and Hinduism,” Arvind Sharma (ed.), WOMEN IN INDIAN RELIGIONS, 1st
ed. 2002, p. 6. ed. 2002, p. 6. 3 3 Ibid. Ibid. 4 4 Supra n.2. Supra n.2.
C
C HA
HAPT
PTER
ER – 2
– 2
THE EARLY VEDIC AGE
THE EARLY VEDIC AGE
During the Vedic Age the society was more or less a patrilineal society. But despite a degree During the Vedic Age the society was more or less a patrilineal society. But despite a degree of male dominance, men and women complemented each other and the life during the Rig of male dominance, men and women complemented each other and the life during the Rig Vedic period was seen positively.
Vedic period was seen positively.
The birth of daughters was not desired and people prayed for abundance of sons, but once The birth of daughters was not desired and people prayed for abundance of sons, but once gi
girlrls s wewere re boborn rn ththey ey wewere re nonot t tretreatated ed wiwith th didisrsresespepect ct anand d wewere re nonot t lolookoked ed upupon on wiwithth contempt and disregard. They were treated with respect and kindness. Their education was contempt and disregard. They were treated with respect and kindness. Their education was not neglecte
not neglected; d; some of some of the women became the women became seers eg. Visvavara, Ghoshseers eg. Visvavara, Ghosha a and Apala.and Apala.55 SomeSome even composed Vedic hymns eg. Lopamidra
even composed Vedic hymns eg. Lopamidra66. This is important because it confirms the fact. This is important because it confirms the fact that women were allowed to take part in various rituals.
that women were allowed to take part in various rituals.
If women could compose hymns then they must have also recited them. Family was the focal If women could compose hymns then they must have also recited them. Family was the focal poin
point in t in the Rig Vedic the Rig Vedic perioperiod. There was d. There was complcomplementaementarity between men and rity between men and women in thatwomen in that period of time. This is represented by the fact that young women met potential suitors at period of time. This is represented by the fact that young women met potential suitors at festivals and gatherings and only later sought the permission of their parents to marry the festivals and gatherings and only later sought the permission of their parents to marry the sp
spousouse e of of thetheir ir chochoiceice. . WomWomen en werwere e nevnever er seclsecludeuded d and were and were allalloweowed d to to attattend suchend such gatherings and functions.
gatherings and functions.77 They loved to display their skills in dancing and singing to theThey loved to display their skills in dancing and singing to the accompaniment of lutes and cymbals.
accompaniment of lutes and cymbals.88 Dancing was never looked down upon as a degradingDancing was never looked down upon as a degrading mea
means ns of of ententertaertainminment ent at at thathat t timtime. e. ComCompleplemenmentaritarity ty is is alsalso o reprepresresentented ed by by the the termterm ““ Dampati Dampati” which signified the master of the house” which signified the master of the house99 and the coupleand the couple1010. Women were given in. Women were given in marriage when they attained puberty. Some kingdoms in ancient India had a tradition of marriage when they attained puberty. Some kingdoms in ancient India had a tradition of ““ Nagarvadhu Nagarvadhu.”.”1111 Women compeWomen competed to ted to win the coveted title win the coveted title of of Nagarvadhu Nagarvadhu. Amarpali is the. Amarpali is the most famous example of
most famous example of Nagarvadhu Nagarvadhu..1212
5 5
R.C. Majumdar et.al. ,AN ADVANCED HISTORY OF INDIA , 4 R.C. Majumdar et.al. ,AN ADVANCED HISTORY OF INDIA , 4thth
ed. 1978, 20 ed. 1978, 20thth imp. 2007, p.30. imp. 2007, p.30. 6 6 Supra n.2. Supra n.2. 7 7 Ibid. Ibid. 8 8 Supra n.6, p. 31.Supra n.6, p. 31. 9 9Supra n.6, p.30.Supra n.6, p.30. 10 10 Supra n.7, p. 5. Supra n.7, p. 5. 11 11
Bride of the city. Bride of the city.
12 12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_India
Kanyadaan
Kanyadaan was performed by the father and it was considered to be the greatest sacrifice thatwas performed by the father and it was considered to be the greatest sacrifice that a father could give.
a father could give.1313 It is a probability that due to the concept of It is a probability that due to the concept of Kanyadaan Kanyadaan, girl children, girl children were not desired. The presence of the couple at home was a prerequisite for the deities to were not desired. The presence of the couple at home was a prerequisite for the deities to rec
receiveive e offofferierings ngs thethere. re. EvEven en the the GodGod’s ’s ackacknownowledledged ged thithis s worworldlldly y orioriententatioation n and and thethe importance of the woman’s role as a wife and a mother. The God’s infact would receive importance of the woman’s role as a wife and a mother. The God’s infact would receive offerings only in those homes where a wife was present as she was considered ‘half the offerings only in those homes where a wife was present as she was considered ‘half the ritual.’ But women were never looked at as independent persons in the eyes of the law and ritual.’ But women were never looked at as independent persons in the eyes of the law and they had to rely on the males for support, i.e., a woman was dependent on her father in her they had to rely on the males for support, i.e., a woman was dependent on her father in her childhood, on her husband as a wife and on her son in old age.
childhood, on her husband as a wife and on her son in old age.1414 Widow burning or sati doesWidow burning or sati does not seem to have been prevalent.
not seem to have been prevalent.1515
The position of women is also reflected in the religious beliefs of the society. The Pantheon The position of women is also reflected in the religious beliefs of the society. The Pantheon in the Rig-Veda was mostly male; there were only a few female Goddesses who represented in the Rig-Veda was mostly male; there were only a few female Goddesses who represented the female roles of mother, sister, daughter and wife. For example Prithvi, mother Earth, the female roles of mother, sister, daughter and wife. For example Prithvi, mother Earth, etc
etc..1616 Overall the status of women in this period was very respectable even in the presence of Overall the status of women in this period was very respectable even in the presence of male dominance. Women had freedom, education, and a very high status making this period male dominance. Women had freedom, education, and a very high status making this period a golden age for them. Never again would women enjoy this kind of respect in a male a golden age for them. Never again would women enjoy this kind of respect in a male dominated society. dominated society. 13 13Supra n.7, p. 7.Supra n.7, p. 7. 14 14 Supra n.6, p. 30. Supra n.6, p. 30. 15 15 Supra n.6, p.31. Supra n.6, p.31. 16 16 Supra n.7, p. 5. Supra n.7, p. 5.
