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2" " " ." " * 2" *() & 2 2" 1 "3 ) , 2" 1 650 763.73 1 ) 7 , ) " 3 5 " ) " 1 " 2" $&!.) " 86. 1983. ! " ."1 )" "3 4" , 2, "8" )("1 )1 , ( ,., , ( "." ) . 1" ( , 1:299 792 458 s. "1 )" 5")1 " -,2" . , 2 -,2, "! - 5"+ %( ! * -"( "#$ )" . ") !, )1 ( (" " - 2" ."1 - ) 10-7 10-13 m. +" ." " ."1 ), (/!*() & – dm (1 m = 10 dm), /(")!*() & - cm (1 m = 102 cm), *! !*() & - mm (1 m = 103 mm), *!$& *() & - µm (1 m = 106 µm) " " *() & - nm

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foot (*(6 " & " #) . ) - ft inch (. /) – in, ! " 2" 1 ft = 12 in. -."8, ( 7 2" ."1 ( ) " " ): 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 ft = 30.48 cm. $ " ."8, " )1 " , , )" )1" 2" " ) ) 5 . )1 . - ( . "41 ,! 5 2 7 ( " )1 . ) ." 5 7 2" ."1 - ) : 1 U.S. ft = 0.3048006 m 1 m = 39.37 U.S. in. " . " ( . * 2" ( ." , , 2( ) , 1 "*/ ( )" % )#$! #!#)(*, ) " . 2" . % ), #) . . /, ! " ( " ) " " ) : 1 7( 1 = 6 )1 = 1.896484 m; 1 )1 = 12 = 0.316081 m 1 = 2.634 cm.

."1 ) . ) )1".,, 2" - . &5!" 2" $ & )"! *() & - m2. $ " ( 1 ! ."1 )1" )" ,!" 2" ", 41 ), & – , %($) & - ha $ & )"! $! *() & - km2 . O ) (" " 7 2" ."1 - ) : 1 a = 100 m2_, 1 ha = 10 000 m2 _{= 100 a,} 1 km2 = 1 000 000 m2 = 100 ha. 7( 1) . ) )1".,, 2" - ( 4 , 2" , &"! % ) – ;hv 0)& – 2, ) ( " )1 . : 1 ;hv = 3.596 652 m2, 1 j = 1600 ;hv = 0.575 4642 ha. 2" - ". " , , 1 "* 2" $ 2"! *() & - m3.

1.3.2. ( !"!/( ' *(&(+( " - ,! , ( , ". SI ) )1"., 2")1" & ! " - rad. " )" "3 4" " 1 ,! 5 2 2" , 2" , "5 , (1 rad = 1 m/m = 1). " , ,! ) 2π (π < 3.14159265). ( SI ) )1". , ." "+, ,! ( , - 1 5 7 - ! )1" )" ,! ,! ( ) )1". 41 ), #($#('!* "! /(")('!* "!. " " - ." "+" ,! ( , )" ) !"- . . ) )1"., ),: #)(.(" (°°°°), *!" ) (′) #($ " (″″″″). $, ,! , ( " " 1 5 " - ) 360° ()1" " ). -."8, 2" - ." "+" ,! ( ( " ) " " ) : 1° = (π/180) rad = 60′; 1′ = (1/60)° = (π/10 800) rad = 60 ″; 1″ = (1/60)′ = (π/648 000) rad; 1 rad = (180°/π) < 57°.29578 < 3438′ < 206 265 ″ < 57°17′44.8 ″. " . ( . )1" )" " 1 - . " ,! ( " 2" " – " (! ,)) - (g), /(")('!* " *!" ) - (c) /(")('!* " #($ " - (cc), 5"., 2": 1 (g) = 100 (c) = 0.9°; 1 (c) _{= 100} (cc) _{= 0°00′32,4″.} " 1"- . . ) )1"., , ,! - ) 400(g) = 360°. )" * 5 - ( 2, , " . . * ,. ." , 100(g) 42(c )88(cc) 4" )" 100.4288 (g). -."8, ! ( ) " " ): 1 rad = (200/π) (g) _{= (20 000/π)} (c) _{= (2 000 000/π)} (cc)_. ) + 2" SI ) )1". ."+,2" )" " ) ( 7 ( , 1 : .* )" ,(" 4, . . ) ( . , ) . , - ( 2" " 1 5" ." ) *" )" - 5"1 , "5" " ( ." , ."1 )" - 5 ( . . ) ( . m, - - 1". " 1, , 2" (" ) ( C K 2" 1 5" ( )1 1 7 ." ); .* ". 2, . ,; - ) .* )" " )1 (/ 1 5 , ) . )" + ." - ( 4 ( "5" ; " " ) )1 (/" " -( " 2" ( 2 2, )" 1 5 . 2" . ) ( . - . )1 . ( ." , N ⋅ m N m); " " ) )1 (/" " 5 " 2" 4, )" m/s m ⋅ s-1; .* ( 7 2" , ) . 2" . 2" -( /" 4 "+" )" 1" ( ." , ( 2" ) 1 m/s2 m ⋅ s-2 , " ( m/s/s); .* )" ( 2 2, ,." 5 " ( " )1 2" . - . )1 . ( ." , ( 2" ) 1 1 m, " ( 1m). *" )1 " " . ! - "- (1 5 ") ! , " 1 3 " ( 2 2, )" - . .")1 . ( ." 15 739.012 53). 5"1( 3 " 7 * 2"( , - .")1 )" - )1 (/ . 5 " " 1 "* )1 1 - ( 2 +" 7 / 1 7; 1". 1 5 " " 2" 1 "* ."+ ( 1 ) .* . 2" (m), " + 7 ( . - ( . (."1 ) * 1 2 ) 41 )" ,." 5 ( " )1 ) .* 2" " ) 2 )" . 1". 1 5 " 2 ."+,2" ( ." , ) ( 2" ) 1 35 cm × 35 cm,

