Grammar Handbook

Grammar Handbook

Beginner to Intermediate Level

Mieder van Loggerenberg

Copyright © 2010 SANOOK ENGLISH

E-mail: [email protected] ESL - TEFL - TEYL - TOEFL - TOEIC - IELTS

Index

Index

Grammatical Terms ……… 1

Punctuation ……… 5

Basic Grammatical Rules ……… 10

Parts of Speech ……… 11 Nouns ……… 11 Articles ……… 14 Pronouns ……… 15 Verbs ……… 22 Types of Verbs ……… 27 A List of Verbs ……… 28 Finite verbs ……… 30 Non-finite verbs ……… 35 Helping Verbs ……… 41

Non-continuous Verbs (State Verbs) ……… 43

Verbs can become Adjectives ……… 48

Adjectives and Adverbs ……… 49

Conjunctions ……… 53

Prepositions ……… 55

Interjections ……… 67

Infinitive or –ing? ……… 68

Gerunds and Infinitives ……… 70

Simile ……… 72 Metaphor ……… 76 Hyperbole ……… 79 Euphemism ……… 80 Oxymoron ……… 82 Phrases ……… 83

Noun and Verb Phrases ……… 83

Prepositional Phrases ……… 84

Verbal’s and Verbal Phrases ……… 85

Clauses ……… 87

Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses ……… 89

Relative Clauses ……… 90

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses ……… 91

Common Usage Problems ……… 92

Homophones ……… 92 Parallelism ……… 93 Misplaced Modifiers ……… 95 Dangling Modifiers ……… 97 Sentence Fragments ……… 98 Fused Sentences ……… 100

Sentences and Sentence Elements ……… 101

Sentence Types ……… 101

Subjects and Predicates ……… 102

Active and Passive Voice ……… 104

Complements ……… 106

Direct and Indirect Objects ……… 107

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Glossary of Grammatical Terms

 Active Voice

In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (e.g. They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.

 Adjective

A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.  Adverb

A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb.  Article

The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.  Auxiliary Verb

A verb that is used with a main verb, be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc. are modal auxiliary verbs.

 Clause

2  Conjunction

A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).  Infinitive

The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.  Interjection

An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!,

ah!, ouch!, well!).

 Modal Verb

An auxiliary verb like; can, may, must etc. that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal auxiliary verb".

 Noun

A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, and dollar). An "uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example: water, music, money). A “proper noun” is a noun which names a specific person, place, or thing (for example: John, Bangkok, Canada, Honda).

 Object

In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.

 Participle

The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the "present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).

 Part Of Speech

One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.

 Passive Voice

In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (e.g. The President was killed). See also Active Voice.

 Phrase

A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (e.g. on the table, the girl in a red dress).  Predicate

Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.

 Preposition

A word like at, to, in, over, etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about things like time, place and direction. Some more examples include:

3 about above across after against around at before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond by down during except for from in inside into like near of off on out outside over since through throughout till to toward under until up upon with without  Pronoun

A word like; I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun. Other examples listed alphabetically include:

all he my she this

another her myself some us

any herself neither somebody we

anybody him nobody someone what

anyone himself none something which

anything his no one that who

both I nothing their whom

each it one theirs whose

either its others them you

everbody itself our themselves your

everyone many ours these yours

everything me ourselves they yourself

few mine several this yourselves

 Sentence

A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).

 Subject

Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.

 Tense

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Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

 Verb

A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state.

There are three types of verbs: linking, transitive and intransitive. A linking verb joins or connects a subjects to its complement or predicate. In the sentence, “Mr. Chris is my English teacher,” the verb “is” links the subject, “Chris” with its complement “my teacher.” A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object; that is, someone or something that receives the action. In the sentence, “The dog bit the man,” the verb “bit” is transitive. An intransitive verb does not require an object. In the sentence, “We danced all night,” the verb “dance” is intransitive as it does not require an object or receiver of the action.

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Punctuation

_.

_,

_:

_;

_?

_!

_'

_-

_-

10. _{Single Quotation marks}

_{‘ ’}

11. _{Quotation marks}

_{“ ”}

_…

_/

_{( )}

_{[ ]}

_{{ }}

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1. Period [.]

 Use a period to show the end of a sentence. Hockey is a popular sport in Canada.

The federal government is based in Ottawa.  Use a period after certain abbreviations.

B.C. is the province located on the West Coast. Dr. Bethune was a Canadian who worked in China.

The company is located at 888 Bay St. in Toronto. It is 4:00 p.m. in Halifax right now.

2. Comma [,]

 Use a comma to show a pause in a sentence.

Therefore, we should write a letter to the prime minister.

 Use a comma with quotation marks to show what someone has said directly. "I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."

 Use commas for listing three or more different things. Ontario, Quebec, and B.C. are the three biggest provinces.

 Use commas around relative clauses that add extra information to a sentence. Emily Carr, who was born in 1871, was a great painter.

3. Colon [:]

 Use a colon to introduce a list of things.

There are three positions in hockey: goalie, defense, and forward.  Use a colon to introduce a long quotation.

The prime minister said: "We will fight. We will not give up. We will win the next election."

4. Semicolon [;]

 Use a semicolon to join related sentences together.

The festival is very popular; people from all over the world visit each year.  Use a semicolon in lists that already have commas.

The three biggest cities in Canada are Toronto, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Vancouver, B.C.

5. Question Mark [?]

 Use a question mark at the end of a sentence to show a direct question. How many provinces are there in Canada?

Note: do not use a question mark for indirect questions.

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6. Exclamation Mark [!]

 Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence to show surprise or excitement. We won the Stanley Cup!

The forest is on fire!

7. Apostrophe [']

 Use an apostrophe to show ownership of something. This is David's computer.