CHAPTER – 3
CHAPTER – 3
THE MIDDLE, LATER VEDIC AGE AND BEYOND
THE MIDDLE, LATER VEDIC AGE AND BEYOND
TRANSITION FROM EARLY VEDIC AGE TO LATER VEDIC AGE: TRANSITION FROM EARLY VEDIC AGE TO LATER VEDIC AGE:
The positio
The position of n of womewomen in n in this period gradualthis period gradually started to ly started to deterideteriorate from one orate from one of respect toof respect to one of insignificance. There were several reasons for this. The most important reasons were one of insignificance. There were several reasons for this. The most important reasons were that the varna
that the varna1717 system had come about, migrations were occurring towards the east, thesystem had come about, migrations were occurring towards the east, the eventual state formation in the Ganga Valley, all had their effects on the status of elite eventual state formation in the Ganga Valley, all had their effects on the status of elite women, i.e., the women belonging to the three castes of the
women, i.e., the women belonging to the three castes of the Brahmans, Kshatriyas Brahmans, Kshatriyas andand Vaishyas
Vaishyas as they were ruled by theas they were ruled by the StridharmaStridharma which meant duties of a woman. There was awhich meant duties of a woman. There was a change in the rituals due to the complexities arising out of the division of rituals into change in the rituals due to the complexities arising out of the division of rituals into household (
household ( grahya grahya) and public rituals, thus the women were restricted to performing the) and public rituals, thus the women were restricted to performing the household rituals. Ritual specialisation became the preserve of
household rituals. Ritual specialisation became the preserve of Brahmin Brahmin male priests andmale priests and participation of women in rituals became more and more restricted.
participation of women in rituals became more and more restricted.
Education was expanded and was taught at special forest schools which were less accessible Education was expanded and was taught at special forest schools which were less accessible to the girls. Families had a tendency to keep them at home and they generally taught them to the girls. Families had a tendency to keep them at home and they generally taught them only what was essential for the performance of domestic mantras and rituals.
only what was essential for the performance of domestic mantras and rituals.
Women rarely officiated at the public rituals, although it was essential for them to be present Women rarely officiated at the public rituals, although it was essential for them to be present besides their husbands as
besides their husbands as patni patni. She was always seated by the householder’s fire and this. She was always seated by the householder’s fire and this proved the link between her realm of home and the domestic fire. Yet women were viewed as proved the link between her realm of home and the domestic fire. Yet women were viewed as objects of great power when it came to rituals in spite of their minor role. This was because objects of great power when it came to rituals in spite of their minor role. This was because the wife injected her power of sexuality and fertility into the ritual in order to provide energy the wife injected her power of sexuality and fertility into the ritual in order to provide energy for progeny, cattle, crops and rain.
for progeny, cattle, crops and rain.
Some women did defy the general ideas of the society by becoming
Some women did defy the general ideas of the society by becoming brahmavadinisbrahmavadinis 1818 andand studied the Vedas. It is presumed that most of these
studied the Vedas. It is presumed that most of these brahmavadinisbrahmavadinis were the daughters of were the daughters of teache
teachers in forest schoolrs in forest schools. s. A few women were also known to be intellecA few women were also known to be intellectually inqutually inquisitiisitive.ve.
17 17
Varna system was a caste system
Varna system was a caste system which followed the following which followed the following hierarchy, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya,hierarchy, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra
Shudra
18 18
Brahmavadinis implies those who have the rite of initiation into Vedic learning. Brahmavadinis implies those who have the rite of initiation into Vedic learning.
The Upanishads provide various examples of such women. For example Gargi’s challenge to The Upanishads provide various examples of such women. For example Gargi’s challenge to Yajnavalkya in a philosophical debate is an indication of her learning.
Yajnavalkya in a philosophical debate is an indication of her learning.
The religious beliefs of the society also underwent change to the extent of the addition of The religious beliefs of the society also underwent change to the extent of the addition of more goddesses to their deities. But the basic principle of non-independence of Goddesses more goddesses to their deities. But the basic principle of non-independence of Goddesses remained present. For example the concept of wife-deity emerged in the late Vedic period. remained present. For example the concept of wife-deity emerged in the late Vedic period. Names such as Varunni, Indrani, etc came from the names of prominent male gods.
Names such as Varunni, Indrani, etc came from the names of prominent male gods.
Although, later Sri designated an independent female entity, which held the key to success Although, later Sri designated an independent female entity, which held the key to success for the Kings and brought them fertility, riches, health, beauty and auspiciousness to the for the Kings and brought them fertility, riches, health, beauty and auspiciousness to the empire, Sri was subsequently linked to Laksmi, the personification of wealth and prosperity. empire, Sri was subsequently linked to Laksmi, the personification of wealth and prosperity. The connecti
The connection of on of womenwomen’s ’s powepower r of of tapastapas1919, royal power, rain and agriculture is found in, royal power, rain and agriculture is found in many subsequent texts such as the Tamil (Jain) epic Cilappatikaram.
many subsequent texts such as the Tamil (Jain) epic Cilappatikaram.2020
THE LATER VEDIC AGE: THE LATER VEDIC AGE:
The position of women during this time deteriorated completely. This is evident from the The position of women during this time deteriorated completely. This is evident from the texts written by men in that period eg. Sutras, early Puranas etc. Manusmrati says
texts written by men in that period eg. Sutras, early Puranas etc. Manusmrati says 'na stri'na stri swatantryam arhati'
swatantryam arhati' and this means that all Indian women lack freedom to do anythingand this means that all Indian women lack freedom to do anything..2121 Their role changed in the Vedic rituals, their body was described to be a vessel for male Their role changed in the Vedic rituals, their body was described to be a vessel for male seeds, and they were married off even before they attained puberty. Whereas once sons and seeds, and they were married off even before they attained puberty. Whereas once sons and daughters were seen in equal light, in this period sons were not only preferred, daughters daughters were seen in equal light, in this period sons were not only preferred, daughters came to be seen as a source of liability due to dowry and was viewed as a poor investment in came to be seen as a source of liability due to dowry and was viewed as a poor investment in her bridal house. Daughters were seen as a source of misery. Women could not go to the her bridal house. Daughters were seen as a source of misery. Women could not go to the tribal council or assembly; neither could they take an inheritance. Married women of the tribal council or assembly; neither could they take an inheritance. Married women of the upper class had to suffer the presence of rival wives
upper class had to suffer the presence of rival wives..2222
Women lacked education because the education system had become inaccessible for them. Women lacked education because the education system had become inaccessible for them. They were thus considered as illiterate and
They were thus considered as illiterate and avidyaavidya2323. This led to their linking with the lower . This led to their linking with the lower castes, i.e., the
castes, i.e., the Sudras.Sudras. It was an irony that theIt was an irony that the Brahmin Brahmins considered themselves superior tos considered themselves superior to others and the highest class but the
others and the highest class but the Brahmin Brahmin women were linked towomen were linked to SudrasSudras and were inferior and were inferior in learning. To resolve this inherent contradiction the high status of the
in learning. To resolve this inherent contradiction the high status of the Brahman Brahman women waswomen was defined by their chastity and purity.