" ) ( 35 × 48 cm , ) ( 2" ) 1 100 (g) ± 2 (g), " ) ( 100 ± 2 (g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″″″″!#)!"!)( – ) ,"(″″″″ ( " )1 ." " " (" 5 ". 2" ,(" ),1 2" (/" ." "+ ( 2, 2" ″″″″!#)!"!) ″″″″ ( " )1 )1 1 . $ ". 1" , )1 ) ( . )( 2)1( . , ! "4 " )" " " : ! ,*", ) )1". 1) " ) ,5 2 ". 1.4.1. & 2( &(5$(

,*" ! "4 " (" ! ") blunders, mistakes) , )1( ), &(5$( , ( . ). ) ,, 2" - 5 2 )1, 2, (" 5 , ), ,!" (" 1"! 2". " 25"4 7 - ! - + 7 (, 2 (, 2")1" 2 . ", ." , ! "4 5 1 1 ( " )1 1/ ". 2" ") ." "+ ,1 . 1 - ( , 1 (" ! "4 " . !, )1 1 ) " 2" + 7 ( 2 ( , 1 . ) ,5 2, . +" (" ( 1 . )1 ! "4 (" ( )1" " 7 2" , 5 1 . ) , ) 1 . " 7 2" " , " ." "+ ."1 ! 2, 1 - 2 1 )" 2 ( ( 7 ! "4 . " " . ) 1 . 1 . ). ) ,, )1" )" - 5 1 ."7 -. 41 ),: $ , , ( - , -, $ , ( , ) .

1 ( +" " . ) +" ),.+ ( 7 "-, 1 1 . " )" ,5 1 : " "+". ,! ( 4" ,1 5, +". ) " +" ( " )1 ( 2" 5 "-, 1 1 2 - 5 2 )1, ) " +" ( " )1 1 "1 )" "-, 1 1 2 ) 5", ) ) ! ,*, ! "4 ,); 4 "+". (" ( )1" ." 7 2" ( ." , , ."1 . )1 . ) + 7 ( . )( 8"+". )1,; 4 "+". 7 5 +" , ." 2" 1/ ,! 30 m 2" -* ,! ( , ( . 1 ,! , 180°; "- ( ) . ." "+ . ( 4" " 1" ) .

" )1 1 )1 5 " 1 1 "1 2, + ' &$( "8" 7 & #. &( (& )" 7 + 7 (" ." " - 2, )1" ( '$ " (& )" 7. "-, 1 1 2 ) 5, )( 2 2 ( " )1 , ), )1 ", . !, )" , " ,1( 1 * 1 . ,! . "5 . , "-, 1 1 ) ! ,* . ! "4 . 2" )1 , /". )1, , * " 1 ( . )" ) /,5 1 - ) , . 1.4.2. !#)(* )#$( &(5$( !#)(* )#$( &(5$( ) )1". 1) "3" 1 ! 8 2, )" " . #!#)(* 2 , , 2" - 1, ,(" . " * 1 . 1". 1 5 3 ., ) . " ) " " " ( (/ +". " ) " ." 1 (." "+ ) )1 . ,) ( . , ." "+ " ,(" * 1 )1 . ( , - ! 8" . - )1 , ( . " " 1 , 5,, )1 ,." 1, ( * ,) - ." "+" 3 - 5 . )( 2)1( . .* 2" 1 , 2". )" " ) " ." 1 (." "+") )1( ,2". ( ." 2" ! ( 4" " "." 1 ) )1". . (/ + " ) " ." 1 - -( " ." , 1" ) )1". 1) 7 "3" 1 . )" - 1 , (/ +" " ) " ." 1 )1 . ,) ( . " " " . ) 1 2 (, ) )1". 1) " ! "4 ". * )" ! "4 " " . ) ", . )" + 7 ( ) )1". – ,- . )1". 1) "3" 1 . 2, - 5 1" 3 .", - ( ) ( " )1 - )( ! "3" 1 . ), (" 5 - 2" , 1 , ") ." "+ , ! ( . ( " )1 ! "4 ". " "+" , " 1/ . 2 2" , (" ( " )1 2")1" ." 2" " 1 (" ! "4 ". )" - ) )1". 1 ! "3" 1 ."+ , ." ) " 5 " ! "4 " " 1" , "-, 1,2, " ) )1". 1) " ! "4 " ), . "." ,, ) )1". 1) " ! "4 " )" "4 ( 2, ,) " ,1 2 , ,1 2 ,1 2 . ". " 1, , ( )1 1 ) ), ." 7 -( ) )1". 1) 7 ! "4 ( .* 2" 1 , "). 2" "5 )1 ,." 1 . ( * ,) - ." "+" . ) )" ") ( 4" )1 )1 , 2" " " ( 1 "! " "., - ." "+". ( 8"+" ,1 . 1 - 2" , ") ." "+ 2" ) /,5 " 1 -( )1 ) )1". 1) 7 "3" 1 +"! ( , ! /" . /,5 .")1 . " 1 ! 41 )" . " "1 )1 ( 1 " 1 5,, /" . 7 ) )1". 1) 7 "3" 1 5 2" 2" " " - 1 . )" " )( 7 ) ) , ! "4 5 2 2" -( ) . " 1 2" - ( )" " - 7 3 - 5 7, ) 7 4 7 )1 7 ,) ( - ( "." 1 2 + ") ." "+ .