These are the player's things. (Things that belong to the player)

Note: For nouns in plural form, put the apostrophe at the end of the noun.

These are the players' things. (Things that belong to the players)

 Use an apostrophe to show letters that have been left out of a word. I don't know how to fix it.

8. Hyphen [-]

 Use a hyphen to join two words that form one idea together. Sweet-smelling

fire-resistant

 Use a hyphen to join prefixes to words. Anti-Canadian

non-contact

 Use a hyphen when writing compound numbers. One-quarter

twenty-three

9. Dash [-]

 Use a dash before a phrase that summarizes the idea of a sentence. Mild, wet, and cloudy - these are the characteristics of weather in Vancouver.

 Use a dash before and after a phrase or list that adds extra information in the middle of a

sentence.

The children - Pierre, Laura, and Ashley - went to the store. Most Canadians - but not all - voted in the last election.

 Use a dash to show that someone has been interrupted when speaking. The woman said, "I want to ask - " when the earthquake began to shake the room.

10. Single Quotation Marks [‘]

 Used to set off quotations within quotations:

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11. Quotation Marks ["]

 Use quotation marks to show what someone has said directly. The prime minister said, "We will win the election."

"I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."

12. Ellipsis […]

 Ellipsis is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or

a phrase from the original text. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an unfinished thought, or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence. The ellipsis calls for a slight pause in speech.

"I … am … coming.” She said out of breath.

 An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when Count Dracula says "I never drink … wine."

The implication is that he does drink something else, which in the context would be blood. In such usage the ellipsis is stronger than a mere dash, where for example

"I never drink—wine."

Might only indicate that the Count, not a native English speaker, was pausing to get the correct word.

 In writing the speech of a character in fiction or nonfiction, the ellipsis is sometimes used to

represent an intentional silence of a character, usually invoked to emphasize a character's irritation, appall, shock or disgust.

13. The slash [ / ]

 Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate. The phrase "and / or" suggests

that a series of options are not mutually exclusive.

"To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate."

 The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be sure to add

spaces between your slashes here.

"Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / life is but a dream."

 The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns. By replacing "and" with a slash, you

suggest that there is equal important to both characteristics. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis where "and" may not do so—as well as as not to confuse the reader. You can also do the same for "or", as in "his /her". However you should

not use the slash to separate independent clauses, as shown below.

"The student and part-time employee has very little free time." → "The student / part-time employee has very little free time."

"Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" → "Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall? – This is incorrect.

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14. Brackets & Parentheses [ ( ) ]

 Understand the difference between parentheses, brackets, and braces.

Use parentheses ( ( ) ) to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal comment. Be sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis.

Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.  Used for clarification. Here, commas can replace the parentheses.

You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).  Abbreviations in Brackets

At the first mentioning of an organisation in a newspaper article, both its abbreviation and the spelled-out form are mentioned, one of which is enclosed in brackets

He was an active member of the IOC (International Olympic Committee). He was an active member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

 An afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses —not before

the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable

here, and is better off with a period or a semicolon.

15. Square Brackets ( [ ] )

 Use brackets ( [ ] ) to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use

brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing. Brackets are often used to encompass the word "sic" (Latin for thus), suggesting that the previous word or phrase was written "as is", with the error intended to be displayed.

"[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of the

incident.

"It was absolutely devastating!" – the actual quote by Susan Smith.

16. Braces [ { } ]

 Braces ( { } ) are most widely used in denoting a numeric set in mathematics. Though

generally uncommon, braces can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal, independent choices.

{ 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }

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Basic Grammatical Rules

This explains and illustrates the basic grammatical rules concerning parts of speech, phrases, clauses, sentences and sentence elements, and common problems of usage.

 Parts of Speech  Phrases

 Clauses

 Common Usage Problems

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Nouns

NOUNS DEFINED

A NOUN is a name word: a type of word that gives a name to a person, place, or thing. NOUNS give names to:

concrete things: Carlos lost his keys.

abstract ideas: Her personal philosophy is odd. abstract qualities: She says I lack sensitivity. feelings: I feel great joy when I run.

actions: Parking can be difficult around campus.

people: Michael Douglas is our instructor.

animals: What kind of a bear is Asiatic Bear?

places: Sussex Rd. divides East London from Central London.

NOUNS can be divided into two major kinds: COMMON NOUNS and PROPER NOUNS. A common noun names any member of a group of persons, places, or things. A proper noun names a particular member of a common noun group. Some examples of common nouns are: person, country, team, and bear. Some examples of proper nouns are: Bill, Senegal, Bulls, and Asiatic.

A third kind of noun is a GERUND, which is a noun in the form of the present participle of a verb (the -ing form). [See Verbs: Principal Parts]. Although gerunds are formed from verbs, they name actions and therefore function as nouns in sentences.

Present participle as a verb: I have been typing for six hours straight. Present participle as a gerund/noun: Skiing is a blast; I love skiing.

In other words, words ending in -ing can act as a noun or a verb, depending on context.

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS

Every NOUN can be distinguished as COMMON or PROPER.

COMMON NOUNS name ordinary things that are not specific or important enough to be capitalized (except at the beginning of a sentence). Common nouns refer to any of a class of people places or things. Common nouns include most of the nouns used to name things. The following are just a few examples:

television, color, candles, computer, president, music, telephone, dog, weather

PROPER NOUNS name particular people, places, or things that are special enough to be always capitalized. The following are a few examples:

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Reg. Count. Irr. Count. Uncount.

Singular a chair a man water

Plural chairs men -

MASS AND COUNT NOUNS

Every noun can also be distinguished as count or mass.