defined by their chastity and purity. Whenever a woman’s husband died it was Whenever a woman’s husband died it was blamed on her blamed on her bad
bad karmakarma. She then had two options either to go through life as a. She then had two options either to go through life as a VaidhawaVaidhawa, a widow; or , a widow; or
19
19Tapas implies chastityTapas implies chastity 20
20Kumkum Roy ,Women in early Indian Societies,1Kumkum Roy ,Women in early Indian Societies,1ststed. 1999, Manohar, New Delhi, page 73ed. 1999, Manohar, New Delhi, page 73 21 21 Ibid Ibid 22 22 Ibid. Ibid. 23 23
Avidya impies one without knowledge. Avidya impies one without knowledge.
she could commit
she could commit sati sati by burning herself on her husband’s funeral pyre.by burning herself on her husband’s funeral pyre.2424 A widow had toA widow had to wear white, to curb her impulses and emotions, to sleep on a mat of grass. A widow who wear white, to curb her impulses and emotions, to sleep on a mat of grass. A widow who sl
slepept t on on a a cocot t wawas s actactuaualllly y chcharargeged d wiwith th sesendndining g heher r huhusbsbanand d to to hehellll..2525 The The SmrSmritiiti commentaries direct that the wife should never be given independence and she should be commentaries direct that the wife should never be given independence and she should be secluded and her mind should be applied only to the domestic rituals so that she does not secluded and her mind should be applied only to the domestic rituals so that she does not have the time to think of other men
have the time to think of other men..2626
Although the first half of the classical age was characterised by a decline in the status of Although the first half of the classical age was characterised by a decline in the status of women the second half showed improvement. The
women the second half showed improvement. The MahabharataMahabharata and theand the Bhagavad Gita Bhagavad Gita conta
contain passages with a in passages with a more inclusimore inclusive spirit of ve spirit of womewomen and n and these were redacted during thisthese were redacted during this time.
time.
Goddesses and epic heroines provided models for human wives. From the classical period Goddesses and epic heroines provided models for human wives. From the classical period two of the divine models for the good wife have been Sita, Sati Parvati, Laksmi, Savitri, two of the divine models for the good wife have been Sita, Sati Parvati, Laksmi, Savitri, Damayanti, Draupadi etc. Wife-Goddesses represented an ascetic sexuality, i.e., sexuality Damayanti, Draupadi etc. Wife-Goddesses represented an ascetic sexuality, i.e., sexuality controlled by their husbands.
controlled by their husbands.
The structure of a woman’s life cycle was visually marked by the presence or absence of a The structure of a woman’s life cycle was visually marked by the presence or absence of a tilak
tilak . . The The prepresensence ce or or absabsencence e of of thithis s dot dot sigsignifnified ied ausauspicpiciouiousnesness ss or or inainauspuspiciiciousousnesnesss respectively. The same was applied for her other accessories, eg. Bangles, toe-rings, etc. respectively. The same was applied for her other accessories, eg. Bangles, toe-rings, etc. the
these se ornornameaments symbnts symboliolised the sed the dyndynamiamics cs of of the union and the union and sepseparataration in ion in the life the life of of aa woman.
woman.2727
The above mentioned superstitions and unscientific ideologies of society founded the basis The above mentioned superstitions and unscientific ideologies of society founded the basis for determining the status of women in the times to come.
for determining the status of women in the times to come.
24 24
Neera desia and Usha Thakkar, Women in Indian society, 1st ed. 2003, and National book trust India, New Neera desia and Usha Thakkar, Women in Indian society, 1st ed. 2003, and National book trust India, New Delhi, page num. 118
Delhi, page num. 118
25
25Vrinda Nabar ,CASTE AS WOMAN,1Vrinda Nabar ,CASTE AS WOMAN,1ststed. 1995, p. 144.ed. 1995, p. 144. 26
26
R.C. Majumdar, (ed.), THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE INDIAN PEOPLE, Vol.1, 5th ed. 1988, p. R.C. Majumdar, (ed.), THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE INDIAN PEOPLE, Vol.1, 5th ed. 1988, p. 481. 481. 27 27 Supra n. 7, p. 10. Supra n. 7, p. 10.
CHAPTER – 4
CHAPTER – 4
POSITION OF WOMEN AFTER VEDIC AGE
POSITION OF WOMEN AFTER VEDIC AGE
INDIA IN EARLY MAGADHAN EPOCH INDIA IN EARLY MAGADHAN EPOCH
Women were treated differently in the South and the Northern region of India. Women in the Women were treated differently in the South and the Northern region of India. Women in the sou
south were th were grantegranted d certain privilcertain privileges not eges not availabavailable le to their to their contecontemporamporaries in ries in the south. For the south. For e.g. the wife in the south was allowed to
e.g. the wife in the south was allowed to eat in the company of her eat in the company of her husband and restriction onhusband and restriction on the marriages of cognates were not that strict in the south as they were in the north.
the marriages of cognates were not that strict in the south as they were in the north.
The picture of women as given in the Greek accounts, Buddhist discourses or epic tales does The picture of women as given in the Greek accounts, Buddhist discourses or epic tales does not always agree with that portrayed in the formal codes of law. The women of the
not always agree with that portrayed in the formal codes of law. The women of the Dharma- Dharma-Sutras
Sutras were helpless beings who were always dependent on their male relations and werewere helpless beings who were always dependent on their male relations and were classed with properties of minors or sealed deposits. The women known to Alexander’s classed with properties of minors or sealed deposits. The women known to Alexander’s contemporaries took the weapons of their relatives who had died in war and fought side by contemporaries took the weapons of their relatives who had died in war and fought side by side with the men against the enemy of their country. Education was not denied to women, side with the men against the enemy of their country. Education was not denied to women, some of whom were widely known for their knowledge and learning. Buddhist texts refer to some of whom were widely known for their knowledge and learning. Buddhist texts refer to the princesses who composed poetry, preserved in the
the princesses who composed poetry, preserved in the Their-GathaTheir-Gatha..2828 In several epic In several epic storistorieses like the Mahabharata one finds references to the concept of
like the Mahabharata one finds references to the concept of SwayamwaraSwayamwara or choice of aor choice of a husband by the bride herself. Seclusion of women was practiced in certain families whereas husband by the bride herself. Seclusion of women was practiced in certain families whereas there were instances where women laid aside their veils and came out of the seclusion of there were instances where women laid aside their veils and came out of the seclusion of their house
their house..2929
WOMEN IN THE MAURYA-SCYTHIAN ERA WOMEN IN THE MAURYA-SCYTHIAN ERA
Greek writers and epigraphs provide the details on the status of women in this period. Some Greek writers and epigraphs provide the details on the status of women in this period. Some women pursued philosophy and lived a life of continence. Married women although, were women pursued philosophy and lived a life of continence. Married women although, were denie
denied d the privilege of the privilege of sharsharing with ing with their husbandtheir husbands, the s, the knowlknowledge of edge of the sacred traditionsthe sacred traditions.. Pol
Polygaygamy my was practiwas practiced ced by by KinKing’s and g’s and nobnoblemlemen. The en. The care care of of the King’s persothe King’s person n waswas entrusted to women. Ashoka refers to women as particularly given to the performance of entrusted to women. Ashoka refers to women as particularly given to the performance of many trivial and worthless ceremonies. The wife continued to take a prominent share in the many trivial and worthless ceremonies. The wife continued to take a prominent share in the
28 28
Psalms of the Sisters. Psalms of the Sisters.