$ " -( ) )1". 1) 7 ! "4 2 )" )" " 1 " ) " ." 1 (." "+"), )1 2" 2" )" )" * "-, 1 1 ." "+ . ." , ) . , 1 "1 +, 1 ,! . !, )" ." 1 1 . " – , . $ ! "4 -* . " ,- ( " 2 (, ) )1". 1) 7 "3" 1 . 1.4.3. .& $( ! &('! ! ) 5 . ). ) ,, , )" ." "+" ) * ″″″″ ″″″″ +"! ( ( " )1 " )" ( 1 . ( "2 ." / ( 2" 2" ) )1". 1) 7 ! "4 . 2" x "-, 1 1 ." "+ , ( ) )1". 1) ! "4 ) , 1 . "-, 1 1,, 1 2" e x xc = − , (1.4.3-1) ″″″″ ″″″″ ( " )1 + . ) 5 2 1" 2 ! "4 c_s 2 2" ) " ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 2" 2" ), 1 ! - ( " )1 ) )1". 1) " ! "4 ", 12. s c x c x = + . (1.4.3-2) " 1 2" ! 5" ) . ) )1". 1) " ! "4 ", (" 2" 41"! 1" . T "* . 1 , ( , )1 1 ( " )1 x_c 25"4 " 2" - 1 . *2" 1 ( 2 ) "-, 1 1 . ." "+ * 2 )" , ( , 2" ! ,- ( " )1 ,( 8"+". "1 )1 ( " ) " (" ( 1 ) ,5 2 " ." / (". "-, 1 1" ." "+ ) * 8" " ! ,* 7 ) )1". 1) 7 ! "4 ). 1 )" 2, ! 2 2" "8" ."1 . – ! (µ) (." . )1, + 2" 5 7 "-, 1 1 - σ). )1 1 ( " )1, ) " + ( " )1 () " ) ) " * 5 2" - 1 . )" " 1 ( " 1 ). " , - 5 ( . ) xˆ , ,.")1 ! "4 " ( " )1 )" 1" . , - v , 1 ( ) v x xˆ= + . (1.4.3-3) 1.4.4. !*!"!# +( #!#)(* )#$!% )!/ 0 $ "17 * ." "+ -,."( " . ) +" ! ,* 7 ! "4 ( +" ." "+ - ( " )1 )( 7 - 1 7 ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 . " ." ,)1 ( " )" 5 1 + + ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 . ( ." , ,-" ". ." "+" , " 1/ .. .", )1( , . " * 1 - 5 1 , ), ( " )1 * 2" 7 ." "+". 1 , ,) " : - 1". " 1, . +" " * 2" - ( "." ." "+ , - ) - 1"- + . +" " * 2" - ( "." ." "+ , " ) " ! ) ( 8"+ ."1 " ." "+ ( 4 "+" - 5 1" . " "."), " " ( 1 " . 1" 2 - 2" ." " " (" 5 " – , ". ." "+ ,! ( ,! ." ., 2 (/,2, )" ) " " -( ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 : " ) " 1 5 )1 ,! ." 1.2. 2 ( 1 5 2 - 5 ( " 1 ,! ." 2" 1 5 , " 1 , " " ,! ." , ! "4 -* ! " + " 1 " " ) 1"." . ,! , ! "4 " " " ,! ." . )" ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 ,1( , + 7 ( ,1 2 )" . " -,2" ( ,. +,2"):

" ( 1 . . 1". 1 5 . . " ( +". (/ +". "-, 1 1 ." "+ , / ( . * 2 . )1 ,." 1 ." "+". , )1 . ,) ( . . + 7 (" * 2", -* . " ( 1 " ."1 " ." "+ , 4 "+". 3, ! . " 1 *,7( 1 ) )1". 1) " ,1 2". 1.4.5. , 0"( &(5$( 1 ( + " . ) + ! ,* 7 ! "4 1 + + ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 , "-, 1 1 ." "+ )" , /". )1, , . !, 1 "1 1 . )" "3 4" (" 5 2 . ( 4" . !, 7 ( " )1 2 7 )( , 1 ! + 7 (" 2 (". " ! )" "3 4" ! ! 5 ( " )1 2 2 ! 8 2 1" " ! 5" . * 2, (/ + " ! " ) " ." 1 (* 2 ." "+ ). * /"! -,."( + , - . ) . " ) " ." 1 ) * +". 5"., ". * 2 1 5 ). 1 1 )7 " ) " ." 1 – ) ,5 2 ! 8 2. "-, 1 1 2" ) ,5 2 ! 8 2, 2" )7 . " * 1 * 2 ( " )1 1 6. ." , (" ( 1 * 2". * 2 3, (" . * 2, * + 1" " 1/6 0.166 " )1 (/ ! 5 , ( " )1 ) * 2 ,) "4 7 ! 8 2 ( 2 (" 1 1 5 ") , , ! * 2 * + ". " "+ , "." , ( , ", ,! ( , ( ) ) " - " ) .) 1 + + ! ,* 7 ) )1". 1) 7 ! "4 , ). 1 . ) ,5 2 " ." / (". 2" ( " )1 ,! 22°15′20″ , 2" ,! ." " ( ")"1 ,1 , . 2" 5" ( 1 " )" ( " )1 "-, 1 1 ." "+ ."8,) * - ( 1 . 0 1 )" ( 4" 2" 5 "-, 1 1 " 1 4, - 1" ( " )1 22°15′20″, + 7 ( ,- )1 2" (" * 1 . 2", ( " )1 22°15′20″ - 5 ( )" ″″″″ ″″″″ . "8,1 ., 1 5 ( " )1 - ( 2" - 1 . ) " ) ,5 2 )1 ." / ( 7, "-, 1 1 ." "+ )" " " 1 ) ( " 4 ,. 2" ) )1". 1) 7 "3" 1 , " 1 ! "4 " ( " -,./ (, ) ,5 2 7 ." / ( 7 )1( 2" "41 ) " 2 . .", ) ,5 2 ! "4 2" 1 8" ) ,5 2 ." / ( , 2" " "-" 1,2" - , -."8, "-, 1 1 ." "+ () ,5 2 " ." / (") )1 1" ( )1 1" ( " )1 ). 5" ( ( " )1 ) ,5 2 " ! "4 " 2" , , 41 - 5 "-, 1 1 ." "+ ! ( )1 1 2 ( " )1 (, )1 1 )1 )" ″″″″ ″″″″ - ( ! ) " (µ). )1, +" ) ,5 2 7 ! "4 , " " 1 5 2" )1, +, "-, 1 1 ." "+ 5" ( " ( " )1 ( )1 1" ( " )1 ). - (" ! ) " 2" * /" -. 1 1 ." "+ ( "-, 1 1 . ." "+ ) 1 1 + 7 (, 2* /, " , ( 5" ( +") "! ! "4 ". 1 ! ,-"(4 , ( " )1 2" - . ), ! "4 ". ,! - - 2 )" , ) 5 2 1" 2 ! "4 )1 - ( 1"1 "-, 1 1 ." "+ 2")1" ( "7 . !" )1, discrepancy). " )1 (/ - , -."8, ( "-, 1 1 ." "+ )1" ) ,5 2 " ." / (". (best value),

(most probable value) (corrected value)

), - - 2 )" )1" . ( " )1 ) ,5 2 " ." / (" 2, * 2 .