Count Nouns

Count nouns are nouns that can be quantified or counted with a number. Some types of count nouns are:

Names of persons, animals, plants, insects, and their parts:

a boy, a kitten, a rose, an ear, three boys, seven kittens, twelve roses, two ears

Objects with a definite shape:

a building, a balloon, a house, an octopus, four buildings, six balloons, four houses, two octopi

Units of measurement and words of classification:

a gram, a pound, a piece, a lump, an item, a bit, a family, a state, a language, a phrase a word

Some abstract words:

a hindrance, a scheme, an idea, a plan, a taboo, a rest

Tests for Count Nouns:

 Count nouns can be quantified by a number.  They have singular and plural forms.

 They can use a, an, or one as a modifier.  They can use "many" as a modifier.

Mass Nouns are uncountable by a number. Mass nouns are quantified by a word that signifies

amount. Some types of mass nouns are: Materials, Food, Metals, and natural qualities:

bread, cotton, wood, lightness, adolescence

Names of liquids, gases, and substances made of many small particles:

cappuccino, oil, smoke, oxygen, rice, sugar, salt, cement, gravel

Names of Languages: English, Spanish, French, Latin, Sanskrit, Chinese Many abstract nouns, including those ending in -ness, -ance, -ence, -ity:

beauty, ignorance, peace, serenity, helpfulness, patriotism

Most gerunds:

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Remember, a number can not be used to quantify a mass noun. Incorrect: four woods, one rice,

three courages)

To measure or classify mass nouns use "of" after a measurement: a foot of wood, a pound of rice,

an ounce of courage, a bar of chocolate, a piece of music, a bag of money

Tests for Mass Nouns:

 Mass nouns are quantified by an amount rather than a number.  They have only one form (singular).

 They cannot have "a," "an," or "one" before them as modifiers.  They can use "much" as a modifier.

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Article A or An?

"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.

 a cat

 a dog

 a purple onion

 a buffalo

 a big apple

with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.

 an honorable peace

 an honest error

"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:

 an apricot

 an egg

 an Indian

 an orbit

 an uprising

with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound

as w in won, then a is used.

 a union  a united front  a unicorn  a used napkin  a U.S. ship  a one-legged man

Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in

a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would makes a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

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Pronouns

PRONOUNS DEFINED

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. Pronouns come in different forms to show different meanings.

NOUN AND PRONOUN CASE

Case refers to how nouns and pronouns are used in relation to the other words in a sentence. The

three cases are subjective, objective, and possessive.

Pronouns that are used as subjects or subject complements should appear in the subjective case,

those that act as direct or indirect objects or are the object of a preposition use the case.

Subjective Case Objective Case

I (First Person Singular) we (First Person Plural)

you (Second Person Singular and Plural) he, she, it (Third Person Singular) they (Third Person Plural)

me (First Person Singular) us (First Person Plural)

you (Second Person Singular and Plural) him, her, it (Third Person Singular) them (Third Person Plural)

Subjective Case

Subjective case is sometimes called the nominative case. A noun or pronoun is in the subjective when it is used as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate noun. A predicate noun follows a form of the "be" verb, and it renames the subject of the sentence. In the following examples, nouns and pronouns in the subjective case are italicized.

I hope to finish my paper tonight.

Valerie danced in the statewide competition. He is a clown. (The word clown is a predicate noun)

Objective Case

A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when it is used as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of the preposition.

Dad prepared the dinner.

Our dog crawled under the fence. Mom gave us the money.

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Possessive Case

A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case when it is used to show ownership of an object: Mom washed Valerie's leotard.

Where did you find her book?

A Chart of Pronoun Cases

Subjective Objective Possessive

I me my + n., mine

You you your + n., yours

He him his + n., his

She her her + n., hers

It it its + n., its

We us our + n., ours

They them their + n., theirs

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

When pronouns are singular it means that one person or thing is being referred to. When they are

plural it means the pronoun refers to more than one person or thing. Personal Pronouns are the most commonly used pronouns.

Singular personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it Plural personal pronouns: we, us, you, they, them

Example: John baked a cake for Eileen = He baked it for her.

Personal Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person Singular I me

you she, her (F) he, him (M)

it

Plural we, us you they

them

First person pronouns refer to the person speaking.

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I am very hungry, let's get something to eat.

Second person pronouns refer to the person being spoken to.

Example:

If you are hungry we could go get something to eat.

Third person pronouns refer to the person being spoken about.

Example:

If he is hungry we could take him for something to eat.

Additionally, the third person singular form identifies whether the person being spoken about is a

man or a woman. In the example above we know that a man is being talked about because he is

used as a pronoun.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive Pronouns are personal pronouns that show ownership or possession.

Singular possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its Plural possessive pronouns: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

Example: I found John's hat = I found his hat.

Possessive Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person Singular I my mine you yours her, hers (F) his (M) its Plural our ours your yours their theirs DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out a particular person or thing. Demonstrative Pronouns call attention to their antecedents. An antecedent is the word or words to which a

pronoun refers.

Singular demonstrative pronouns: this, that Plural demonstrative pronouns: these, those Example: The yellow car is his = That is his car.

18 Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Singular Plural this that these those

This is the chair I'm going to buy.

Are those shoes on sale?

INTENSIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize a noun or pronoun.

Example:

The president herself took us out to lunch.

The intensive pronoun herself emphasizes the president. The third person singular form also

shows that the president is a woman.

A reflexive pronoun shows that the doer of an action is also the receiver of the action. Example:

Chris cut himself.

We can tell that the person who cut is also the person who was cut. That Chris is a man is shown by use of the masculine form himself.

Reflexive Pronouns reflect the action back to the noun or pronoun that has just been named

(ends in -self or -selves).

Singular reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself... Plural reflexive pronouns: ourselves, themselves, yourselves Example: I will find it myself.