29 29
R.C. Majumdar, (ed.), THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE INDIAN PEOPLE, Vol.1, 5th ed. 1988, R.C. Majumdar, (ed.), THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE INDIAN PEOPLE, Vol.1, 5th ed. 1988, Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. page 72.
religious activities by the side of her husband is clear from the records of the benefactions of religious activities by the side of her husband is clear from the records of the benefactions of Karuvaki, the second queen of Ashoka.
Karuvaki, the second queen of Ashoka. 3030
WOMEN IN THE GUPTA PERIOD WOMEN IN THE GUPTA PERIOD
Women of the upper classes in certain areas took a prominent share in administration. The Women of the upper classes in certain areas took a prominent share in administration. The queen-consort occupied an important position in this era. In certain provinces, e.g. Kanarese, queen-consort occupied an important position in this era. In certain provinces, e.g. Kanarese, women acted as provincial governors and heads of villages. The seclusion of women was not women acted as provincial governors and heads of villages. The seclusion of women was not generally observed in these areas. Some of the royal ladies in Deccan were not only skilled at generally observed in these areas. Some of the royal ladies in Deccan were not only skilled at dancing but also in the display of arts in public. Absolute seclusion of women was unknown dancing but also in the display of arts in public. Absolute seclusion of women was unknown in certain families. Girls of the upper class families received a liberal education and took in certain families. Girls of the upper class families received a liberal education and took keen interest in the cultural activities of the age. The practise of
keen interest in the cultural activities of the age. The practise of SwayamvaraSwayamvara was still in use.was still in use. Unfortunately the picture was not all that rosy, polygamy was widely prevalent, and the Unfortunately the picture was not all that rosy, polygamy was widely prevalent, and the custom of burning widows at the funeral pyre of their husbands was coming into general custom of burning widows at the funeral pyre of their husbands was coming into general use use..3131 30 30 Supra n.6, pp.125, 126. Supra n.6, pp.125, 126. 31 31 Supra n.6, pp. 90,189. Supra n.6, pp. 90,189.
CHAPTER – 5
CHAPTER – 5
OTHER THEORIES FOR THE DETERIORATION OF THE
OTHER THEORIES FOR THE DETERIORATION OF THE
STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE LATER
STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD.
VEDIC PERIOD.
1)
1) The intThe introducroduction of a notion of a non- Aryan win- Aryan wife into thfe into the Aryan hoe Aryan househusehold is the kold is the key to the geney to the generaleral deterioration of the position of women. The non- Aryan wife with her ignorance of deterioration of the position of women. The non- Aryan wife with her ignorance of Sanskrit language and Hindu religion could not enjoy the same privileges as her Aryan Sanskrit language and Hindu religion could not enjoy the same privileges as her Aryan consort. Very often the non- Aryan wife was the favourite one of her husband, who may consort. Very often the non- Aryan wife was the favourite one of her husband, who may have associated her with his religious sacrifices in preference to his better educated but have associated her with his religious sacrifices in preference to his better educated but less loved Aryan co-wife. This must have naturally led to grave mistakes and anomalies less loved Aryan co-wife. This must have naturally led to grave mistakes and anomalies in the performance of the ritual which must have shocked orthodox priests. Their first in the performance of the ritual which must have shocked orthodox priests. Their first remedy may have been to declare the non- Aryan wife to be unfit for association with her remedy may have been to declare the non- Aryan wife to be unfit for association with her husband in religious rituals. But the Kings who were madly in love with these non-Aryan husband in religious rituals. But the Kings who were madly in love with these non-Aryan wives would have disobeyed this order. Thus the situation could have been retrieved only wives would have disobeyed this order. Thus the situation could have been retrieved only when all women were banned from the performance of rituals
when all women were banned from the performance of rituals..3232 2)
2) The otThe other facther factor was the groor was the growinwing compg complexlexity of the Vediity of the Vedic rituac rituals.ls.3333Also the division of Also the division of the ritual
the rituals s intinto o SraSrauta uta and Grahyand Grahya a resrestrictrictinting g the the womwomen en in in thetheir ir knoknowlewledge of dge of thethe Vedas
Vedas..3434 3)
3) The SahThe Sahityityas poias pointented out that the man camd out that the man came into the worle into the world with a three fold with a three fold debt; thd debt; thee most important one of these was the debt to the manes which could be liquidated only by most important one of these was the debt to the manes which could be liquidated only by the birth of a
the birth of a son. Thuson. Thus if s if the girl was to the girl was to marry the boy early, then she would be able tomarry the boy early, then she would be able to provide him with a son sooner. Hence the concept of child marriage started
provide him with a son sooner. Hence the concept of child marriage started ..3535 4)
4) As chiAs child marrld marriagiage became became e accacceptepted, the neeed, the need to educad to educate the girls wate the girls was not felt as theys not felt as they were getting married early any way. Thus when the girl got no education and was married were getting married early any way. Thus when the girl got no education and was married early she was unable to command respect from her husband
early she was unable to command respect from her husband..3636
32
32Kumkum Roy ,WOMEN IN EARLY INDIAN SOCIETIES,1Kumkum Roy ,WOMEN IN EARLY INDIAN SOCIETIES,1ststed. 1999, p. 56.ed. 1999, p. 56. 33 33Ibid.Ibid. 34 34 Supra n.7, p.8. Supra n.7, p.8. 35 35 Supra n.32, p. 59. Supra n.32, p. 59. 36 36 Supra n.32, p.61. Supra n.32, p.61.
CHAPTER – 6
CHAPTER – 6
STATUS OF WOMEN IN EARLY MEDEVAL INDIA
STATUS OF WOMEN IN EARLY MEDEVAL INDIA
In early Medieval India women were accorded a high place in society. In a Hindu family she In early Medieval India women were accorded a high place in society. In a Hindu family she was regarded as the mistress of the house and no religious ceremony could be performed was regarded as the mistress of the house and no religious ceremony could be performed without her association. There was provision for their education and the period has said to without her association. There was provision for their education and the period has said to have produced a number of highly learned women. The wife of Mandan Mishra is said to have produced a number of highly learned women. The wife of Mandan Mishra is said to have defeated
have defeated ShankShankarachararacharya ya in in a a philophilosophsophical ical discudiscussionssion. . AwantAwantisundisundari, ari, the the wife of wife of Rajshekhar had prepared a lexicon containing words of Prakrit and she had given her own Rajshekhar had prepared a lexicon containing words of Prakrit and she had given her own compositions to illustrate the usage of those words. Mirabai was a devotee of high order and compositions to illustrate the usage of those words. Mirabai was a devotee of high order and has left behind a collection of songs, vibrant with sentiments of personal devotion of Krishna. has left behind a collection of songs, vibrant with sentiments of personal devotion of Krishna. Contemporary saints flocked around her to hear her talk.
Contemporary saints flocked around her to hear her talk.
However, inferiority of women to men is signified by a lot of things. In royal and Baronial However, inferiority of women to men is signified by a lot of things. In royal and Baronial families, polygamy was the rule so that women came to be regarded as a means of sexual families, polygamy was the rule so that women came to be regarded as a means of sexual satisfaction. After the coming of the Turks, the size of the harems began to increase and the satisfaction. After the coming of the Turks, the size of the harems began to increase and the social status of women became lower still.
social status of women became lower still.3737. As polygamy was a norm for these invaders. As polygamy was a norm for these invaders they picked up any woman they wanted and kept her in their "harems". In order to protect they picked up any woman they wanted and kept her in their "harems". In order to protect themselves Indian women started using the 'Purdah', (a veil), which covered the entire body. themselves Indian women started using the 'Purdah', (a veil), which covered the entire body. Especially in Northern India, the practice of keeping women in seclusion and asking them to Especially in Northern India, the practice of keeping women in seclusion and asking them to veil their faces in the presence of outsiders became widespread among the upper class veil their faces in the presence of outsiders became widespread among the upper class women. The practice of secluding women from the vulgar gaze was practiced among the women. The practice of secluding women from the vulgar gaze was practiced among the upper class Hindus, and was also in vogue in Iran, Greece, etc. The Arabs and the Turks upper class Hindus, and was also in vogue in Iran, Greece, etc. The Arabs and the Turks adopted this custom and brought it to India with them. Due to their example, it became adopted this custom and brought it to India with them. Due to their example, it became widespread in India, particularly in north India. The growth of purdah has been attributed to widespread in India, particularly in north India. The growth of purdah has been attributed to the fear of the Hindu women being captured by invaders. In an age of violence, women were the fear of the Hindu women being captured by invaders. In an age of violence, women were liable to be treated as prizes of war. Perhaps, the most important factor for the growth of liable to be treated as prizes of war. Perhaps, the most important factor for the growth of purdah was social- it became a symbol of the higher classes in society, and all those who purdah was social- it became a symbol of the higher classes in society, and all those who
wante
wanted d to be to be consconsidered respectaidered respectable tried ble tried to copy to copy it. Also, religious justifit. Also, religious justification was foundication was found fo
for r itit. . WhWhateatevever r ththe e rereasasonon, , it it affaffectected ed wowomemen n adadveversrselyely, , anand d mamade de ththem em eveven en momorere dependent on men.
dependent on men.3838 Because of this their freedom was also affected. They were not allowedBecause of this their freedom was also affected. They were not allowed
37 37
A.B. Pandey ,EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA,2 A.B. Pandey ,EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA,2ndnd
ed. 1960, 1 ed. 1960, 1stst rep. 1993, p. 233. rep. 1993, p. 233. 38 38
Satish Chandra, MEDIEVAL INDIA FROM SUTANAT TO THE MUGHALS,2 Satish Chandra, MEDIEVAL INDIA FROM SUTANAT TO THE MUGHALS,2ndnd
ed. 1999, p.173. ed. 1999, p.173.
to move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status. These problems related to move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status. These problems related with women resulted in a changed mindset of people.
with women resulted in a changed mindset of people.
The deterioration that had started in the later Vedic period became worse. Parents began to The deterioration that had started in the later Vedic period became worse. Parents began to consider a girl as a source of misery and a burden, which had to be shielded from the eyes of consider a girl as a source of misery and a burden, which had to be shielded from the eyes of intruders and needed extra care, whereas, a male child was treated with love and kindness. intruders and needed extra care, whereas, a male child was treated with love and kindness. Nonetheless women were accorded an honourable place in society. In a Hindu family she Nonetheless women were accorded an honourable place in society. In a Hindu family she was regarded as the mistress of the house and no religious ceremony was performed without was regarded as the mistress of the house and no religious ceremony was performed without her association.
her association.
There was provision for their education and the period has produced a number of highly There was provision for their education and the period has produced a number of highly learned women. In the Mughal period also Female education of some sort existed and the learned women. In the Mughal period also Female education of some sort existed and the daughters of the imperial household were given tuitions in their
daughters of the imperial household were given tuitions in their houses. Some of the ladies sohouses. Some of the ladies so instructed distinguished themselves in the sphere of literature. For e.g. Babur’s daughter, instructed distinguished themselves in the sphere of literature. For e.g. Babur’s daughter, Gulbadan Begum was the authoress of the Humayunnamah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Gulbadan Begum was the authoress of the Humayunnamah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum, etc were extremely educated ladies; they were well read in Persian and Jahanara Begum, etc were extremely educated ladies; they were well read in Persian and Arabic. Zeb-un-Nisa was an expert in Calligraphy and
Arabic. Zeb-un-Nisa was an expert in Calligraphy and had a rich library.had a rich library.3939 Roshanara set up aRoshanara set up a literary atelier (bait-ul-ulam) at Delhi to which Aurangzeb had banished her. Some women literary atelier (bait-ul-ulam) at Delhi to which Aurangzeb had banished her. Some women played an active part in politics as rulers themselves. For e.g. Rani Durgawati of Gondwana played an active part in politics as rulers themselves. For e.g. Rani Durgawati of Gondwana and Chand Bibi of Ahmednagar, by exercising power from their husbands, Nur Jahan. Razia and Chand Bibi of Ahmednagar, by exercising power from their husbands, Nur Jahan. Razia Sultan became the only woman monarch who had ever ruled Delhi.
Sultan became the only woman monarch who had ever ruled Delhi.4040
Women played an important role as they provided moral and cultural tone to society from Women played an important role as they provided moral and cultural tone to society from behind the curtains. They influenced royal taste and patronage to artists, singers, etc.
behind the curtains. They influenced royal taste and patronage to artists, singers, etc.4141 but, asbut, as mentioned earlier, the position of women in this period had deteriorated to an extent. It mentioned earlier, the position of women in this period had deteriorated to an extent. It became the starting point of such practices that subjugated women. This can be seen from became the starting point of such practices that subjugated women. This can be seen from various examples. In royal families, polygamy was the rule so that women were merely as a various examples. In royal families, polygamy was the rule so that women were merely as a means of sexual satisfaction. Then again the co-wives were often jealous of each other and means of sexual satisfaction. Then again the co-wives were often jealous of each other and there were occasions when they had to compromise there self respect.
there were occasions when they had to compromise there self respect.4242All this gave rise toAll this gave rise to some new practices such as Child Marriage, Sati, and Jauhar.
some new practices such as Child Marriage, Sati, and Jauhar.4343 The ladies that had beenThe ladies that had been colle
collected together merely to satisfy the lower appetites of man cted together merely to satisfy the lower appetites of man had to give evidence of had to give evidence of their their chastity and devotion by burning themselves alive on the funeral pyre of their common dead chastity and devotion by burning themselves alive on the funeral pyre of their common dead
39 39Supra n.6,p. 572.Supra n.6,p. 572. 40 40Supra n.13.Supra n.13. 41 41 Supra n.40, p.371. Supra n.40, p.371. 42 42 Supra n.40, p. 324. Supra n.40, p. 324. 43 43 http://www.mapsofindia.com/culture/indian-women.html
husband. Widows had no right to remarry and had to live like sanyasins. They lived in husband. Widows had no right to remarry and had to live like sanyasins. They lived in sec
secluslusion and ion and the the purpurdah systedah system m becbecame ame ververy y elaelaborborateate, , boboth th for the for the HinHindus and dus and thethe Muslims. This was due to the sense of insecurity of the period caused by the invasions of Muslims. This was due to the sense of insecurity of the period caused by the invasions of foreigners such as the Mongols.
CHAPTER – 7
CHAPTER – 7
THE PRACTICES PREVALENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
THE PRACTICES PREVALENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Jauhar:
Jauhar: The voluntary death of the royal womenfolk of Rajputs and Rajput men in order The voluntary death of the royal womenfolk of Rajputs and Rajput men in order to avoid capture and dishonor at the hands of enemy. The t
to avoid capture and dishonor at the hands of enemy. The t erm is extended to describe theerm is extended to describe the occasi
occasional practice of onal practice of mass suicidmass suicide e carried out in carried out in mediemedieval times val times by Rajput women andby Rajput women and men. Mass self-immolation by women was called
men. Mass self-immolation by women was called Jauhar Jauhar , and riding out and fighting till, and riding out and fighting till their last breath by men was called
their last breath by men was called saka saka. The practice is often described in terms of the. The practice is often described in terms of the women and children alone, but should correctly be understood as including the death of women and children alone, but should correctly be understood as including the death of the men on the battlefield.
the men on the battlefield. Child Marriage
Child Marriage: It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at the age of 8-: It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at the age of 8-10. They were not allowed access to education and were treated as the material being. 10. They were not allowed access to education and were treated as the material being. The plight of women can be imagined by one of the
The plight of women can be imagined by one of the ShlokaShloka of Tulsidas where he writesof Tulsidas where he writes "Dhol, gawar, shudra, pashu, nari, ye sab tadan ke adhikari"
"Dhol, gawar, shudra, pashu, nari, ye sab tadan ke adhikari" . Meaning that animals,. Meaning that animals, illiterates, lower castes and women should be subjected to beating. Thus, women were illiterates, lower castes and women should be subjected to beating. Thus, women were compared with animals and were married off at an early age. The child marriage along compared with animals and were married off at an early age. The child marriage along with it brought some more problems such as increased birth rate, poor health of women with it brought some more problems such as increased birth rate, poor health of women due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate of women and children.
due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate of women and children. Restriction on Widow Remarriage
Restriction on Widow Remarriage: The condition of widows in medieval India was: The condition of widows in medieval India was ve
very ry babad. d. ThThey ey wewere re nonot t trtreateated ed as as huhumaman n bebeinings gs anand d werwere e susubjbjectected ed to to a a lolot t of of restrictions. They were supposed to live pious life after their husband died and were not restrictions. They were supposed to live pious life after their husband died and were not allowed entry in any celebration. Their presence in any good work was considered to be a allowed entry in any celebration. Their presence in any good work was considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were also shaved down. They were not allowed bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were also shaved down. They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the society. This cruelty on to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the society. This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women committing
widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women committing SatiSati. In. In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a curse.
medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a curse. Purdah System
Purdah System: The veil or the ': The veil or the ' Purdah' Purdah' system was widely prevalent in medievalsystem was widely prevalent in medieval Indian society. It was used to protect the women folk from the eyes of foreign rulers who Indian society. It was used to protect the women folk from the eyes of foreign rulers who invaded India in medieval period. But this system curtailed the freedom of women.
Education for girls
Education for girls: The girls of medieval India and especially Hindu society were not: The girls of medieval India and especially Hindu society were not given formal education. They were given education related to household chores. But a given formal education. They were given education related to household chores. But a famous Indian philosopher
famous Indian philosopher 'Vatsyayana' 'Vatsyayana' wrote that women were supposed to be perfect inwrote that women were supposed to be perfect in sixty four
sixty four arts which arts which includincluded ed cookcooking, spinninging, spinning, , grindgrinding, knowleding, knowledge ge of of medicmedicine,ine, recitation and many more.
recitation and many more.
As compared to Hindu society other societies such as Buddhism, Jainism and Christians As compared to Hindu society other societies such as Buddhism, Jainism and Christians were a bit lenient. Women in those societies enjoyed far more freedom. They had easy were a bit lenient. Women in those societies enjoyed far more freedom. They had easy access to education and were more liberal in their approach. According to these religions access to education and were more liberal in their approach. According to these religions gender was not the issue in attaining salvation. Any person whether a man or a woman is gender was not the issue in attaining salvation. Any person whether a man or a woman is entitled to get the grace of god. During the time of king Ashoka women took part in entitled to get the grace of god. During the time of king Ashoka women took part in rel
religiigious ous prepreachachinging. . AccoAccordirding ng to to HiuHiuen en TsaTsang, ng, the the famfamous ous travtravelleller er of of thathat t timtime,e, Rajyashri, the sister of Harshavardhana was a distinguished scholar of her time. Another Rajyashri, the sister of Harshavardhana was a distinguished scholar of her time. Another such example is the daughter of king Ashoka, Sanghmitra. She along with her brother such example is the daughter of king Ashoka, Sanghmitra. She along with her brother Mahendra went to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
Mahendra went to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
The status of women in Southern India was better than the North India. While in The status of women in Southern India was better than the North India. While in Northern India there were not many women administrators, in Southern India we can find Northern India there were not many women administrators, in Southern India we can find
some names that made women of that time proud.
some names that made women of that time proud. Priyaketaladevi, Priyaketaladevi, queen of queen of ChalukyaChalukya Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya ruled three villages. Another woman namedruled three villages. Another woman named Jakkiabbe Jakkiabbe used to rule seventyused to rule seventy villages. In South India women had representation in each and every field.
villages. In South India women had representation in each and every field. Domingo Domingo Paes
Paes, famous Portuguese traveller testifies to it. He has written in his account that in, famous Portuguese traveller testifies to it. He has written in his account that in Vijaynagar
Vijaynagar kingdom women were present in each and every field. He says that womenkingdom women were present in each and every field. He says that women could wrestle, blow trumpet and handle sword with equal perfection.
could wrestle, blow trumpet and handle sword with equal perfection. Nuniz Nuniz , another , another famous traveller to the South also agrees to it and says that women were employed in famous traveller to the South also agrees to it and says that women were employed in writing accounts of expenses, recording the affairs of kingdom, which shows that they writing accounts of expenses, recording the affairs of kingdom, which shows that they were educated. There is no evidence of any public school in northern India but according were educated. There is no evidence of any public school in northern India but according to
to famoufamous s histohistorianrian Ibn Batuta Ibn Batuta there were 13 schools for girls and 24 for boys inthere were 13 schools for girls and 24 for boys in Honavar.
Honavar. There was one major evil present in South India of medieval time. It was theThere was one major evil present in South India of medieval time. It was the custom of
custom of Devadasis Devadasis.. Devadasis
Devadasis: : It It wawas s a a cucuststom om prprevevalalenent t in in SoSoututhehern rn InIndidia. a. In In ththis is sysyststem em gigirlrls s wewerere dedicated to temples in the name of gods and goddesses. The girls were then onwards dedicated to temples in the name of gods and goddesses. The girls were then onwards known as
known as 'Devadasis'Devadasis' meaning servant of god. These' meaning servant of god. These Devadasis Devadasis were supposed to live thewere supposed to live the life of celibacy. All the requirements of
the temples. In temple they used to spend their time in worship of god and by singing and the temples. In temple they used to spend their time in worship of god and by singing and dancing for the god. Some kings used to invite temple dancers to perform at their court dancing for the god. Some kings used to invite temple dancers to perform at their court for the pleasure of courtiers and thus some
for the pleasure of courtiers and thus some Devadasis Devadasis converted toconverted to Rajadasis Rajadasis (palace(palace dancers) prevalent in some tribes of South India like
dancers) prevalent in some tribes of South India like YellammaYellamma cultcult4444
. .
The culture of the women varied according to the classes to which they belonged. The The culture of the women varied according to the classes to which they belonged. The ordinary village women were confined to their domestic duties, whereas a few women ordinary village women were confined to their domestic duties, whereas a few women b
beloelongngining g to to ththe e upuppeper r cacastste e cucultltivivatated ed ararts ts anand d scscieiencnceses. . FoFor r egeg.. Rupamati Rupamati andand Padmavati
Padmavati were very learned and educated women of this period. The concepts of childwere very learned and educated women of this period. The concepts of child marriage and sati were widely prevalent among certain classes. According to
marriage and sati were widely prevalent among certain classes. According to Ibn Ibn Batuta Batuta aa permit had to be sought from the Sultan of Delhi before the burning of a widow.
permit had to be sought from the Sultan of Delhi before the burning of a widow.4545
Akbar tried to regulate social usages in such a way as to make the consent of both the Akbar tried to regulate social usages in such a way as to make the consent of both the bride and the bridegroom, and the permission of the parents, necessary for a marriage bride and the bridegroom, and the permission of the parents, necessary for a marriage
co
contntracract. t. He He alalso so sosougught ht to to chcheck eck mamarrirriagage e bebefofore re pupubebertrty y by by eieithther er of of ththe e papartrty,y, marriages between near relatives, acceptance of high dowries, and polygamy. But his marriages between near relatives, acceptance of high dowries, and polygamy. But his attempts were in vain as they were never really practiced.
attempts were in vain as they were never really practiced.4646 Likewise, there was littleLikewise, there was little impact on Mughal attempt to regulate sati because all important Rajput rajas continued to impact on Mughal attempt to regulate sati because all important Rajput rajas continued to practise it. Thus when Maharaja Man Singh died, four ranis committed sati along with practise it. Thus when Maharaja Man Singh died, four ranis committed sati along with
him
him, , and anothand another er fivfive e at at anoanothether r plaplace.ce.4747 A sati came to be seen as possessing anA sati came to be seen as possessing an immeasurable degree of moral merit. She could absolve her husband of the most heinous immeasurable degree of moral merit. She could absolve her husband of the most heinous of sins, including the killing of a
of sins, including the killing of a Brahmin Brahmin. She was also equipped with the moral power . She was also equipped with the moral power to purify three families: those of her mother, her father and her husband.
to purify three families: those of her mother, her father and her husband.4848 The womanThe woman who sacrifices herself suffers in proportion to the sins she has committed in her past lives, who sacrifices herself suffers in proportion to the sins she has committed in her past lives, sins that are the immediate cause of her widowhood in this life. According to the dharma sins that are the immediate cause of her widowhood in this life. According to the dharma treatis
treatises, a es, a faithffaithful ul spouspouse ought se ought to accompany her husband in to accompany her husband in his earthly existence andhis earthly existence and precede him in death. She is assumed to have failed in her “wifely duty” or seriously precede him in death. She is assumed to have failed in her “wifely duty” or seriously violated her “conjugal vow” because of which her husband had to suffer death. The violated her “conjugal vow” because of which her husband had to suffer death. The gravity of her fault is inversely proportional to her age: the younger the widow, the gravity of her fault is inversely proportional to her age: the younger the widow, the greater the guilt. An additional yardstick is provided by the intensity of her suffering at greater the guilt. An additional yardstick is provided by the intensity of her suffering at the time of her ordeal, and to be sure, her death.
the time of her ordeal, and to be sure, her death.4949
44 44 Supra n.45. Supra n.45. 45 45 Supra n.40, p. 371. Supra n.40, p. 371. 46 46 Supra n.6, p. 561. Supra n.6, p. 561. 47 47 Supra Supra n.40, n.40, p. p. 372.372. 48 48Supra n.27,p. 154.Supra n.27,p. 154. 49
49Catherine Weinberg-Thomas, WIDOW BURINING IN INDIA-ASHES OF IMMORTALITY,1Catherine Weinberg-Thomas, WIDOW BURINING IN INDIA-ASHES OF IMMORTALITY,1ststed. 2000, p.ed. 2000, p.
45. 45.