) ". ) " * 2 . ." "+ . (( 4" ." "+ . . ! * 2 -

redundancy). " " 1 (" ( )1" * 2 2, )" ." . )"* 7 1"7 * ". " + 7 2" 1-(. ."1 (. ' / - Least Square Estimate). )"

) ,5 2 ." / ( - 5 ) x , " - - ( + - ( )" ! , - xˆ , 2" - v, ) , (1.4-3). 1.4.6. (#! &" #) *(&(+ " 1 ." "+ ( 2"! 2" 1,. 1 "* ! - ( 1 " 1 ! "4 . "-, 1 1 ." "+ ) " 2" " ( / ! - ( + ( " )1 ." " " (" 5 ". "5 ") !, )1 - 5 ( ),.+,, , ." ,1 . 1" )1, ") !, )1 ." "+ , 41 - 5 ),.+, , ( / )1 "-, 1 1 . $ ". GUM-,, )" "3 4" $ " . ." " ") !, )1 , ". GUM-, )1" )" ) " " ": )1 ") !, )1 (standard uncertainty),

.* ( )1 ") !, )1 (combined standard uncertainty),

4 " ") !, )1 (expanded uncertainty), 3 1 )1 + (coverage factor). "-, 1 1 ." "+ , ,( 8"+ ( ,) " , 5" 7 ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 /" 2" ) . " ( " )1 ." " " (" 5 " -* ! ") !, )1 )1 " ) " ) ,5 2 7 "3" 1 " 1 , ! . " ( + ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 . "4 2 )" 2 (/ ) " " " ( 1 ! - ( + ) )1". 1) 7 ,1 2 2" 1 5 - 1 . ") !, )1 ." "+ 2" ) " 5 +" " - 1, 3 - 5 , (" 5 , +" "-, 1 1 ." "+ " )1 2 2" ( " )1 (" " ! 5" * 2 ( " )1 ) )1 +" 7 "-, 1 1 - )1" 1 ! ) + . . )1" " . - ( + 3 - 5 " " ) - 5 1 . )1" " . " * 1"1 . " )" , 1 ." " 2 (" 5 . ) , )1 2 " . !, 7 -( ") !, )1 ." "+ , 2 7 ), ) " " 2( 2 , 1 : " 1 , "3 ) )1 ." " " (" 5 ", " " ( 1 " - 2 "3 ) )1 ." " " (" 5 ", " " "-" 1 1 ( )1 ,- 2 ) ( " )1 "-, 1 1 ." "+ ." " " (" 5 ", " " ( 1 - ( +" "3" 1 )1 7 ,1 2 ." "+ , ) " " ( 1 ." "+" )1 7 ."1 , 5 " ) ) * )1 " 1 , ") ( 4" )1 )1 , 2" . !, )1 )1 ,." 1 , " " ( 1 1 5 )1 )1 "1 2". 2" )1 ,." 1 ) 1 , " " ( 1 - ( +" )1 1 ,! 7 ."1 * 2" 7 - ,! 7 -( 2 )" )1" . * " ." "+ , ) . 2" 4 " " . " - 2" " , " ." "+ ,

" ." " ." " " (" 5 " , 1 , -( 8"+ ." "+ )" )1( ( ), )1 ." "+, )1". , ) 5 " 7 7 3 . 2 - ,." 1 ( +" "-, 1 1 ." "+ - ( ) +"! (" ." ", ) ( 41 2" 1 " 7 - 1 , 2" )" ." . .", . - "-, 1 1 ." "+ +"! (" ") !, )1 ,(" 2" * /" 1 ( 4" 3 . 2 "! . +". 41 )" 5" ,2" !" "1) ! )1 ,5+ . - )( 2 7 "-, 1 1 ." "+ 2")1" ) " " ": 2 ) 4" ."1 2 2" )1 . 5, + "-, 1 1 5 " " ") !, )1 ." "+ - 1 " ) " ." 1 , 2 ) " )(" . " 1" ") !, )1 , 1 , )1 ,." 1,2" 5 + 7 (" , 1 "*", " - 1 " 1 )" )( . " "- ( ) ( 1 , " )(" 4 " " ( " )1 1" + 7 (" -( ". $ ". GUM-, ." ") !, )1 " " "-, 1 1 ." "+ - " , , - uc, . " )" - - 1 5"1 5 , 1 : l =100.234 m, uc = 0.012 m; l =100.234(12) m, 5"., 2" ") !, )1 - , - ! ) )" ) " +" (" 3 " "-, 1 1 ." "+ ; l = 100.234(0.012) m, 5"., 2" ") !, )1 - " , 2" . "-, 1 1 ." "+ ; l = (100.234 ± 0.012) m, ! " ( " )1 - "-, 1 1 " )1 (/ ") !, )1 "-, 1 1 , " 1" ( . ( 2 ) " + 5 , , ( -* ! 1 ( ! 5 - ( + 1" ( ) " " ", , ) )" "1 ."+,2". )1 . ." . ") !, )1 , 5 1 )" . " 3 . ) 1 , " ." ,1 . ( 5, (ISO, 1997). (" " (" " " ." " )" , ) . +" ( 4" )1", - 5 1 . - ( . . (" ) ,5 2"( ,1 " (" - , -."8, " 1 ! "4 " 1 ") !, )1 . & 41 ( 4" ) )" . 1 )1 - - ! "4 " ! "4 )" ) ,5 2 . (" 5 . )1, + . "-, 1 1 ." "+ 2(" ( 1 2 7 ( " )1 . 1.5. 1 1 )1 5 - - ) )" )( 7 . !, 7 ( " )1 ) ,5 2 " ." / (". * ! "(" ! * . , 2", ". !, " 2" " 1 5 1 1 )" )( +" " "." 1 . " ."1 , 2" ,-., , *- . .")1 )( 7, ,- . )" ) . 2" ! 5" ) , ( " )1 ! - ( . + . )" /" ) ( " -". ) (, "-, 1 1 -" ,- )" )" - /,5 ) . 2 , 2 . ." , ("4 ". ." "+ 7 - 1 ! ,! . $ , 2, * 5 " ! 5" * 2 ." "+ . $ 1 5 , * )" -(" " 7 - /,5 ( / 2" ,-"1 ) . 2" ) , ." "+ – ,- ." "+ . -. . ,- 10 " "." 1 ( "-, 1 1 ." "+ ) ) (, + 7 " . ."1 " , 2". " ."1 2")1" (mean) - µ, 2 " )1 (/ 1."1 5 , ) " , 10 "-, 1 1 ." "+ 2(" ( 1 2,