Hint: When a pronoun is used in a sentence, it should always be clear to what or to whom the

pronoun is referring. Too many pronouns in a sentence can be very confusing: He went there to do that, but she didn't know where he was.

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Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person Singular I myself you herself (F) himself (M) itself Plural ourselves yourselves themselves

PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. The pronouns or nouns that they refer to are called

antecedents. A pronoun and its antecedent are in agreement if they are both singular and both

plural.

Example: Dr. House finished his rounds.

In English, pronouns are used to replace nouns. This means that you don't have to use the same

noun over and over. The noun that is replaced by a pronoun is called an antecedent. In the sentence:

The car won't start, it needs some gas.

The antecedent for the pronoun it is the noun car.

Frequent misuse of plural pronouns occur with two types of singular antecedents: indefinite

pronouns and generic nouns.

Indefinite Pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. They include:

any no one everybody anyone something

either each neither everyone

everything anybody someone none

Example: In class everyone performs at his or her [not their] level of ability.

To correct a mistakenly plural pronoun referring to a singular indefinite pronoun, you can do one of three things:

Replace the plural pronoun with he or she or [his or her.]

Example: When someone has been drinking, he or she is probably acting dumb. Make the antecedent plural.

Example: When frat boys have been drinking, they are probably acting dumb. Rewrite the sentence so that no problem of agreement exists.

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Generic Nouns represent a typical member or any member of a group, such as a typical student or

any lawyer.

Example: Every student must pull all-nighters regularly if he or she wants to excel. The same three options for correction apply for indefinite pronouns and general nouns.

Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural. Collective nouns include such words as: jury, committee, crowd, family, audience, couple, troop, team, class.

Ordinarily the group functions as a unit, so the noun should be considered singular; however, if the members of the group function as individuals, the noun should be treated as plural.

Example: The O.J. Simpson jury has reached its decision. Compare: The Illini crowd clapped their hands.

Compound antecedents connected by "and" should be treated as plural. Example: Jack and Jill climbed up a hill and fetched their pail of water.

When compound antecedents are connected by "or" or "nor" (or by "either...or" or "neither...nor"), make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent.

Examples:

Either Desi or Lucy should be fired from her job.

Neither the engineering student nor the biology majors could remember their schedules.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question.

Example:

Who was at the door? What did they want?

When the antecedent

names one or more people use: who

whom which

When the antecedent

names one or more things use: what

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns are used to begin subordinate clauses.

Example:

The movie that they wanted to see started at 7:00 pm.

who whoever whom whomever whose which that

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Verbs

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

The three principal parts of verbs are the present tense form, the past tense form, and the past participle. (The present participle or "-ing" form is sometimes considered a fourth principal part.)

Present Tense indicates an action in the present:

Now the class begins. She walks to class.

Past Tense indicates an action that occurred in the past:

We wanted to see the show. The little girl blew a bubble.

The Past Participle can be used as an adjective or modifier. It is typically formed by adding 'd' or 'ed' to the base form. Many times, this form is identical to the past tense of the verb:

Since the dishes were washed, we left the kitchen.

The broken vase sat unceremoniously on the kitchen table.

COMMON MISTAKES

There are many irregular verbs (about 250) that confuse writers when forming past tense and past participles. Here is a sample of irregular verbs.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

drink drank drunk

see saw seen

be been been

* am,are, is, have, has * was, were, had * been, had

AUXILIARY VERBS

Auxiliary or helping verbs are verbs that are used to help form verb phrases but cannot do so

independently. There are four basic auxiliary verb groups: 1. to be

2. to have

3. modal auxiliaries 4. to do

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To Be

This auxiliary verb is used in the progressive tenses and passive voice: Progressive Tense:

You are kicking. You were kicking. You have been kicking. Passive Voice:

You are kicked. You were kicked. You have been kicked.

To Have

This verb is used as an auxiliary in the perfect tense: I have finished my paper.

I had finished my paper.

I have been finished with my paper.

Modal Auxiliaries

There is only one tense of these verbs and they are always followed by an infinitive. They are most commonly used to represent degrees of freedom or severity.

Most common modal auxiliaries:

will, shall, can, may, need (to), dare, would, should, could, might, must, ought (to)

Ability: I can run. Necessity: I must run. Obligation: I ought to run. Permission: I may run.

To Do

This verb is used when the main verb of the sentence requires aid of an auxiliary, but there is no other helping verb that will fit. It is often used in questions, negative or emphatic statements:

Does he drive?

He drives, doesn't he?

Despite his flat tire he does drive.

PERFECT AND PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS

The perfect form is the verb tense used to indicate a completed, or "perfected," action or condition. Verbs can appear in any one of three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.

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Verbs in the perfect form use a form of "have" or "had" + the past participle. (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

Present Perfect: I have finished my homework already. Past Perfect: He had watched TV for an hour before dinner.

Future Perfect: Nancy will have finished by the time her parents return

The progressive form is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action in progress at some point in time. It shows an action still in progress. Verbs can appear in any one of three progressive tenses: present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive.

The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be" + the present participle (an -ing verb). (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

Present Progressive: The cake is baking slowly.

Past Progressive: The trees were waving back and forth. Future Progressive: The children will be laughing.

The perfect and progressive forms can be combined, as in the following examples (Again, the form of the helping verbs indicates the tense):

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been running for an hour. Past Perfect Progressive: I had been running for an hour.

Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been running for an hour.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Verbs are subdivided into two groups, regular verbs and irregular verbs, on the basis of how their past tense and past participles are formed.

