— 1 — Social Psychology
Aronson and Linder’s gain-loss principle:
An evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant. Therefore we will like someone more if their liking for us has increased (shown a gain) than someone who has consistently liked us. And vice versa.
Social exchange theory:
Assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another. The more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction to the other person.
People attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
Basically states that altruism does not exist unless benefits outweigh the costs Equity theory:
Proposes that we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person. We prefer that our ratio of costs to rewards be equal to the other person’s ratio.
If one person feels that s/he is getting less, or more, out of the relationship than the other, there’ll be an instability due to the perceived inequality.
Need complementarity:
Claims that people choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other’s needs. In this case, the person who likes to talk is complemented by the person who likes to listen; the dominant is attracted to the submissive…
Physical attractiveness:
Is a potent determinate of attraction. Attractiveness stereotype:
The tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people. Spatial proximity:
People will generally develop a greater liking for someone who lives within a few blocks than for someone who lives in a different neighborhood.
Even small differences in proximity can have an effect. One possibility is the closer people live to each other, the more accessible they are to each other, so potential friendships have a better opportunity to develop. Proximity may also increase the intensity of initial interactions. Maybe you’d think it was fate that you are so close to one another.
Mere exposure hypothesis:
The mere repeated exposure — one’s familiarity with — to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it, or rather an attitude change.
— 2 — The more you see something, the more you like it. Robert Zajonc:
Polish-born American who was a key player in the mere-exposure research.
Also, in 1975, developed the Confluence Model, providing a mathematical model of the effect of birth order and family size on IQ scores. Suggests that children are born into intellectual environments that affect intelligence; as families increase in size, the overall IQ of the family drops; children from larger families have slightly lower IQs.
Helping behavior; altruism:
Prosocial behavior, or behaviors that benefit other individuals or groups of people.
A form of helping behavior in which the person’s intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself. Also includes behaviors that may be motivated by egoism or selfishness.
John Darley & Bibb Latane, bystander intervention:
Best known for looking at why people do not always intervene (ie. Offer aid) at the scene of an emergency, a research interest largely stemming from the tragic case of Kitty Genovese, the New Yorker who was murdered in a New York suburb in March 1964 in the presence of 38 witnesses.
More people present at a scene of an emergency can lead to a reduced likelihood that anyone would help, for three reasons:
Social Influence
Pluralistic ignorance, the assumption that because no one is helping, everything must be all right; “no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes;” the behavior of others leads others to a definition of an event as a nonemergency and
Diffusion of responsibility, a diminished sense of personal responsibility when others are present. Later developed a very different interpretation: the bystanders weren’t monsters; they weren’t even apathetic. Rather, they were engaged in the normal problem-solving process—trying to figure out what was going on and what to do about it, which included evaluation of deterrents, led to not helping.
Empathy:
The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another; a strong influence on helping behavior. Batson’s empathy-altruism:
Disagrees with social exchange theory, stating that people help others in need out of genuine concern for the well-being of the other person.
If you feel empathy towards another person you will help them, regardless of what you can gain from it (1991). Relieving their suffering becomes the most important thing. When you do not feel empathy, the social exchange theory takes control. Batson recognized that people sometimes helped out of selfish reasons.
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Claims that the prosocial motivation evoked by empathy is directed toward the ultimate goal of increasing the welfare of the person in need.
1) Empathy Specific Reward: Empathy triggers the need for social reward which can be gained by helping.
2) Empathy Specific Punishment: Empathy triggers the fear of social punishment which can be avoided by helping.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
A theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard and Neal E. Miller; states that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person’s efforts to attain a goal.
Aka, frustration-aggression-displacement theory, attempts to explain why people scapegoat; also, to give an explanation as to the cause of violence.
Frustration causes aggression, but when the source of frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target. Used to explain riots and revolutions caused by poorer and more deprived sections of society who may express their bottled up frustration and anger through violence.
Frustration:
A condition that exists when a goal-response suffers interference. Aggression:
The condition which exists when a goal-response is injury to an organism (or organism surrogate). Not always the response to frustration, but rather a substitute response… Is aggression innate?
Social learning theory:
Aggression is learned through modeling (direct observation), observational learning, or through reinforcement. Bandura’s social learning theory:
His approach emphasized cognitive and information-processing capabilities that facilitate social behavior. Observational learning may occur in relation to 3 models: live model; verbal instruction; symbolic.
He emphasized reciprocal determinism, stating than an individual’s behavior is influenced by the environment and characteristics of the person.
Modeling process involves several steps: attention; retention; reproduction; motivation.
Children who were made to feel frustrated and were left alone in a room of toys behaved aggressively toward the Bobo doll, similarly to the adult they saw taking their frustration out on it, than those who had not observed the aggressive model.
Response feedback influences also serve an important function. Following a response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future.
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Phenomenon of visual perception (illusionary movement) in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move.
1st recorded by a Russian officer keeping watch who observed illusory movement of a star near the horizon. It presumably occurs because motion perception was always relative to some reference point. In darkness or in a featureless environment there is no reference point, so the movement of the single point is undefined.
Muzafer Sherif:
Through research discovered that individuals conformed to the group; the judgments converged on some group norm.
Solomon Asch’s conformity study; Asch Paradigm:
Still used in present day psychology. The aim of his research (show cards with lines on it and have fake participants say the wrong answer) was to see whether the real participant would change his answer and respond in the same way as the confederates, despite it being the wrong answer. Once the experiment was completed, the "real" participant was individually interviewed; towards the end of the interview, the participant was debriefed about the true purpose of the study. Participants' responses to interview questions were a valuable component of Asch's study because it gave him a glimpse of the psychological aspects of the experimental situation.