( " )1 ." " " (" 5 " (+" , " ,). ( (a ( )1" " - ( )" (sample statistics).

) (, ,- "-, 1 1 ." "+ . !, )" ) 5, 1 ( - 1 ): 2 ! . 3 " (" 2 (7 )1 ! . )1" " ! . );

1 1 )1 ,- - " , 2 ( , , ,

; sample statistics for location – mean, median, mode, midrange);

1 1 )1 " ,- - " , )1, + ( ) " - 2 , variances, covariances). 2" 1 ,- "-, 1 1 ." "+ " " ) ,5 2 " ." / (", . !, " 2" )1 , ) 1 2 " "-" 1,2" !. 1 *" 1.5-1 1 ), "-, 1 1 ." "+ , , 1 *" 1.5-2 "-, 1 1 ), ) 1 , 1" ( . 1″. 1 2" * 2 "-, 1 1 , )( . 1" ( , + 7 (" " 1 ( " 3 " (" 2". ) (, " 1 ( 7 3 " (" 2 , ) 1.5-1 - 2" 7 )1 ! . " 1 ( 7 3 " (" 2 . 6 )1 ! . 2" )1 , ) - ) ,5 2 2" " ) ,5 2 " ." / (". )" )1" (" ) ,5 2 " ." / (", ,.")1 7 )1 ! . - 2 ! . )" )1 - - . ) , )1 , 2 7 )1 ! . - 71"( (" * 2 "-, 1 1 ." "+ , )" - 1 ! - ! "1 )1 . .")1 +", )1" )" 2" )1 ( 2" )1 1 )1 " ) " , 1.5.1.

2( 1.5-1: "-, 1 1 ." "+ (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)

ni xi ni xi ni xi ni xi ni xi ni xi ni xi 1 27,2 20 33,5 39 31,2 58 32,9 77 34,5 96 33,5 115 33,1 2 29,0 21 35,0 40 31,1 59 32,1 78 34,9 97 33,8 116 32,0 3 37,4 22 35,7 41 31,2 60 36,3 79 33,9 98 36,2 117 34,1 4 37,0 23 38,0 42 34,0 61 30,1 80 32,7 99 37,3 118 36,5 5 32,0 24 31,3 43 31,9 62 32,8 81 35,6 100 33,9 119 39,1 6 32,5 25 33,0 44 30,5 63 31,8 82 34,3 101 35,8 120 36,0 7 36,0 26 31,0 45 35,7 64 33,1 83 34,2 102 36,2 121 41,1 8 35,0 27 31,2 46 30,0 65 30,8 84 35,0 103 38,3 122 35,6 9 33,8 28 31,5 47 36,7 66 35,7 85 34,1 104 39,9 123 38,7 10 34,0 29 32,0 48 35,6 67 34,5 86 32,9 105 37,4 124 40,7 11 35,0 30 36,1 49 33,8 68 30,6 87 36,2 106 37,1 125 35,2 12 30,0 31 37,5 50 30,8 69 35,6 88 33,9 107 37,9 126 40,6 13 34,7 32 36,1 51 37,1 70 37,2 89 28,2 108 33,2 127 33,1 14 35,5 33 33,0 52 33,9 71 31,7 90 33,0 109 35,8 15 36,0 34 36,0 53 32,4 72 32,0 91 31,2 110 39,1 16 37,0 35 28,8 54 33,9 73 35,7 92 32,1 111 31,0 17 35,0 36 28,8 55 33,9 74 35,5 93 34,0 112 34,0 18 36,0 37 37,4 56 34,5 75 32,1 94 33,0 113 34,0 19 34,8 38 27,0 57 36,7 76 35,2 95 33,6 114 31,0

2( 1.5-2: 2 , 1" ( 26,7 - 27,7 27,8 - 28,7 28,8 - 29,7 29,8- 30,7 30,8- 31,7 31,8 - 32,7 32,8 -33,7 33,8 -34,7 34,8 -35,7 35,8 -36,7 36,8 -37,7 37,8 -38,7 38,8-39,7 39,8-40,7 40,8-41,7 Σ i n 2 1 3 5 13 12 14 22 19 16 10 4 2 3 1 127 n ni 0,02 0,01 0,02 0,04 0,10 0,09 0,11 0,17 0,15 0,13 0,08 0,03 0,02 0,02 0,01 1,0

!$ 1.5-1: + (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)