Regular Verbs

Most verbs are regular verbs. Regular verbs are those whose past tense and past participles are formed by adding a -d or an -ed to the end of the verb. To roll is a good example of a regular verb:

roll, rolled, rolled

Sometimes the last consonant must be doubled before adding the -ed ending. For example:

plan, planned, planned

Irregular Verbs

There is no formula to predict how an irregular verb will form its past-tense and past-participle forms. There are over 250 irregular verbs in English. Although they do not follow a formula, there are some fairly common irregular forms. Some of these forms are:

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break broke broken

cut cut cut

come came come

repay repaid repaid

Distinguishing Regular and Irregular Verbs

Dictionaries are perhaps the most valuable tool one can use in distinguishing between regular and irregular verbs. If only one form of the verb is listed, the verb is regular. If the verb is irregular, the dictionary will list the principal parts of the other forms.

VERB MOOD

Verbs may be in one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive. The indicative mood is used to make factual statements. The imperative mood makes a request or a command. The

subjunctive mood can express a doubt or a wish using clauses beginning with if or that and can

express a request, demand or proposal in a clause beginning with that.

Indicative mood

Present indicative: Jerry Seinfeld laughs on television. Past indicative: Jerry laughed on television.

Future indicative: Jerry will laugh on television tomorrow.

Imperative mood

Notice how much sharper the picture appears. Call her tomorrow.

Take a seat!

Subjunctive mood

Past Subjunctive:

1. He talks about grammar as if he were an expert. (Expresses doubt or an idea contrary to fact.)

2. I wish that I were a fast runner. (Expresses a wish.) Present Subjunctive:

1. The professor requests that the paper be turned in on time. (Expresses a request.) 2. The rules require that each contestant submit an entry form. (Expresses a demand.) 3. I suggest that the heat be reduced. (Illustrates a proposal.)

Auxiliary verbs such as could, would, and should might also express the subjunctive mood, especially when one expresses a condition contrary to fact. Examples:

Past subjunctive Condition contrary to fact

If the forecaster were correct, I would be prepared.

If the forecaster could be correct, I would be prepared.

26 If the company were to fly her, she would

interview.

If the company would fly her, she would interview.

If Joe were to marry Ann, he would be happy. If Joe should marry Ann, he would be happy.

Verbs that are often followed by that clauses with subjunctive verbs: announce, ask, as if, as

though, demand, determine, indicate, insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, and suggest.

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Types of Verbs

There are two main types of verbs in English grammar. The following states: (a) the names of different kinds of verbs and (b) their relationship to each other.

The Verb's Role in a Sentence

Verbs can be divided according to the job they do in a sentence. The grammar-expert's way of saying this is that we can divide verbs syntactically. These are the divisions and sub-divisions according to syntax: 1. finite verbs ◦ transitive verbs ◦ intransitive verbs ◦ linking Verbs 2. non-finite verbs ◦ infinitives ◦ gerunds ◦ participles  present participle  past participle  perfect participle 3. helping verbs (auxiliaries)

◦ primary auxiliaries ◦ modal auxiliaries

Formation of the Verb-Word

We know that verbs are words, just like any other part of speech. The words that represent the verbs follow different patterns of spelling or sound. Verbs can, therefore, be divided into various kinds depending upon how they are formed. Grammarians would call this a morphological division.

▪ regular verbs ▪ irregular verbs ▪ compound verbs ▪ phrasal verbs

Verbs According to Meaning

Those who know grammar well call this division of verbs a semantic classification. ▪ action words (action verbs)

▪ being ▪ having

Now you know the names of different verbs and how they are classified. We can classify them according to their role in a sentence (syntactically), or their formation (morphologically), or their

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A List of Verbs

(Finites and Non-finites)

This list of verbs gives us all the possible finite and non-finite verbs that can be formed from a single verb to eat.

The Verb 'to eat' A List of Finite Verbs:

▪ The Active Forms Based on only Primary Auxiliaries as Helping Verbs.

◦ eat / eats used in the simple present tense. (Both these verbs use the dummy primary auxiliary 'do' in negative and interrogative (question) sentences.)

◦ am / is / are + eating present continuous tense. ◦ has / have + eaten present perfect tense. ◦ has / have + been +

eating

present perfect continuous.

◦ ate simple past tense.

◦ was / were + eating past continuous. ◦ had + eaten past perfect.

◦ had + been + eating past perfect continuous.

▪ The Passive Forms Using only Primary Auxiliaries as Helping Verbs. ◦ am /is / are + eaten simple present.

◦ am / is / are + being +

eaten

present continuous. ◦ has / have + been +

eaten

present perfect. ◦ was / were + eaten simple past. ◦ was / were + being +

eaten

past continuous. ◦ had + been + eaten past perfect.

▪ The Active Forms Using Modals as Helping Verbs. The modals are:

◦ can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to, used to, dare (to), need

(to).

▪ In the examples below I have used shall / will to illustrate the finite verb phrases using modals. Most of the modals above can replace shall / will in the phrases below to give us meaningful English.

◦ shall / will + eat

◦ shall / will + be + eating ◦ shall / will + have + eaten

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▪ The Passive Forms Based on Modals as Helping Verbs. The passive forms are fewer than the active. Here too most of the other modals can replace shall / will.

◦ shall / will + be + eaten

◦ shall / will + have + been + eaten

A List of Non-finite Verbs (Verbals):

◦ to eat - infinitive (as in 'He likes to eat slowly.')

◦ eating - gerund (as in 'Eating too much spoils your health.')

▪ The three participles: ◦ eating - present

participle

(as in 'I saw him eating those mangoes.')

◦ eaten - past participle (as in 'The sweets eaten just now are a gift from our neighbor.') ◦ having eaten - perfect

participle

(as in 'Having eaten the sweets, we decided to send a thank-you note to our neighbor.')