Dowry system and
Dowry system and Kanyadaan Kanyadaan had become a necessity by this time. The bride groomhad become a necessity by this time. The bride groom considered the whole process of marriage as a sale. Earlier even the father of the bride considered the whole process of marriage as a sale. Earlier even the father of the bride received money from the groom but that system stopped all together
received money from the groom but that system stopped all together ..5050 Now the prestigeNow the prestige of the father of the bride was determined by the amount of dowry given by him to the of the father of the bride was determined by the amount of dowry given by him to the groom. In certain cases when
groom. In certain cases when Zamindars Zamindars had to be paid rent and the poverty strickenhad to be paid rent and the poverty stricken farmers had no money to pay the
farmers had no money to pay the Zamindaar Zamindaar they would give up their daughter to bethey would give up their daughter to be married off to the
married off to the Zamindaar Zamindaar or theor the Zamindaar’s Zamindaar’s son. The Maratha society however didson. The Maratha society however did not encourage the acceptance of dowries. The
not encourage the acceptance of dowries. The Peshwas Peshwas exercised an effective controlexercised an effective control over the state of affairs in Maharashtra and they were opposed to forcible marriages, but over the state of affairs in Maharashtra and they were opposed to forcible marriages, but informal marriages were occasionally permitted by them if the motives of the contracting informal marriages were occasionally permitted by them if the motives of the contracting parties were correct. Widow-remarriage was prevalent among the non-Brahmanas of parties were correct. Widow-remarriage was prevalent among the non-Brahmanas of
Maharashtra, Jats of the Punjab and the Jumna Valley. In the places mentioned above Maharashtra, Jats of the Punjab and the Jumna Valley. In the places mentioned above polyandry was not known.
polyandry was not known. 5151For women belonging to the common fold, life was hard.For women belonging to the common fold, life was hard. There are many paintings depicting women working in building activities along with There are many paintings depicting women working in building activities along with infants. Working women received wages that were lower than those given to men.
infants. Working women received wages that were lower than those given to men.5252 The plight of women in medieval India and at the starting of modern India can be The plight of women in medieval India and at the starting of modern India can be summed up in the words of great poet Rabindranath Tagore:
summed up in the words of great poet Rabindranath Tagore:
"O Lord Why have you not given woman the right to conquer her destiny? "O Lord Why have you not given woman the right to conquer her destiny?
Why does she have to wait head bowed, Why does she have to wait head bowed, by the roadside, waiting with tired patience, by the roadside, waiting with tired patience,
hoping for a miracle in the morrow?" hoping for a miracle in the morrow?" 5353
50
50Ranjana Sheel, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF DOWRY, 1st ed. 1999, p. 41.Ranjana Sheel, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF DOWRY, 1st ed. 1999, p. 41. 51 51 Supra n.6, p. 561. Supra n.6, p. 561. 52 52 Supra n.27, p. 154. Supra n.27, p. 154. 53 53 Supra n.46. Supra n.46.
CHAPTER – 8
CHAPTER – 8
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
Women were always the weaker sex and men are always thought to be better than women in Women were always the weaker sex and men are always thought to be better than women in all regards. This was the belief in all ages including the Rig Vedic period. The analysis of the all regards. This was the belief in all ages including the Rig Vedic period. The analysis of the researcher is that the gradual deterioration of the position of women in India occurred due to researcher is that the gradual deterioration of the position of women in India occurred due to the superstitions and other ill-founded beliefs of the societies which developed into norms the superstitions and other ill-founded beliefs of the societies which developed into norms which the women had to follow. For e.g. in the
which the women had to follow. For e.g. in the Ramayana Ramayana whenwhen Rama Rama doubts the dignity of doubts the dignity of Sita
Sita, she undertakes the test of fire, , she undertakes the test of fire, i.e., to prove her purity. She asks the Fire i.e., to prove her purity. She asks the Fire God to burn her God to burn her if she burn she is impure and if not then pure.
if she burn she is impure and if not then pure. SitaSita comes out of the fire unhurt therebycomes out of the fire unhurt thereby successfully proving to
successfully proving to Ram Ram her purity. Similarly, it is the researcher’s opinion that, as aher purity. Similarly, it is the researcher’s opinion that, as a husband’s death was attributed to the
husband’s death was attributed to the karmakarma and faults of the wife, she had to take the Fireand faults of the wife, she had to take the Fire test and if she burned then her husband’s death was her fault and if she came out unhurt then test and if she burned then her husband’s death was her fault and if she came out unhurt then she was free from the sin of killing her husband. This fire test was
she was free from the sin of killing her husband. This fire test was sati sati. Obviously the wife. Obviously the wife died whenever she committed
died whenever she committed SatiSati and this strengthened the widely held belief that the wifeand this strengthened the widely held belief that the wife was respo
was responsinsible ble for for the the deadeath th of of her her huhusbasband. Such nd. Such unsunsciencientifitific c belbeliefs led iefs led to to masmassivsivee deterioration in the status of women.
deterioration in the status of women. What is most ironic is the stance of
What is most ironic is the stance of ManuManu. According to him only where the woman was. According to him only where the woman was respected that could be called the abode of God. But on the other hand he said that women respected that could be called the abode of God. But on the other hand he said that women should not be allowed to become priests, etc. There only duty was to serve their husbands. should not be allowed to become priests, etc. There only duty was to serve their husbands. This made the woman a Goddess and a slave at once.
This made the woman a Goddess and a slave at once. Soon more and more
Soon more and more writers started takinwriters started taking the g the stancstance e that women should be restrictedthat women should be restricted, , theythey needed to be protected. These extra duties towards women, especially those of the father, needed to be protected. These extra duties towards women, especially those of the father, further led to the birth of a girl child to be a day of remorse and mourning.
further led to the birth of a girl child to be a day of remorse and mourning.
Such circumstances finally led to women being confined in their houses beneath the
Such circumstances finally led to women being confined in their houses beneath the purdah, purdah, be
being subjeing subject ct to to marmarriariage ge whewhen n thetheir ir concontemtempoporariraries es in in othother er parparts ts of of the world the world werweree studying and widening their knowledge. Being a woman became a sin, much like being a studying and widening their knowledge. Being a woman became a sin, much like being a Shudra
Shudra. And in the medieval period, women belonged to no other place except in the feet of . And in the medieval period, women belonged to no other place except in the feet of their husbands. In modern India the situation continued to
their husbands. In modern India the situation continued to deteriorate but today women are deteriorate but today women are inin a
a mucmuch h betbetter ter pospositiition. on. AltAlthouhough gh one cannoone cannot t dendeny y strstray ay insinstantances ces of of dowdowry ry and childand child marriage, especially in villages. The position of women has been redeemed to an extent and marriage, especially in villages. The position of women has been redeemed to an extent and hopefully women will be considered equal to men in all ways.