1.5.1. ) )!#)!$( '&$ .&! /("! . 0 $ ( 25"4 " 4 " ." - " , 2 ) ,5 2 " ." / (" 2")1" ,- "-, 1 1 ." "+ , 2 )" "3 4" = = n 1 i i x n 1 x , (1.5-1) ! " 2": x - ) " + ( " )1, x - "-, 1 1 ." "+ , n - (" 5_i ,- , , , * 2 ." "+ , ,- ,. 1."1 5 ) " ) , "- ( ) 7 "-, 1 1 ." "+ (,- ) 2" 2 ),2" ) ,5 2 , ." / (,. " " ." 2 ) ,5 2 " ." / (" 2")1" -x_m. " 2 2" " "." 1 - ) " " ,- , 5"., )" " "." 1 ,- "17 "8 2, (" 5 . 2" * 2 ." "+ n , ." 2 )" * 2 ) " ( ),)" ) " 4 " "." 1 . 1.5.1-1: " 1 ." 2 , 1 7 ) , ( : 0 % : ) -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (." 2 - ) 1) *) -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (." 2 - ) 1.5) ,- 2" ( " )1 2 )" 25"4 " 2 (/,2" , ,- ,. 2" - 1 ." "+ " 7 )1 ! ., . 2" ( " )1 2" 2" )1 , ) 2( 4 ( ,! () 1.5-2; ( " )1 33.9). "-, 1 1 ) 2(" . 1" - 1"1 . ,-.". "-, 1 1 2. +"! 1" - 1"1 * 2 )" & #. " '&$ . (" 5 , ) " . ) ( . ., "-, 1 1 2. +"! 1" - 1"1 * 2 )" #&( !" & #. " midrange. ." 2 1 ! ,- ( )" "1 )1 . 2" 2" )1 ( 1."1 5 ) " 2(" "! 2. +"!

+ .

$ 1.5.1-2: ,- 1.5 2.3 3.5 3.4 5.6 5.6 6.1 ) 5, 1 ) " , ) .

0 % :

1.5.2. ) )!#)!$( '&$ .&! /("! "(#! &" #)! # 2" )1 ( 2 ." ) " - 2" 1 ! ) , ." "+ 2")1" . "8,1 . - - , ,! 7, 2" " " 5 1" 1 5 " )1 . " +" )1, +" 2")1" ." ) " - 2" , (" . ! , - ( )" - " $ - SPG. 5, )" ) (, - - = − = n 1 i i x x n 1 SPG . (1.5.2-1) " " +" )1, +", ) , " . . , " ( " , ) " - 2, )1, +" ." "+ 1 "3" 1 ( . % )" "3 4" - 1 ( ( 1 " ( 2 )". 3 ,- 5, )" ) (, - - = − − = n 1 i 2 i 2 x _n1₁ (x x) ˆ σ , (1.5.2-2) ! " 2": x - ) " + ( " )1 - n "-, 1 1 ." "+ . 2 ) ,- σˆ_x2 2")1" " ( 2 )" , 2" σ2. ) , σˆ_x2 )" - ( /(" &!0"#( . 0( !" &(' ) *(&(+ . x ) , n "-, 1 1 ." "+ 5, ) n ˆ2 x 2 x σ σ = . (1.5.2-3)

1.5.2-1: 2 (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)

. . "-, 1 1 ." "+ . . "-, 1 1 ." "+ 1 31°02′29,3″ 11 31°02′24,1″ 2 31°02′24,0″ 12 31°02′26,2″ 3 31°02′27,9″ 13 31°02′30,1″ 4 31°02′26,8″ 14 31°02′29,7″ 5 31°02′26,1″ 15 31°02′24,1″ 6 31°02′25,9″ 16 31°02′26,2″ 7 31°02′26,1″ 17 31°02′27,1″ 8 31°02′27,8″ 18 31°02′24,9″ 9 31°02′27,2″ 19 31°02′25,7″ 10 31°02′28,0″ 20 31°02′25,2″ 4 . 0 ˆ 8 . 1 ˆ 22 . 3 ˆ 6 , 26 2 0 31 x x x 2 x ′′ = ′′ = = ′′ ′ ° = σ σ σ

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b) .&(/!'"!% "() ,"!% (c) "(.&(/!'"!% ) ,"!%. ) ,5 2 (c) ( 3 2, ) ,"!% 1 "* )7( 1 1 ,) ( 2" ), "-, 1 1 (" . ),1 . ( +" - 1 2")1" 5 +" )" " 1 . )" . " ( -, - ( 1 "! " , ) " * )" ) ) " . ."1". &(/!'" #) )" ." " . #) )!#)!$ "3 ) 7 , 1.5. $ 2" " - )1 (" ,1 2" ( 2 ) . + . " 5 , ( " )1 ( 2 )" - ( . )" (" )1(" ) "- ( ) " ( " " ) ") "-, 1 1" ." "+ - 5 ( ". 2" ) p (, 1" 1, )" 5")1 )1 - w - weight). % ( )! " .&(/!'" #) )" "3 4" 5 ." " " - )1 - * 5 )1 ! )1, + "-, 1 1 ." "+ , ) +"! (" " ". ." , , 2" -." " , d ) )1 . )1, +". σ_d, " 1 ( " - )1 )" - ( ) .

dd

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. (1.6-1) %

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n ) x ( 2 x τ σ ==== −−−− , (1.6-4) ! " ),: x - "-, 1 1 ." "+ , τ - )1 1 ( " )1, n - * 2 "-, 1 1 ." "+ . & 6 - 1 2 " " 1 5 " - 5 ( )" ( ,! . 1 . X,Y. &("

)&( +( $ & )"( &(5$ (% &!'") " ) . 0 – σP (root mean square positional

error) 5, )" . , - - * 2 / 1 Y X P (σ σ ) σ ==== ++++ , (1.6-5) ! " ),:

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n X Xmereno dato 2 X −−−− ==== σ , (1.6-6)