The List of Verbs — both Finite and Non-finite is complete. This list is useful for several reasons:

▪ Grammar learners sometimes make the mistake of thinking a non-finite verb to be a finite verb. This list of verbs will help you to clearly recognize the finite verb as well as the verbals or non-finites (if any) in a sentence, if you use the list as a grammar guide.

How?

If you want to know whether the verb 'is writing' is finite or not, search for a similar form in the list. You will see 'is eating' listed as a finite verb. Therefore 'is writing' is a finite verb. If your verb was only 'writing', then it would be a non-finite verb (i.e. gerund or participle in this case).

▪ Identifying the finite verb is necessary, because it is the essential verb in a sentence; non-finites are helpful but not essential for the existence of a sentence.

▪ The subject, object, indirect object, etc are built around the finite verb. The finite verb is like a nucleus of the clause or sentence.

▪ Knowing the exact words in a finite verb phrase helps us to correctly identify the 'operator' (i.e. the first word of the finite verb phrase). This is required because the construction of negative and interrogative (question) sentences have something important to do with the 'operator'.

The possible finite and non-finite forms of the verbs be, have and do will be coming soon in another 'list of verbs'.

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Finite Verbs

Finite verbs and non-finite verbs are two broad categories of verbs. Look at these two groups of sentences.

Group A Group B

I like to sing songs. We like to sing songs. You like to sing songs. He likes to sing songs. She likes to sing songs. Anita likes to sing songs. They like to sing songs.

I am fond of eating mangoes. We are fond of eating mangoes. You are fond of eating mangoes. He is fond of eating mangoes. She is fond of eating mangoes. Antony is fond of eating mangoes.

They are fond of eating mangoes.

In sentences in Group A, we have the verbs 'like' and 'sing.' The verb 'like' takes on different forms (like, likes) in the six sentences in the group. The verb 'sing' has the same unchangeable form 'to sing' in all the sentences. So, in group 1, we have one verb which changes and the other which does not change.

In the sentences in Group B, we have a similar thing. We have the verb 'be' in different forms (am, is, are) and the unchangeable verb form 'eating' of the verb 'eat.' So in group 2, we have again one changing verb and the other an unchanging verb.

What are Finite Verbs?

The verb 'like' in group A and the verb 'be' in group B are verbs which change. The reason these verbs change their forms must surely be because of the words I, we, you, he, she, Anita, they... since it is clear that all other words within the same group of sentences are the same. These verbs which change according to words (I, we, you, he, she, Anita, and they,) are called Finite Verbs. The word 'finite' means 'limited.' Since the words (I, we, you, he, etc.,) can make these verbs change, the power of these verbs must be limited indeed!

What are Non-finite Verbs?

They are verbs which do not change. In group A above, the verb 'to sing’ and in group B, the verb 'eating' are non-finite verbs of two different types. No word in a sentence can impose a change on these verbs. I suppose, that is why we call them non-finite, which means 'not limited' by other words in a sentence.

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Are Finite Verbs Necessary?

Yes. Every sentence in English needs such a verb. It is an essential part of a sentence. You may find sentences in which a noun or a pronoun is missing (because it's hidden), but you don't usually find a sentence in which a finite verb is missing.

What are their types?

They may be transitive, intransitive or linking. In a sentence you can have any one of these types.

1. Transitive 2. Intransitive 3. Linking What is there to learn about them?

About these verbs we need to understand important things like: ▪ agreement with the subject;

▪ tense; ▪ aspect; ▪ voice; and ▪ mood.

We can think of these as properties of the verb or as "rules" which finite verbs obey. They are obedient and reliable verbs! Non-finite verbs are the wayward ones. Though they are born in the verb family, the non-finites often act like nouns, and sometimes like adjectives or adverbs.

1. Transitive Verb

A transitive verb is a type of finite verb. A finite verb is considered transitive or intransitive depending upon its relationship with some other words in the sentence. Another way of saying this is that the division into transitive and intransitive is based on syntax.

What is a transitive verb?

Look at these sentences. 1. He met her yesterday. 2. She wrote a story last year. 3. Rust destroys iron.

In these sentences, the verbs are the words: met, wrote and destroys. In each sentence, you ask the question, 'met whom/what?' You will get the answers as follows:

▪ sentence 1 — question: met whom? — answer: her ▪ sentence 2 — question: wrote what? — answer: story ▪ sentence 3 — question: destroys what? — answer: iron

(Note that we use whom in the questions for human beings and what for things and also for animals.)The words her, story and iron in the sentences above are called objects in grammar.

A transitive verb is, therefore, a verb which has an object. What is an object?

An object, we may say, is the aim or purpose or destination or target of a verb's action. In our three example-sentences above, the verbs met, wrote and destroys have the words her, story and iron as their targets. These targets are called objects. With a transitive verb, we can expect these objects.

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Why do we use the word 'transitive'?

We call these verbs 'transitive' because these verbs have the property of transitivity.

What is transitivity? To transit means to pass through. Each of the verbs met, wrote and

destroys in our examples has its action conveyed (carried) to the object. We might also say that

the action begins with the subject (he, she, rust in our sentences) and passes through the verb to the object.

This property of the verb is transitivity. Hence we call these verbs transitive. Understanding these verbs in this way helps us to remember what they are.

Here's a list of transitive verbs.

eat, drink, read, write, play, see, hear, answer, buy, find, love, like, understand, catch, bring, sing, meet, give, take, get, forget, buy, sell, pay, help.

Here are some of these verbs used in sentences.

Sentence verb object

(a) The teacher answered the question. answered question (b) My friend bought a house. bought house (c) The children found the money. found money (d) Most Indians love cricket. love cricket

(e) Children like football. like football

2. Intransitive Verb

What is an intransitive verb?

Simple, I suppose. It is a verb which is not transitive—a verb which does not take an object. Here are some examples along with some sentences.

walk, jump, sleep, sit, lie, stand, weep, kneel, fall, fly, flow, remain, die, belong, wait, come, go. (a) We walk to the railway station.

(b) The children jump with joy. (c) Babies sleep for many hours. (d) My brother stood there. (e) Jesus wept.

Some Exceptions

You will often find transitive verbs used intransitively, i.e. without an object. ▪ They are eating.

▪ We play in the evening. ▪ I understand.

At rare times intransitive verbs are used transitively.

▪ How did you cover all that distance? We walked it. ('walked' has the object 'it' in this sentence)

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Besides transitive and intransitive verbs, we have linking verbs in the finite verbs family.

3. Linking Verbs

Linking Verbs คือกริยารูปแบบหนึ่งในภาษาอังกฤษที่ท าหน้าที่ Link หรือว่าเชื่อมค านามหรือประธานของประโยคที่อยู่ด้านหน้าเพื่ บอก หรือขยาย ประธานที่อยู่ด้านหน้าตัวอย่างของ Linking verbs ได้แ่่ก่

Example:

1. to appear ปรากฏ 2. to get ได้รับ 3. to prove พิสูจน์ 4. to sound เสียง 5. to be เป็น อยู่ คือ 6. to go ไป 7. to remain ยังคง 8. to stay พัก 9. to become กลายเป็น 10. to grow เติบโต 11. to seem ดูเหมือน 12. to taste ชิม

13. to feel รู้สึก 14. to look ดู คล้าย 15. to smell กลิ่น 16. to turn หมุน พลิก เลี้ยว

USE การใช้

The linking verbs above are often followed by adjectives instead of adverbs. In such situations, the adjective describes the subject of the sentence rather than the verb. Study the examples below to learn the difference.

กริยา Linking verb ด้านบนมักจะตามด้วย Adjective แทนที่จะเป็น Adverb ในบางสถานการณ์ ค าคุณศัพท์ หรือว่า adjective จะ อธิบายหรือขยายประธานของประโยคมากกว่าที่จะเป็นค ากริยา ลองดูตัวอย่างประโยคเพื่อความเข้าใจ

Example:

▪ Mary seemed sad. Correct ถูกต้องเพราะ Linking verb "seemed" ตามด้วยค า Adj. คือ sad

▪ Mary seemed sadly. Not Correct ไม่ถูกต้องเพราะ Linking verb "seemed" ตามด้วยค า Adv. คือ sadly ▪ The cake tastes good. Correct ถูกต้องเพราะ Linking verb "tastes" ตามด้วยค า Adj. คือ good

▪ The cake tastes well. Not Correct ไม่ถูกต้องเพราะ Linking verb "tastes" ตามด้วยค า Adv. คือ well ▪ The train is slow. Correct เหตุผลเดียวกัน หลัง is เป็น Adj. คือ slow

▪ The train is slowly. Not Correct เหตุผลเดียวกัน คือหลัง is เป็น Adv. คือ slowly ▪ James grew tired. Correct

▪ Sarah remained calm. Correct

IMPORTANT สิ่งส าคัญ

The verbs in the list above are not always used as linking verbs. Compare the examples below. ค ากริยาด้านบนไม่ได้มีความหมายเป็น Linking verb เสมอไป จะต้องดูรูปประโยคประกอบด้วย

▪ Sally grew angry. "Angry" describes Sally. In this sentence, "to grow" is being used as a linking verb meaning "to become."

34 ▪ The plant grew

quickly.

"Quickly" does not describe the plant, it describes the manner in which it grows. In this sentence, "to grow" is not being used as a linking verb.

ส าหรับประโยคนี้ grew เป็นกริยาหลักของประโยค โดยสังเกตค าที่ตามหลังจะเป็น Adv ที่มาขยาย กริยาหลัก คือ เติบโตอย่างรวดเร็ว

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Non-Finite Verbs

1. Infinitives

Infinitives are one of the three groups of non-finite verbs, the others being gerunds and participles. We shall look at this particular type of verb from three angles:

1. how it looks (its form or morphology);

2. what work it does in a sentence (its function or syntax); and 3. its meaning (or semantics).

How Can You Recognize an Infinitive?

Its form is usually as follows: to eat, to drink, to play, to be, etc.

Usually the infinitive has a 'to' before it. In some cases the word 'to' is dropped. We speak of such a verb (with the word 'to' dropped) as a bare infinitive. The bare infinitive is the standard form of an English verb.

What work does it do?

According to function, that is, the work it does in a sentence (syntax), it may be both a noun and

a verb. Here is an example:

I like to finish the work quickly.

In this sentence the infinitive to finish does the following jobs:

▪ It is the object of the finite verb like - therefore to finish is similar to a noun (because being an object is a noun's job).

▪ The phrase to finish has its own object, work - so to finish is a verb (since verbs have objects).

▪ The adverb quickly modifies (i.e. tells us something more about) to finish. Since the phrase to finish is modifiable by an adverb, it must be a verb.

We can say that the infinitive, though born in the verb family, does not limit itself to being a verb. It often behaves like a noun when it goes around socializing in the world of sentences! In some cases:

▪ It behaves even as an adjective, as in the following sentence.

That was a game to watch!

In this sentence, to watch tells us something more about the quality of the game (a noun). Describing a noun is the work of an adjective.

▪ Sometimes it can behave like an adverb. The sentence below illustrates this.

Her voice is pleasant to hear.

The phrase to hear tells us something more about the quality of being pleasant. The word pleasant is an adjective, and words that tell us more about an adjective are traditionally called adverbs.

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The Infinitive and Meaning.

If we take the meaning, (semantics) then the infinitive could be viewed as a pure, unmodified form of a verb. This pure meaning we modify, change, or mutate, by imposing on it such things as tense, modality, voice, etc. The infinitive in itself (semantically) is a pure action word (to do, to write, etc) or a word denoting existence (to be).

2. The Gerund

A gerund is a non-finite verb and is often referred to as a verbal noun. There are three kinds of non-finite verbs. The other two are the infinitive and the participle. To understand the gerund, we shall look at its...

▪ Morphology - i.e. the shape of the gerund-word ▪ Syntax - i.e. its function in a sentence

▪ and semantics - i.e. its meaning.

The Morphology of the Gerund.

It has an "-ing" ending. Please note that all verbs ending in "-ing" are not gerunds. Present participles also have the same form. It is easy therefore to confuse a gerund with a present participle. Hence, we cannot depend on morphology alone to identify (recognize) it. We need to look also at the work it does in a sentence.

The Syntax of the Gerund.

The gerund does the work of a noun in a sentence. This means, it can be any one of the following: 1. The subject of a verb, as in the sentence...

Swimming is good exercise.

The word swimming is the subject of the verb is. 2. The object of a finite verb, as in...

You enjoy learning a new language.

The word learning is the object of the finite verb enjoy. 3. The object of a non-finite verb...

She intends to begin writing the story soon.

The word writing is the object of to begin, an infinitive (i.e. a non-finite verb). 4. The object of a preposition...

He is interested in joining the group.

The word joining is the object of the preposition in. 5. The indirect object of a verb...

She gave reading great importance in her life.

The word reading is the indirect object of the verb gave.

All these functions which the gerund is shown doing are usually those of a noun. Depending on the function, the grammatical case of the gerund will be nominative or accusative or genitive, etc.

The Semantics of the Gerund.

You know that the noun is a name. The gerund is also a name. It is the name of an activity. In so

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Avoiding Confusion.

Sometimes, not only the morphology, but also the syntax may lead us to believe a word is a present participle. At such times semantics helps us to recognize a gerund. Here are two examples:

▪ walking stick—the word walking looks like an adjective describing stick...but it is not—

walking stick is not a stick which walks. It is a compressed form of stick for walking.

So walking is the object of the preposition for. So walking is a gerund.

▪ reading room—the phrase does not mean that the room reads. It is a compression of a

room for (the purpose of) reading. So reading is a gerund.

3. Participles

What is a Participle?

Look at these two sentences:

1. The stranger ignored the barking dogs. 2. I saw a boy riding a bicycle.

In sentence 1, the word barking...

▪ is formed from the verb 'bark' and it also denotes an action; therefore it is a verb; ▪ describes the noun 'dogs' and therefore it is like an adjective.

In sentence 2, the whole phrase riding a bicycle...

▪ acts like an adjective. It describes the noun 'boy'. The whole phrase is called a participial

phrase and the word 'riding' is called its head...and as the head it is mainly responsible for

the adjectival function.

▪ The word 'riding' also acts like a verb, because it has 'bicycle' as its object. Also remember that the phrase 'riding a bicycle' is an action-based description of the boy.

So then, what is a participle?

A participle is a verbal adjective. It is by birth a verb, but mostly serves nouns and pronouns as an adjective does.

Types of Participles

They are of three types: ▪ Present Participle; ▪ Past Participle; and ▪ Perfect Participle.

Sometimes you may hear or read that there are two (not three) types of participles. This is said because the Perfect Participle has no independent form, but one that depends on the form of the Past Participle. The point is to recognize the different forms whether you classify them as two or three. The point is to satisfactorily answer for ourselves the question, "what is a participle" by recognizing its forms and their associated grammatical functions.

It is possible to recognize each of these types ▪ from their morphology (form),

▪ and the syntax (the work they do in sentences).

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How Can you Recognize Participles?

They are sometimes difficult to understand or deal with; but it need not be so for you if you go through the following carefully. Understanding the types is part of the original and larger question: what is a participle?

The forms of the three types of participles are as follows: The Present Participle

This non-finite verb can be recognized from its -ing ending (e.g. eating, playing, singing, studying, sleeping). However, this fact alone is not enough to recognize it for sure, because the gerund also has the same ending. So then, how can you know for sure that an -ing word is a present participle? Here's how...

A present participle does the work of an adjective, but a gerund does the work of a noun. Though both have the same form, they are different in the jobs they do (i.e. in their function). These two examples will make this point clear to you...

▪ I enjoy singing. ('singing' is the object of the verb 'enjoy'—being an object of a verb is the mark of a noun—therefore, 'singing' is a gerund.)

▪ She is a singing girl. ('singing' describes the noun 'girl'—describing a noun is the function of an adjective—therefore 'singing' is a participle.)

So if you want to recognize a present participle you need to take into consideration not only its form but also its use in sentences.

The Past Participle

All past participles do not have one type of form. So they are harder to recognize. Here are some ways to help you recognize them...

▪ They often have one of these endings: -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (as in: developed, hoped, burnt,

fallen, grown).

▪ Sometimes they are formed by making an internal change in the basic form of the verb (e.g. sung from sing, won from win, bound from bind, met from meet).

▪ A third way of forming the past participle is by not changing the form of the verb at all (as in verbs: put, cut, set).

The Perfect Participle

The form of this particular non-finite verb depends on that of the previous one, i.e. the past participle. The form is: the word 'having' + the past participle. (e.g. having sung, having won, having met, having rested, having seen, etc).

After the most important questions of what is a participle, what are its types and what forms it takes, we move on to how to use participles.

Present Participle

About the Present Participle, we already know two things: 1. that it has an -ing ending; and