Subjects gave the wrong answer 37% of the time, having switched from the right answer to the norm’s wrong answer. There were three main reactions: confidence in perception and experience; withdrawn, sticking with the perception despite others; and doubtful, experienced doubt and tension but nonetheless stuck with their correct responses because they felt a need to adequately take part in the task.
There was no pressure to conform.
STANLEY MILGRAM’S EXPERIMENT:
Influenced by Asch’s use of lines and the Holocaust. Also, took part in the small world phenomenon or the six degrees of separation.
In this experiment, 26 out of 40 participants administered the full range of shocks up to 450 volts, the highest obedience rate Milgram found in his whole series. Thus, according to Milgram, the subject shifts responsibility to another person and does not blame himself for what happens. This resembles real-life incidents in which people see themselves as merely cogs in a machine, just "doing their job", allowing them to avoid responsibility for the consequences of their actions. The shocks themselves were fake; the participant who took the place as the "learner" in the experiment was in fact a paid actor who would simulate the effects of the shock depending on the voltage. Milgram became notorious for this tactic, and his experiment was soon classed as highly unethical as it caused stress to the participants in the study. The study soon became one of the most talked about psychological experiments in recent history, making headlines across the world, and resulted in Milgram finding himself in the centre of public attention. More recent tests of the experiment have found that it only works under certain conditions; in particular, when participants believe the results are necessary for the "good of science".
Foot-in-the-door effect/technique; FITD:
Essentially, the more a subject goes along with small requests or commitments, the more likely that subject is to continue in a desired direction of attitude or behavioral change and feel obligated to go along with larger requests.
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The principle involved is that a small agreement creates a bond between the requester and the requestee. Even though the requestee may only have agreed to a trivial request out of politeness, this forms a bond which when a future request is made, the requestee will feel obliged to act consistently with the earlier one.
Compliance:
A change in behavior that occurs as a result of situational or interpersonal pressure. Door-in-the-face effect:
People who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later small request. Self-perception:
How our social lives influence our perspectives of ourselves. Self-perception theory (SPT):
Is an account of attitude formation developed by psychologistDaryl Bem. It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes determine behaviors. Furthermore, the theory suggests that people induce attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood states. The person interprets their own overt behaviors rationally in the same way they attempt to explain others’ behaviors. Clark and Clark:
African-American psychologists who as a married team conducted important research among children and were active in the Civil Rights Movement.
The Clarks testified as expert witnesses in Briggs v. Elliott, one of the cases rolled into Brown vs. Board of Education (1954). The Clarks' work contributed to the ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in which it determined that de jureracial segregation in public education was unconstitutional.
Subsequent research, since the 1960s, using improved methodologies, and perhaps partially due to changes in society, has shown that black children in fact hold positive views of their own ethnicity.
Dimensions of Personal Identity:
The more salient (noticeable; prominent) the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities.
Primacy Effect:
Those occasions when 1st impressions are more important than subsequent impressions. Recency effect:
The most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions. Attribution theory:
— 6 — Fritz Heider:
Is one of the founding fathers of attribution theory. Also, of balance theory fame.
We are all naïve amateur psychologists who attempt to discover causes and effects in events, dividing these causes into: dispositional and situational.
Dispositional causes:
Those that relate to the features of the person whose behavior is being considered. Including the beliefs, attitude, and personality characteristics of the individual.
Situational causes:
Are external and those that relate to the features of the surroundings. Ie. Threats, $$, social norms, and peer pressure.
Fundamental attribution error; correspondence bias; attribution effect:
The tendency to overestimate the effect of disposition or personality and underestimate the effect of the situation in explaining the social behavior; the tendency to look for personality flaws rather than looking for situational influences that may have caused their behavior.
Most visible when people explain the behavior of others.
Does not explain interpretations of one’s own behavior — where situational factors are more easily recognized. Halo effect/error:
A cognitive bias in which one’s judgment of a person’s character can be influenced by one’s overall impression of him.
Edward Thorndike named it; it’s the tendency to allow a general impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person.
Why people are often inaccurate in evaluations of people. M.J. Lerner
A pioneer in the psychological field of justice, studied the tendency of individuals to believe in a just world aka BJW.
A strong belief in a just world increases the likelihood of “blaming the victim” since such a world denies the possibility of innocent victims.
Groups:
How being a member of a group affects individual behavior. Theodore Newcomb’s Study:
Bennington College Study looked at the influence of the college experience on social and political beliefs. He was also the first to document the effects of proximity on acquaintance and attraction.
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Even though more than 2/3rds of the students’ parents were Republican, the college itself had a liberal atmosphere which the student’s year-by-year increasingly adapted to/an increase in liberalism. Overtime, students increasingly accepted the norms of their community.
Edward Hall:
Suggests there are cultural norms that govern how far away we stand from the people we’re speaking to. In the US, the norm for intimacy is a foot; whereas with a stranger is several feet apart.
Proxemics:
The study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others. Zajonc’s Theory:
Polish-born American, argued the presence of others increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses.
Ie. If a person is learning a new dance step, the wrong movements are likely to be dominant. The presence of others would enhance the wrong movements. For expert dancers, however, where the correct moves are likely to be dominant, the presence of others improves performance.
Social loafing:
A group phenomenon referring to the tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group effort than when acting individually. Ie. Rope-pulling or clapping at a sporting event.
This is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals.
Philip Zimbardo:
People are more likely to commit antisocial acts when they feel anonymous within a social environment. Prison simulation/The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE):
Philip Zimbardo’s study, a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard.
The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations, as the guards enforced authoritarian measures and ultimately subjected some of the prisoners to psychological torture. Many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, at the request of the guards, readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it. The experiment even affected Zimbardo himself, who, in his role as the superintendent, permitted the abuse to continue. Two of the prisoners quit the experiment early and the entire experiment was abruptly stopped after only six days. Certain portions of the experiment were filmed and excerpts of footage are publicly available.
Deindividuation:
Refers to a loss of self-awareness and of personal identity. The subjects in the experiment lost their sense of who they really were. Their sense of self was overwhelmed by the roles they were playing, and they began acting out those roles, forgetting that they were actually university students participating in an experiment.
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Studied the ways that group decisions often go awry, engaged others in what he called “groupthink”. Groupthink:
Refers to the tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information.
A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an incorrect or deviant decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative ideas or viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.
Loyalty to the group requires individuals to avoid raising controversial issues or alternative solutions, and there is loss of individual creativity, uniqueness and independent thinking.
Risky shift
Refers to the finding that group decisions are riskier than the average of the individual choices.
Aka Group polarization is the phenomenon that when placed in group situations, people will make decisions and form opinions to more of an extreme than when they are in individual situations. The phenomenon has shown that after participating in a discussion group, members tend to advocate more extreme positions and call for riskier courses of action than individuals who did not participate in any such discussion.
Value hypothesis
Suggests that the risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued. James Stoner
1968 experiment by presenting dilemmas to couples to examine the risky shift in controversial situations. Group decisions shifted toward caution instead of risk. The content of the item can determine the direction of the shift.
Group polarization
A tendency for group discussion to enhance the group’s initial tendencies toward riskiness or caution. Leadership
Researchers found that by artificially increasing the amount a person speaks, that person’s perceived leadership status also increases.
Kurt Lewin
Conducted research to determine the effects of different leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. The quantity of work in autocratic groups was greater than in the other groups, but work motivation and interest were stronger in the democratic groups.
Cooperation
Persons act together for their mutual benefit so that all of them can obtain a goal. Competition
— 9 —
A person acts for his or her individual benefit so that he can obtain a goal that has limited availability. Prisoner’s dilemma
Classic method of investigating people’s choices to compete or cooperate. Muzafer Sherif
Created hostilities through competition and then reduced the hostilities through cooperation.
It is in the Robbers Cave experiments that he showed that superordinate goals (goals so large that it requires more than one group to achieve the goal) reduced conflict significantly more effectively than other strategies (e.g., communication, contact).
Superordinate goals
Are where two or more people or groups must be involved to achieve a specific goal. Muzafer Sherif (1954) performed a study at a camp involving two groups of boys, the Eagles and the Rattlers, that were in opposition to one another in a zero-sum situation. The opposing groups had strong negative feelings towards each other, resulting in hostile actions such as 'garbage wars'.
Sherif was able to successfully bring these two groups together by using superordinate goals, such as solving the problems of a breakdown of the water supply and the breakdown of a food delivery truck. The cumulative effect of these incidents was friendship formation across group boundaries. On the last day, both groups elected to ride home together on the same bus.
-- Developmental Psychology -- Developmental Psychology
The task is to describe and explain changes in human behavior over time. British empiricist school of thought
In the 17th & 18th centuries, these influential social philosophers helped broaden the public’s views about children: John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James Mill, John Stuart Mill.
They believed that all knowledge was gained through experience. Tabula rasa
A blank slate which Locke asserted that a child’s mind is at birth which means that children are born without predetermined tendencies and child development is completely reliant on experiences with the environment. Whose role is it to model the child to fit into society?
The parents and society. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Proposed an opposing view a century after Locke. Believed that society was not unnecessary but also a detriment to optimal development.
— 10 — Charles Darwin
Most often linked to the concept of evolution, he also kept a baby biography concerning the sequence of physical and psychological development.
Evolutionary theory
Stressed the importance of studying the mind as it functioned to help the individual adapt to the environment, a central characteristic of the functionalist system of thought.
G. Stanley Hall
A pioneering American psychologist and educator. his interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association, and the found of child and adolescent psychology.
John Watson
American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. he promoted a change in psychology through his address, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. Through his behaviorist approach, he conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment.
He criticized the field of psychology in being too focused on mentalistic concepts; he believed in the importance of environmental influences and accepted Locke’s view of the tabula rasa.; placed a great deal of responsibility on parents for raising competent children.
He believed the only methods in the study of behavior were objective methods, and that the field of psychology should never consider concepts such as consciousness, mental, will, imagery, etc; he believed the goal of psychology should be to predict behavioral responses given particular stimuli, and vice versa.
Arnold Gesell
A “nativist” in that he believed that much of development was biologically based and that the developmental blueprint existed from birth.
Psychodynamic orientation
Came out of clinical, rather than academic or research settings, and originated in the work of Freud (1856-1939), these theories stress the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.
Cognitive structuralists
In contrast to the beliefs of psychoanalytic and psychosocial theories, this theory emphasizes the thinking ability of people. In opposition to the behaviorists were these structuralists, an orientation most strongly influenced by the work of the late Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
Jean Piaget
Most influential psychologist of the cognitive structuralists. He saw children as more actively involved in their development—constructing knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment.
— 11 — Compare groups of subjects at different ages.
Longitudinal studies
Compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time. Sequential cohort studies
Combine cross-sectional & longitudinal research methods; in this approach, several groups of different ages are studied over several years.
Clinical method/case study method
More detailed approach to the development of a particular child. This method attempts to collate facts about a particular child and his environment in order to gain a better perspective.
Nature/nurture controversy
Debate concerns the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature," i.e. nativism, or innatism) versus personal experiences ("nurture," i.e. empiricism or behaviorism) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits.
Gregor Mendel
A German-speakingSilesian[2][3] scientist and Augustinianfriar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the new science of genetics. Mendel demonstrated that the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance; if both parents have blue eyes, their offspring must have blue eyes because blue eyes is a recessive trait and therefore can only contribute these recessive genes to their children.
Allele
One of a number of alternative forms of the same gene. Dominant and recessive gene
A relationship between alleles of a single gene. Genotype
The total genetic complement (genetic makeup) of an individual. Phenotype
The total collection of expressed traits that is the individual’s observable characteristics. Chromosomes
Genes are located on these; an organized structure of DNA, protein, and RNA found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences.
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An American behavioral psychologist, who pioneered the study of hereditary trait inheritance and learning in animals. His series of experiments with laboratory rats showed that animals can be selectively bred for greater aptitude at certain intelligence tests, but that this selective breeding does not increase the general intelligence of the animals.
In 1942, he tested the ability of laboratory rats to navigate a maze: rats who took fewer wrong turns to get through the maze and reach the food at the end were termed "maze-bright," while those who took many wrong turns were termed "dull." Tryon then interbred the bright rats with other brights, and maze-dull rats with other maze-maze-dulls. With each successive generation, the ability to navigate the maze increased in the brights and decreased in the dulls. Known as Tryon's Rat Experiment, this study was highly influential in the field of psychology for showing that specific behavioral traits may be hereditary.
Twin studies; monozygotic (MZ) v. dizygotic (DZ)
MZ twins are genetically identical and are treated more similarly and that they tend to imitate each other more than DZ twins; DZ share 50% of their genes (ALT & CLT); MZ and DZ do not necessarily share their environments to the same degree.
Lewis Terman
His study was the first to focus on “gifted” children; a large-scale longitudinal study that followed the development of the group over time, observing them every 5 years.
Best known as the inventor of the Standord-Binet IQ test and the initiator of the longitudinal study of children with high IQs called the Genetic Studies of Genius.
A prominent eugenicist: the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding. Down’s syndrome
A genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra 21st chromosome. Varying levels of mental retardation; the age of the biological parents can affect this.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A genetic disorder, degenerative disease of the nervous system; results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine, an amino acid found in milk and other foods, is lacking; was the 1st genetic disease that could be tested in large populations; Untreated PKU can lead to mental retardation, seizures, and other serious medical problems.
Klinefelter’s syndrome
In males, possession of an extra X chromosome; these males have an XXY configuration. Turner’s syndrome
Females with only one X chromosome; a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics; often have physical abnormalities such as short fingers and unusually shaped mouths.
Conception Gametes Zygote
— 13 — Fertilized egg Germinal period Embryonic stage Fetal period Neonatal reflexes: Rooting Moro Babinski Grasping Jean Piaget
A Swissdevelopmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children; his theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Placed great importance on the education of children; as the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."
Believed cognitive growth is a continuous process that begins at birth and proceeds through four sages, each stage being qualitatively different from the others; during infancy, he believed, children learning from interacting with their environment through reflexive behaviors so by repeatedly grasping, infants learn that they can grasp things; considered the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing.
Believed that how we use language depends on which cognitive stage we are in; that just because linguistic abilities improve does not cause improvements in their thinking abilities; he preferred observation to statistical measures.
Schema/ta
Organized patterns of behavior and/or thought; infants develop these behavioral patterns which are characterized by action tendencies; older children develop operational patters characterized by more abstract representations of cognition.
Adaptation
Takes place through 2 complementary processes, assimilation & accommodation. Assimilation
The process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata. Accommodation
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Occurs when new information doesn’t really fit into existing schemata; the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to this new information.
Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor
Primary and secondary circular reactions which means the infanct begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement; this is the advent of goal-oriented behavior; ie. When hungry, the infant will suck on its thumb, trying to gain satisfaction because of the repetition of the behavior, it is called circular; primary circular reactions are restricted to motions concerned with the body while secondary reactions are directed toward manipulation of objects in the environment; object permanent develops; birth to 2 years of age.
Object permanence
Occurs when the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot perceive their existence; “out of sight, out of mind,” is no longer true for infants who have developed into this stage which is the beginning of representational thought; the child has begun to make mental representations of external objects and events.
Preoperational
Once the child has begun representational thought; lasts from 2 years to 7 years of age; children have the capacity to understand the concept that objects continue to exist even though they cannot perceive the existence; child has not mastered conservation
Centration
The tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon. Ie. Cannot understand that relationships are reciprocal and cannot take the perspective of other people.
Egocentrism
A girl, for example, in the centration stage of the preoperational stage may be able to say she has a sister, but not whether her sister has a sister.
Conservation
Children are unable to understand this stage, the notion that physical properties of matter do not change simply b/c the appearance of the matter changes
Concrete operational
Child masters conservation and take the perspective of others into account but are limited to working with concrete objects or information that is directly available; children have difficulty with abstract thought; approximately ages 7 to 11.
Formal operational
With the approach of adolescence, the child enters this stage and has the ability to “think like a scientist,” that is, think logically about abstract ideas.
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Contributed to our understanding of cognitive development; the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of various aspects of the culture—rules, symbols, language, and so on; the internalization of various interpersonal and cultural rules and processes that drives cognitive development in children.
Known for his concept of the zone of proximal development, referring to those skills and abilities that have no yet fully developed but are in the process of development; the child needs guidance to demonstrate those skills and abilities.
4 basic components of language: Phonology
The actual sound stem of language; there are about 40 speech sounds in English. Semantics
The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. Syntax
The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. Pragmatics
A subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning; encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction
Categorical perception
The ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning.
Babbling
An important precursor to language; children—including deaf children— spontaneously begin to during their 1st year.
Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols
1965, showed that the age babbling begins is about the same for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf parents, and deaf children; however, for hearing children, babbling continues and becomes more frequent, reaching its highest frequency between 9 and 12 months; for deaf children, verbal babbling ceases soon after it begins.
Petitto and Marentette
1991 study suggested that deaf children with parents using sign language appear to babble using their hands. Errors of growth
A child who once said, “I ran” will now say “I runned to the store.” Many of these errors are universal and are not the result of environmental influence; it is thought that children are generalizing some internalized rule; this suggests that language acquisition is not the result of imitation and reinforcement, but the active application of
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a dynamic internalized set of linguistic rules; ie. Hisself vs himself; for the most part language is substantially mastered at the age of 5.
Transformational grammar
Chomsky is known for this study; he focused on syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that differ with meaning; believed this ability is innate since children have the capacity for it at an early age.
Language acquisition device (LAD)
The innate capacity for language acquisition is thought to be triggered by exposure to language; this device enable infants to listen to and process sounds; critical period between 2 and 13.
Sigmund Freud
A pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth; for him, human psychology and human sexuality are inextricably linked.
Libido
Sex drive or life drive is present at birth. Believed that this energy and the drive to reduce this tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological process.
Fixation
Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development, 1 of the 5. In response, the child then forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood. Oral Stage
The first psychosexual development stage (0-1 year); during this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through the putting of objects into the mouth by biting and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth as it is the infant’s primary erogenous zone.
Anal Stage
The second stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age 18 months to 3 years. Pleasure is derived from controlling bladder and bowel movement; the major conflict during this stage is toilet training; a fixation at this stage can result in a personality that is too rigid or one that is too disordered.
Oedipal stage
From 3 to 5, the child passes through the, otherwise known, phallic stage. Oedipal conflict
Denotes the emotions and ideas that the mind keeps in the unconscious, via dynamic repression, that concentrates upon a child's desire to sexually possess the parent of the opposite sex (e.g. males attracted to their mothers, whereas females are attracted to their fathers).
Electra conflict
Introduced by Jung in regards to the Oedipus complex manifested in young girls. This occurs is the third stage, the phallic stage, ages 3-6.
— 17 — Latency
Because the latency stage is less of a stage and more of period between stages, it may begin at any time between the ages of 3 and 7 (whenever the child goes to school) and may continue until puberty, anywhere from the ages of 8 to 15. The age range is affected by childrearing practices; a stage of relative stability; no new organization of sexuality develops, and Freud did not pay much attention to it; it originates during the phallic stage as the child’s Oedipus complex begins to dissolve, realizing that his wishes and longings for the parents of the opposite sex cannot be fulfilled, the child turns away from these desires and starts to identify with the parent of the same sex; the libido is transferred from parents to friends of the same sex, clubs and her/role-model figures. The sexual and aggressive drives are expressed in socially accepted forms through the defense mechanisms of repression and sublimation.; the energy, no longer on the Oepidus, can use used for developing the self; thus, the ever present superego becomes more organized and principled. The child acquires culturally regarded skills and values.
Genital Stage
The final stage of human psychosexual development; this stage begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure of the genitals. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved psychosexual developments, the greater their capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex. If, however, they remain fixated, particularly on the phallic stage, their development will be troubled as they struggle with further repression and defenses.
Erik Erickson
A German-born Americandevelopmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis.
Psychosocial theory
Erikson’s theory holds that development is a sequence of central life crises. In each of these crises, there is a possible favorable outcome and a possible unfavorable outcome. Emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment; Erikson believed that development occurred through resolutions of conflicts between needs and social demands; these conflicts occur in stages.
Trust vs. mistrust
Occurs in the first year of life; if resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself; if unresolved, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly through his life.
Autonomy vs shame and doubt
2nd stage, 1-3 years old. The favorable outcome here is a feeling of will and an ability to exercise choice as well as self-restraint; a child will have a sense of competence and autonomy; the unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and lack of control—the feeling that what happens to one is the result of external influences rather than one’s own volition.
Purpose. Initiative vs guilt
3-6 years. Favorable outcomes include purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off.
— 18 — Competence. Industry vs inferiority
School years, 6-12 years. Resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, will be able to exercise his abilities and intelligence in the world, and to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and a low self-esteem.
Child comparing self-worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior.
Fidelity. Identity vs role confusion.
Adolescent, 12 years till 18. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Encompasses what Erikson termed “physiological revolution.” The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion of one’s identity and a kind of amorphous personality that shifts from day to day. Erikson believes, if parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. Otherwise, the teen will face identity confusion. Intimacy vs isolation
The main crisis of young adulthood, 18-35. Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have close, candid relationships with others, the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals. If this crisis is not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, a kind of alienation and distancing of oneself from others and one’s ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or only capable of superficial relationships with others. Loving and lasting relationships vs isolated alienation.
Generativity versus stagnation
Stage 7, 2nd stage of adulthood, middle age. 35-64 Successful resolution = an individual capable of being productive, caring, contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing, they're usually regretful about the decisions and feel a sense of uselessness.
Ego integrity vs despair
This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time an individual has reached the last chapter in their life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Many people, who have achieved what was important to them, look back on their lives and feel great accomplishment and a sense of integrity. We will then see wisdom as a result, a detached concern in life itself, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worthwhile; the individual is ready to face death. Conversely, those who had a difficult time during middle adulthood may look back and feel a sense of despair, a bitterness about one’s life, a feeling that life is worthless, and at the same time, fear over one’s own impending death. Temperament
Considered to be the central aspect of an individual’s personality. It refers to individual differences as well as an individual’s pattern of responding to the environment. Thought to be somewhat heritable, to emerge early in life (during infancy), to be stable over time, and to be pervasive across situations. Core concepts: activity level, negative emotionality, and sociability.
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess
Research by Thomas and Chess used the following nine temperament traits in children: activity, regularity, initial reaction, adaptability, intensity, mood, distractibility, persistence and attention span, sensitivity; based
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upon their study, they proposed 3 categories of infant emotional and behavioral style: easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult.
Approximately 65% of children fit one of the patterns. Of the 65%, 40% fit the easy pattern, 10% fell into the difficult pattern, and 15% were slow to warm up. Each category has its own strength and weakness and one is not superior to another.
Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzig and Korn showed that Easy babies readily adapt to new experiences, generally display positive moods and emotions and also have normal eating and sleeping patterns. Difficult babies tend to be very emotional, irritable and fussy, and cry a lot. They also tend to have irregular eating and sleeping patterns. Slow-to-warm-up babies have a low activity level, and tend to withdraw from new situations and people. They are slow to adapt to new experiences, but accept them after repeated exposure.
Temperament is measured in 3 ways:
Parental reports of child behavior, observations in naturalistic settings (at home), and observations in lab settings which are controlled conditions and ultimately artificial situations that may not be indicative of infant behavior during normal conditions.
Crying
One way infants are equipped to communicate their needs. Wolff
Conducted research with newborn babies, using spectrograms, he identified 3 distinct patterns of crying: basic cry, angry cry, pain cry. Will cry when who they are looking at leaves the room and cease to when the person returns.
Social smiling
One of the earliest and communicative signals that appears in infants. Associated with facelike patterns. At about 5 months, only familiar faces tend to elicit this reaction.
Fear response
Follows a certain developmental course from the undifferentiated to increasingly specific. Evoked through any sudden change in level of stimulation. Vry often, after 1 year, the emotional response is context-dependent, situational.
Harry Harlow
An American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which demonstrated the importance of care-giving and companionship in social and cognitive development; conducted most of his research at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where humanistic psychologistAbraham Maslow worked for a time with him.
John Bowlby
British psychologist, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory; was sent away to boarding school and ended up, during the first half of the 40s, studying children who were brought up in institutions such as foster homes and orphanages; they were well-cared for but lacked intimate bodily contact, and tended to be timid and antisocial.
— 20 — Separation anxiety (SAD)
A psychological condition in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment; for Bowlby, it is in the children’s 2 year that they reacted to their mother’s absence with strong protest; by the third year, however, the child could separate from the mother without prolonged distress.
Mary Ainsworth
A study of Ugandan infants, she devised a lab experience to study the quality of the parent (mother)-child attachment relationship.
“Strange Situation Procedure”
During the experiment, the attachment figure (the mother) brings the child into an unfamiliar room with many tows. A series of three-minute episodes follow. Ainsworth observed and assessed infant behavior, focusing on the infant’s reaction to separation and reunion behavior.
Insecure/avoidant attachment
Type A; not distressed when left alone with the stranger, avoid contact with the mother upon her return. Secure attachment
Type B; mildly distressed during separations from the mother but greet her positively when she returns. Insecure/resistant attachment
Type C; are distressed during the separation and are inclined to resist physical contact with her mother upon her return.
Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist, studying from a biological perspective, studying imprinting which is the rapid formation of an attachment bond b/w an organism and an object in the environment; led him to believe that all imprinting takes place during certain critical periods.
Lawrence Kohlberg
A psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development; work reflected and extended not only Piaget's findings but also the theories of philosophers G.H. Mead and James Mark Baldwin. At the same time he was creating a new field within psychology: "moral development"; his approach begins with the assumption that humans are intrinsically motivated to explore, and become competent at functioning in, their environments. In social development, this leads us to imitate role models we perceive as competent and to look to them for validation.
Preconventional morality
During which right and wrong are defined by the hedonistic consequences of a given action (punishment or reward). The orientation during this phase is toward punishment and obedience.
Orientation toward reciprocity
— 21 — Instrumental relativist stage
Stage 2, phase 1, of Kohlberg’s moral thought theory includes orientation toward reciprocity. Conventional phase of morality
The 2nd phase is based on social rules. “Good girl, nice boy orientation”
The 3rd stage is in which one is looking for approval of others. Law-and-order orientation
4th stage, 2nd phase, sees morality defined by the rules of authority. Post conventional morality
The 3rd phase of Kohlberg’s moral theory has 2 phases as well. Social contract orientation
Moral rules are seen as convention that is designed to ensure the greater good. Universal ethical principles
Stage 6, according to Kohlberg, consists of acting according to a set of these principles. Carol Gilligan
An Americanfeminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics; asserts that males and females adopt different perspectives on moral issues and that these differences stem from the different ways in which boys and girls are raised; points out that Kohlberg’s research was done solely with boys and should not speak on behalf of female moral development; argues that women’s morality tends to be focused on caring and compassion, and that they are concerned with relationships and social responsibilities.
Gender labeling
The 1st stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of self-socialization; 2-3 years of age, children achieve gender identity; that is, they realize that they are a member of a particular accept and are able to label themselves as such and also able to label others in terms of their sex as well.
Gender stability
The 2nd stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of self-socialization; 3-4 years of age marks the period when children can predict that they will still be a boy or girl when they grow up, but this understanding is superficial and dependent upon a physical notion of gender.
Gender consistency
The 3rd stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of self-socialization, 4-7 years of age, children understand permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or how one behaves.
— 22 — Gender schematic processing theory
Proposed by Martin & Halverson, builds on Kohlberg’s theory, holding that as soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin concentrating on those behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender and paying less attention to those they believe are associated with the opposite gender.
Maring & Halverson
Proposed the gender schematic processing theory which built on Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of self-socialization.
Diana Baumrind
A clinical and developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles, discipline, and for her critique of deception in psychological research; by measuring parental control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands, she proposes 3 distinct parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
Authoritarian
Tend to use punitive (inflicting or intended as punishment) control methods and lack emotional warmth; children tend to have difficulties in school and in peer relations.
Authoritative
Have high demands for child compliance, but score low on punitive control methods, utilize positive reinforcement, and score high on emotional warmth; children reported to be more socially and academically competent.
Permissive
Parents score low on control/demand measures; children tend to have difficulties in school and in peer relations.
Fatherhood v motherhood
Fathers tend to play more vigorously with their children than mothers do, while mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interactions.
Personality and Abnormal Psychology William Sheldon
His early theory of personality defined physical/biological variables that he related to human behaviors. He characterized people by body type, relating body type (somatotypes) to personality type.
Endomorphy
Body types that were soft and spherical. Mesomorphy
— 23 — Body types that were hard, muscular, and rectangular. Ectomorphy
Body types that were thin, fragile and lightly muscled. E.G. Boring
Suggested that the development of psychology is due not primarily to the efforts of great people, but to
Zeitgeist, or the changing spirit of the times.
Edward Titchener
A British psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind; structuralism. He created the largest doctoral program in the United States (at the time).
Edward Titchener’s method of introspection
Formed the system of psychology called structuralism. The main tool that Titchener used to try to determine the different components of consciousness was introspection. Unlike Wundt’s method of introspection, Titchener had very strict guidelines for the reporting of an introspective analysis. The subject would be presented with an object, such as a pencil. The subject would then report the characteristics of that pencil (color, length, etc.). The subject would be instructed not to report the name of the object (pencil) because that did not describe the raw data of what the subject was experiencing. He referred to this as stimulus error. Due to Zeitgeist, these other major systems of psychology have developed:
Functionalism, behaviorism, gestalt psychology, cognitive psychology, psychoanalysis, and humanism. Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality
1856-1939, was the first comprehensive theory on personality and abnormal psychology. Most of his predecessors emphasized consciousness and the power of reason in human behavior; based upon his experience treating neurosis, he reversed this thinking and opened up a whole new perspective on personality. He pioneered the psychoanalytic system of thought in psychology.
Humanism
Developed as a system in the mid-20th century; arose in opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism; opposed the pessimism of the psychoanalytic perspective and robotic concepts of behaviorism. They believe in the notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses (behaviorism) or instincts (psychoanalysis).
A group of philosophies and ethical perspectives which emphasize the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers individual thought and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith (fideism). The term humanism can be ambiguously diverse, and there has been a persistent confusion between several related uses of the term because different intellectual movements have identified with it over time.
Abraham Maslow
1908-1970, a humanistic theorist, known for his hierarchy of human motives and for his views on self-actualization. Proposed that needs were organized hierarchically ascending from basic needs to complex
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psychological needs. The highest order of need was self-actualization, that is the need to realize one’s fullest potential. Most people do not reach this need.
Peak experiences
Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
Carl Rogers
1902-1987, identified himself with humanistic psychology, although his personality theory is basically phenomenological. Most known for his client-centered therapy, person-centered therapy, or nondirective therapy. He believed that people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as the psychoanalyst would suggest), nor subjects of faulty learning (as the behaviorists would suggest); the client is seen as being able to reflect upon his own problems, make choices, take positive action, help determine his destiny.
Philippe Pinel
1792; a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological approach to custody and care of psychiatric patients, referred to today as moral therapy; also has made notable contributions to the classifications of mental disorders and has been referred to as “the father of modern psychiatry”; made sure mental illness was treated with consideration and kindness; in an asylum in Paris, he unshackled patients and made sure they could go outside and gave them beds to sleep in, such reforms spread to other asylums; wrote on insanity, dementia, and schizophrenia.
Dorothea Dix
An important reformer in the USA who created the first generation of American mental asylums; from 1841-1881, she was a zealous advocate/activist on behalf of the indigent insane to be treated in a humane way; her campaign was instrumental in improving the lives of the mentally ill in this country.
General paresis
A disorder characterized by delusions of grandeur, mental deterioration, eventual paralysis, and death; due to brain deterioration caused by syphilis (untreatable until 1909), and that the mental disorder seen in the syndrome was caused by organic brain pathology; the idea that physiological factors could underlie mental disorders was an important advance in our understanding of abnormal psychology.
Cerletti & Binni
1939, introduced the use of electroshock for the artificial production of convulsive seizures in psychiatric patients; they believed epileptic-like convulsions could cure schizophrenia (they were wrong); the convulsions were so violent, the patients were in danger of fracturing vertebrae and other bones.
Prefrontal lobotomies
1935-1955, treated 10s of 1000s of patients for schizophrenia, a surgical treatment the severed the frontal lobes of the brain from the brain tissue; ultimately, the procedure also destroyed parts of the frontal lobe—the lobe of the brain responsible for most of the traits that make us distinctly human; didn’t cure schizophrenia—just made the patient easier to deal with since, for the most part, the patient became tranquil and showed an absence of feeling.
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A German psychiatrist, the founder of psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics; believed the chief origin of psychiatric disease to be biological and genetic malfunction; published a textbook in which he noted that some symptoms of mental disorders occurred together regularly enough that the symptom patterns could be considered specific types of mental disorders; he worked out a scheme to classify these disorders integrating clinical data and this became the precursor to our current classification system, DSM-IV (Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
Can categorize theories of personality into 4 areas:
Psychodynamic (psychoanalytic); behaviorist; phenomenological; type and trait. Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic theory:
An approach to psychology that emphasises systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between consciousmotivation and unconscious motivation; Freud’s model of personality was the structural dynamic model.
Freud’s model of personality/model of the psyche involved 3 major systems:
Id: the reservoir of all psychic energy and consists of everything psychological that’s present at birth; a set of uncoordinated/innate instinctual trends & primary processes (response to frustration, “obtain satisfaction now, not later” i.e., can’t get food he is hungry for, so he pictures food to alleviate the frustration experience; this mental object is known as wish-fulfillment) are manifest; functions according to the pleasure principle, whose aim is to immediately discharge any energy build up, i.e., relieve tension.
Ego: The organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id & the super-ego; operates according to the secondary process, which includes the reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle; suspends the workings of the primary process.
The mutual give and take of this mode of functioning and secondary process with reality promotes the growth and elaboration of the psychological processes of perception, memory, problem-solving, thinking, & reality testing; receiving its power from the id, it can never really be independent of the id.
Reality principle
The goal is to postpone the pleasure principle until the actual object that will satisfy the need has been discovered or produced.
Superego: Like the id, it’s never directly in touch with reality; it strives for the ideal rather than the real; however, it represents the moral branch of personality, striving for perfection; acts as a self-critical conscience, reflecting social standards learned from parents or teachers…
There are two subsystems: conscience, all that is told to be improper, all punishable acts go here, the wrong; ego-ideal contains whatever is approved of and which will reward the child, the right.
Instinct
An innate psychological representation (wish) of a bodily (biological) excitation (need); the propelling aspects of Freud’s dynamic theory of personality; the life and death instincts, sometimes called Eros & Thantos.
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The life instinct which serves the purpose of individual survival (hunger, thirst, sex). Libido
The form of energy by which the life instincts perform their work. Thantos
The death instincts represent an unconscious wish for the ultimate absolute state of quiescence (state or period of inactivity or dormancy, physical functions slowed down or suspended).
Defense mechanisms
The ego’s recourse to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety; they all have 2 common characteristics: 1) they deny, falsify, or distort reality; 2) they operate unconsciously.
8 main defense mechanisms
Repression; suppression; projection; reaction formation; rationalization; regression; sublimation; displacement. Repression
The unconscious forgetting of anxiety-producing memories. Suppression
A more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting. Projection
When a person attributes his forbidden urges to others. I.e., not I hate my uncle but my uncle hates me as it breeds less anxiety.
Reaction formation
A repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite. I.e., a young boy who hates his brother and is punished for his hostile acts may turn his feelings into the exact opposite, that is, showering his brother with affection.
Rationalization
The process of developing a socially acceptable explanation for inappropriate behavior or thoughts. Regression
A person reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to a traumatic event. Sublimation
Transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors. I.e., hurt and anger into humor, comedian. Displacement
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Pent-up feelings (often hostility) are discharged on objects and people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings. I.e., someone is harassed by his boss and goes home and provokes an argument with his wife.
Carl Jung
A Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist whose central concept of analytical psychology is individuation – the psychological process of integrating the opposites, including the conscious with the unconscious, while still maintaining their relative autonomy; considered individuation to be the central process of human development. Collective unconscious
Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the personal unconscious, in that the personal unconscious is a personal reservoir of experience unique to each individual, while the collective unconscious collects and organizes those personal experiences in a similar way with each member of a particular species; shared amongst all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors.
Archetypes
A thought or image that has an emotional element; universal, archaic patterns and images that derive from the collective unconscious and are the psychic counterpart of instinct.
Persona
A mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention. Anima
Feminine, help us understand gender, the feminine behaviors in males. Animus
Masculine, help us understand gender, the masculine behaviors in females. Shadow
Consists of the animal instincts that humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life; responsible for the appearance in consciousness and behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Self
The person’s striving for unity, the point of intersection between the collective unconscious and the conscious; Jung symbolized this as a mandala, a Sanskrit word meaning magic circle, the reconciler of opposites and as the promoter of harmony.
Extroversion
An orientation toward the external, objective world. Introversion