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n Y Ymereno dato 2 Y −−−− ==== σ . (1.6-7) "3 ) , (1.6-4). 2" ) ". !, " - ( 1 1 5 " ( " )1 2 1 5 X_dato,Y_dato, σ_P )" 2 4 ,(" )1 " ( 1"1 ) 2 1 ( . 1.7. 4 "." ,, " 1 ." "+ 5")1 ) , " - 5, +" ,! 7 " 7 7 (" 5 . (" (" 5 " - ( 2, )" 3, 2 2" 7 "-, 1 1 ." "+ . *- . ), "-, 1 1 ." "+ ". ( 1" " " ) ,5 2 . ,1 2 . " " ( " )1 -(" " 7 ( " 1 ." "+ ) (" 5 1 8" )" ,2, " , ") !, )1 . " ") !, )1 -(" " 7 (" 5 "3 4" )" ) (, - ( + " ") !, )1 +

-1-(. . ") !, )1 ." "+ * 5 )" - ( , 2 )1 + - 3, 2, "3 4, )1 )1, +" " -(" " 7 (" 5 . ." , " 2" ." ,1 2" ,! - ." "+ ( ( . 1 )1, +" ,! σ_β 2")1" 3, 2 1 7 )1 7 )1, + ." "+ ( ( σ_α1 σ_α2. "- 2 )" )1 " " -(" " " (" 5 " - 1 ." "+ 3 ., 4" )" ) " " 5 . " 2" y (" 5 2, 1 "* " 1 ) (, " "-, 1 1 ." "+ () ,5 2 7 ." / ( 7) - 5" 7 x₁,x₂,...,x_n )1" " " , 3, 2, * , ) x ,..., x , x ( y y= 1 2 n . (1.7-1) " ), σ₁,σ₂,...,σ_n)1 )1, + ." "+ x₁,x₂,...,x_n- 2 )" ). 1 ), ."8,) * " " ) ( "- ( ) ). " )1 )1 ! )1, + σ_y * 2 )" - 1 ( " ( 2 )" 2 n 2 n 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 y x y ... x y x y _{σ σ σ} σ ∂ ∂ + + ∂ ∂ + ∂ ∂ = . (1.7-2) ! " ),: i x y ∂∂∂∂ ∂∂∂∂ _- 2 -( 3, 2" 2" . ." / ( . ( ."1 . ). 1.7-1: 1 ! ."1 2) . (" . , -." " ), ) , d=50.00 m ) m 05 . 0 d = σ (" 1 ,! β =30°00' ) σ_β =30'. 5, 1 ( ) ) , - , +" )1 )1, +". 0 % : h====d⋅⋅⋅⋅sinβ ====50.00⋅⋅⋅⋅0.5 ====25.00m 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 d 2 2 h _dh _∂h =(sin ) (0.05) +(d⋅cos ) (0.0087) =0.1425m ∂ + ∂ ∂ = σ β β β σ σ _β m 38 . 0 h = σ $ : $ . 5, + ") !, )1 ." "+ ,! - ( )" , j . (30/3437). 1.7-2: 5, 1 ( 4 , " " +" )1 )1, +, , ), - 1" +" " ." - 2" + 7 ( )1 )1, + : = 100 m # σ_a =0.10m! b = 40 m # m 08 . 0 b = σ . $ "1 )1 ( 2" ), ." "+ ."8,) * "- ( ) . 0 % : P=a⋅b=4000m2 2 2 b 2 2 a 2 2 P =b σ +a σ =80m σ m 94 . 8 P = σ 2" 3, 2 ("-" " , ) 2" n n 2 2 1 1x a x ... a x a y= + + + , (1.7-3)

1 2" 2 n 2 n 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 y a σ a σ ... a σ σ = + + + , (1.7-4) , , ), "3 2" 1 _i 2" +1 -1, 1 2" n 2 1 x ... x x y= ± ± ± , (1.7-5) , ( 2 ) -(" " " ." / (" * 2 )" -* ( 2 ) ." "+ , 12. 2 n 2 2 2 1 2 y σ σ ... σ σ = + + + . (1.7-6) 41 )" . " ( "1 , ( 2 ) -(" " " (" 5 " 2" 2" -* , ( 2 ) 2" 7 ." "+ . ), ." "+ )1" " - )1 ) ( 2 ) .σ_x2, 1 2" σ_y23, 2 * 2 x 2 y nσ σ = . (1.7-7) $ 1.7-3: * - - ) 1 ( +" )1 ,." 1 - ." "+" , -" )" 1 )1,* , -,. $ " - . )1 ,." 1 . -." " " ), , " + 7 ( 7 ."8,) * 7 ) . 1" ), ( " )1 ." "+ + 7 (" " - )1 . 5, 1 , , , , , +" , ") !, )1. 1 : x₁ =100m, ) 0.05m 1 x = σ ; x2 =50m, ) σx2 =0.04m; x3 =20m, ) m 03 . 0 3 x = σ 0 % : m 170 x x x y = 1+ 2 + 3 = ;σy2 =σ12 +σ22+σ32 =0.005m2; σy =0.07m $ : "1 )1 ( . ), ." "+ )1" " - )1 , 12. σ_x =0.05m, 1 2" 2 2 2 y =3⋅0.05 =0.0075m σ , ) σ_y =0.09m.

: 1. ! 2. " 3. . 4. $ , , 5. , – 6. / 7. ! " $ : 1. ! " ) !"- . '" 1"- . 2 23°15′10″ 120.1234 1.23 m in ft 1.23 24.6 23.9 2. ' " : ) ) " +, ( " )1 *) )1 )1, +" 2" ! "-, 1 1 ." "+ ) )1 )1, +" ) " +" ( " )1 3. % " $ $ " γ sin b a 2 1 P==== ⋅⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅⋅ . : ' 5 , m 03 . 0 , m 06 . 0 , 72 , m 20 . 45 b , m 31 . 120 a==== ==== γ ==== °°°° σa ==== σb ==== σγ ==== .

2.

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β_BAC 2" ,! , 7 - 1 2 ( Π), 2 ) 1 5 , ). "." ,! βBAC 2" , 1 5 ) ), "3 ) 1 ! . 2" 2 . )1 7 ( AB AC 7 - 1 , ( Π). (&)!$ "! ! αB_A αC_A ), ,! ( , (" 1 . ( . ΠB_A ΠC_A "3 ) 7 (" 1 . 1 5 " ) 1 5 . B C ") " 1 ( , -. 8, 1 ! 7 2" 2 )1 7 ( AB AC ( Π) ) . 7 ( . 5 B - )" -7 - 1 " ( Π) (7 - 1 ), (" 1 ,! αB_A . - 1 ( , ( " )1 (" "( ,! ), )" 1 5 C - ) 7 - 1 " (" 1 ,! αC_A . 1 "! 1 ( , ( " )1 ( " ") ,! ). !$ 2-1.1: +

$ ". 1 .", (" 1 ,! ( - 1 5 " - 7 - 1 . !, . 1 ( " )1 0 ( 7 - 1,) π/2 ( ( ". -" 1, , 1 5 )), - 1 5 " ) 7 - 1 0 - π/2 ( ( ". , , 1 5 )). .")1 (" 1 7 ,! ( , 5")1 )" ." " '("!)"! !. " 1 ,! ( ZB_A ) ZC_A ), ,! ( -."8, ( ". -" 1, , 1 5 ) )1 7 ( AB AC ") " 1 ( () 2-1.1). ) " 2-1.1 2" ( "1 -."8, (" 1 7 ,! ( -" 1 7 ,! ( ( " 2 α + Z = π/2, (2-1.1) ) 2" "5 . "." 1 . ,! ( . (( 4" ." "+, -" 1 7 ,! ( , ! (/, 2.5). 41 )" - "17 7 -. 1 + . " ( "1 , ." "+" ,! ( , )1 , 2")1" 2" ) " " 2 . $ * ". 2 )" , ( . ) ,5 2, 2 (/ 2, ), ) " " : 1" 2 - 2 ( , 2 2 " . ." . ,! ; ( 8"+" ( ,! ." ( .* ) 1" 1 , "/" , ( " ) + . +" " 1 " " ) 1"." . ,! ; 1" 2 - 2 ( ,! ; $ 1 "* - (" . " - . ." "+". ,! ( *- . (" , , /" )1 1 5 , )1 , ( 5"1, ( , /" )1 * 5 2" . + 1 m, , )1 , . " )1 " ")"1 ."1 ). * )" )1" " )1 ( " 7 2 " - )1 ." "+ ,! ( , -. 1 . ( " )1 ! "4 " " 1 ( ! 2 (" 1 5 " )1 " -* ! ! "4 -." " " , ", ) -* ! ! "4 -." " ! ,! . ." "+ , ) 1, 2 2" 2 ) . " 1 ( 2 (" 1 5 " * " ! "4 ) ! ) ( " )1 ! "4 " ." "+ , ". 1 " 1 ( "5 )1, +" 2 " " 1 5 " σ_P )1 2 +, d )1 " ." "+ - ( ) )1 ! )1, + ." "+ ,! σ_α, ) α σ σP = d⋅ , (2.1-2) ! " 2" σ_α , . . 1 *" 2.1-1 - " ), " 1 ( )1 )1, + 2 1 5 - ( " )1 )1 ! )1, + ." "+ ,! σβ = 0.2° - 5 1" ( " )1 )1 2 + d -."8, (" 1 5 ". 2( 2.1-1: "4 " " 1 ( ! 2 (" 1 5 " (σβ = 0.2°) d [m] 0.5 1 10 100 1000 5000 σσσσP [m] 0.002 0.003 0.035 0.349 3.491 17.453

A )" - - 71"( , " 1 ( , " - )1 2 (" 1 5 " ,)( 2 ( " )1 σP = 0.02 m, . " )" , 5 1 (" " 2 " - )1 ." "+ ,! ( )1 2 +" d . * 1 . +" ) . " ."1 . ), )1 2 + -."8, 1 5 , )1 , " (" ( " ")"1 ."1 ) 2 ) 2" 2" " 7 *"-*" 1 (" , " - )1 ." "+ ,! ( . - - - 2.1-2, - - 1 σP d . " )" - 5, 1 " 7 " - )1 ." "+ ,! (, )" , . ), d p σ ρ σ_β ==== ⋅⋅⋅⋅ , (ρ” < 206265”). (2.1-3) σP = 0.02 m - 5 1" ( " )1 d , 1 *" 2.1-2 - 2" - 71"( " - )1 ." "+ ,! ( . 2( 2.1-2: ' (σP = 0.02 m) d [m] 0.5 1 10 100 1000 5000 σβ 2° 17’ 31” 1° 08’ 45” 06’ 53” 41” 4” 0.8” " - ." "+" ,! ( , , !" "- 2 )" )1" ) " 2 )1 , ) !" "1) )1 ,." 1 – )( !)!. 2.2. " 1 () 2.2-1) 2" !" "1) )1 ,." 1 ."+" - ." "+" 7 - 1 7 -" 1 7 ( (" 1 7) ,! ( . ( " ( 1" 1 ),: )1 /" ) 1 2 - ( 1+ , ! + "1 " )1 ,." 1 - 7 , *" " ()" - ), , * , 7 - 1 (" 1 .* (,! ." ) , "8 2 - 5 1 ( +" " " 7 -- 1 ! (" 1 ! .* . $ "5 ")" 1" 1 ) +"! ( . ! ( . " ( . . " )" ( "1 ) 2.2.1-1. 2.2.1. ) )! $ , 1" 1 )" )1 (/ #) )! . 1 1 ( )" ) )1 2 !, )1 1 ( ! (" )1 1 ( ) " 1 . - ( 1+".. ( #) )! - 8" " ), ("1 " ! ! 1" . )1 * ! ."1 !$ 2.2-1: