Introduction
Biology is the science of life forms and living processes. All living organisms grow.
• Reproduction is a characteristic of living organisms • All living organisms are made of chemicals.
• The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in our body is metabolism. • Cellular organisation of the body is the defining feature of life
LIFE
Living beings are called organisms. Living organisms are similar to non-living objects in being -formed of similar elements which combine in similar way to form similar molecules (called biomolecules in living organisms) and follow similar physical and chemical laws like gravitation, magnetism, action and reaction etc. Living organisms show a great biodiversity and are classified into different kingdoms-Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
All of these share the following properties - • They have definite organisation.
• They always have cellular nature so are either unicellular (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium etc.) or multicellular (e.g., Hydra, man etc.).
• They show co-ordination between different parts of body to maintain homeostasis (constant internal environment) inside the body.
• They have the ability of movements and locomotion. • They show metabolic functions in the presence of energy.
• These have the ability of intussusceptional (internal) growth and development.
• These have specific receptors (e.g., sense organs to receive external and internal stimuli) and specific effectors (e.g., muscles and glands to give specific response).
• These have regulatory mechanisms (e.g:, nerves and hormonal in animals, and only hormonal in plants) to maintain homeostasis inside the body.
• These show variations which help in speciation-and evolution. • These have reproductive powers for continuity of their race. • These have definite life span (period from birth to death). • These undergo ageing after adulthood and then natural death.
Building blocks of life and their function: Living organism is formed of many types of inorganic as well as organic biomolecules. Inorganic compounds include water, minerals etc. and are a1ways micro-biomolecules (small sized, low molecular weight, readily soluble in water and diffusible) while organic molecules may be micro (e.g. monosugars, amino acids etc.) or macrobiomolecules (large sized, high molecular weight, insoluble or slightly soluble and non-diffusible e.g., proteins, fats, nucleic acids, etc.). These both types of biomolecules play important roles in metabolism
Role of Water: Water forms 70-90% of the cellular pool It forms 65% (about two-thirds) of human body. It is formed of H and 0 in the ratio of 2:1. 95% of water is found in Free State and 5% in combined form in the cell. Water helps in sustaining the life processes. So water is called elixir or cradle of lip as life is not possible in the absence of water. Role of Oxygen: Oxygen is mainly utilized in aerobic cell respiration of the nutrients inside the mitochondria to produce energy-rich ATP molecules so is essential for life. In the absence of oxygen, only 5°/o of energy available is released. Role of Sodium chloride (common salt) : Sodium chloride plays an important role in metabolic. functions of body especially when in ionic form.
Role of Carbohydrates : Carbohydrates are organic compounds formed of C, H and 0 generally in the ratio of 1:2:1. These are commonly called saccharides (Gk. saccharon = sugar) Carbohydrates are the main storage molecules and most organisms use carbohydrates as an important fuel, breaking these bonds and releasing energy to sustain life.
Role of Proteins : Proteins are polymeric compounds formed by interlinking of amino acids (monomers) by peptide bonds. Out of about 100 types of amino acids, only 20 types of amino acids are of biological importance, so are called Magic- 20. Proteins play a vital role in the formation of structures in living organisms. Like carbohydrate and fat, protein can be broken down with the release of energy. Protein is not stored as such in the body and it is normally only used as a substantial source of energy in conditions of starvation.
Role of lipids : Lipids comprise a major group of insoluble hydrocarbons having many functions. These are polymers of alcohols (e.g. glycerol) and fatty acids interlinked by ester bonds.
Complex lipids such as true fats are important organic molecules that are used to provide energy. Fats in animals also provide protection from heat loss.
Role of Nucleic Acid : These are polymers of nucleotides interlinked by phosphodiester bonds, so called polynucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed of 3 components : a pentose sugar (e.g.ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), a phosphate group and an inorganic nitrogen-base (a puriee or a pyrimidine). DNA acts as genetic material in most organisms and controls the synthesis of structural and functional proteins. RNA also act as genetic material in all plant viruses e.g. TMV and helps in protein synthesis.
AXONOMY
Taxis = orderly arrangement, nomos = law.
Taxonomy is the study of principles and procedures of classification.
This word was proposed by A.P. de. Candolle in his book ‘Theories elementaire de la botanique” (Theory of elementary botany)
* Taxonomy includes study of following 4 points (1)Identification : Identification of living organisms (2)Nomenclature : Nomenclature of living organisms
(3) Classification: Classification of living organisms in groups (4) Affinities: Study of inter relationship between living organisms SYSTEMATICS (Branch related with taxonomy)
(A) The term “Systematics” was proposed by Linnaeus.
(B) It includes description of external morphological characters of plants or living organisms. Eg. Morphological characters of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers
(C) This description is used to know inter relationship among plants or living organisms. New systematics or Neo systematics or Biosystemafics
(A) Neo - systematics A new branch- Name given by Julian F-Iuxley (1940). (B) It includes description of all the characters
(internal) including morphological characters (external) of plants or living organism. Eg. Anatomical characters
Cytological characters
(C) It is used to know the inter relationship among living organism.
NOTE:
• New systematics is mainly based oh evolutionary as well as genetic relationship (experimental taxonomy) as compared to morphological characters.
• Maximum diversity is found in tropical rain forests. • Second maximum diversity is found in coral reefs.
• Practical significance of taxonomy is identification of unknown organism. NOMENCLATURE
• Polynomial system : According to this system name of any plant consists of many words. For eg. Caryophyllum-Caryophyiium saxa tills foils gramineus umbellatis corymbis.
Binomial system:
1. Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book - ‘Pinax Theatre Botanica.”
2. Carojus Linnaeus Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first lime on large scale and proposed scientific name of all the plants and animals.
* Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.
* Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species plantarum”. It was published on 1
May 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for plants. So any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
• Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema nattrae’ (loth edition).
• This 10th edition of Systema naturae was published on 1 August 1758. So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed to be started on 1 Aug.1758.
Principle of Priority The nomenclature is done by principle of priority. If two names are proposed for any plant after the 1753, the valid name is the earlier name proposed just after 1 May, 1753
ICBN - “International Code of Botanical Nomenclature’ • ICBN - Book of rules of nomenclature
• Collection of rules regarding scientific - nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN • ICBN was firstly proposed by Sprague, Hitchcock, Green (1930).
• ICBN was first accepted in 1961,
• 12th International congress, Leningrade, revised ICBN in 1975.
• After revision it was republished in 1978. So that ICUN was published two times (1) 1961 (2) 1978 Main rules of ICBN
1. According to binomial system name of any species consists of two names (i) Generic name - Name of genus
(ii) Specific name - Trival name Eg.
(
)
Solanum tuberosum Potato Generic name Specific name Mangfera indica (Mango)
Generic name Specific na
↓ ↓
↓ ↓
me
2. In plant nomenclature (ICBN), tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific name should not be same in plants.
eg. Mangifera mangifera But tautonyms are valid (ICZN-International Nomenclature) eg, Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
3. Length of generic name or specific name should not be less than 3 letters and not more than 12 letters. eg. Mangifern indica
Exception Riccia pathankotensis - More than 12 letters
According to ICBN this name is not valid but this name was proposed before 1961, so it is valid.
4. First letter of generic, name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific name should be in small letter. eg. Mangifera indica
S. When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific name should be separately underlined. But during printing, name should be italized.
6, Name of scientist (who proposed ndmenclatire) should be written in short after the specific name eg. Mangfera indica Lin.
7. Name of scientist should be neither underlined nor written in italics, but written in roman ,lçtters (simple alphabets) S. If any scientist has proposed wrong name then his name should be written in bracket and the scientist who corrected the name should be written after the bracket.
eg. Tsuga.canadensis (Lin.) Salisbury Notes Linnaeus named this plant as Pinus canadensis
9. Scientific names should be derived from Latin or Greek languages because they are dead languages. 10. Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in herbarium (Dry garden). 11. Standard size of herbarium sheet is 11.5 x 16.5 inches
Type specimen (herbarium sheet) are of different type
Holotype: Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
Lectotype: In case of holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is called lectotype.
Neotype: in case holotype and original plant is lost then herbarium ‘sheet prepared from some Other plant of same species is called neotype.
Syntype : In case holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from plants of same species is called syntype.
Isotype: Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is called isotype.
Paratype Additional herbarium sheet used in the first description of plant is called paratype. It is prepared from some other plant of same species having some variations.
Note Nomenclature is invalid in absence of herbarium sheet. ICNB = International Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria
ICVN = International Code of Viral Nomenclature ICNCP = International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
TRINOMIAL SYSTEM
Proposed by Huxley and Stricklandt
According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names - (i) Generic name (ii) Specific name (iii) Subspecific name (Name of variety)
When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used. On the basis of dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species
eg. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower) Brass ica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage) Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Their are 7 main taxonomic -categories. They are obligate -categories i.e. they are strictly used at the time of any plant classification.
There are some extra categories, like sub division, sub order, sub family, tribe, sub tribe,. etc. They are not regularly used. They are used only when they are needed.
Classification of Raddish:
• Adolf Mayer - First proposed the term ‘Taxon” - for animals.
• Taxon : Plant groups or animal groups included in categories are called taxon. • H.J. Lan: First proposed the term “Taxon” - for plants.
• The classification of any plant or animal is written in descending order.
• Hierarchy - Descending arrangement of taxonomic categories is known as hierarchy. • Species : Smallest taxonomic category: It is basic unit of classification.
Suffix for taxa (Taxon) Division — phyta Sub div - phytina
Class — opsida, phyceae, ae Order — ales
Sub-order — ineae Family — aceae Sub faimly — oideae Tribe —. eae
Sub tribe — mae
Note: There is no suffix for Genus, Species and Kingdom.
John Ray : Proposed the term and concept of species.
To explain the species, different concepts were proposed, which are as follows (A) Biological concept of species
(1) Mayer proposed the biological concept of species.
(2) Mayer defined the “species” in the form of biological concept.
(3) According to Mayer ‘All the members that can interbreed among themselves and can produce fertile offsprings are the members of same species” But this lefinition of Mayer was incomplete because this definition is applicable to sexually reproducing living beings because there are many organisms that have only asexual mode of reproduction.
eg. Bacteria, Mycoplasma, BGA
(4) The main character in determination of any species is interbreeding. But this character is not used in taxonomy. In taxonomy, the determination of species is based on other characters.
eg. - Mainly morphological characters
(5) In higher plants, the determination of species is maInly based on the morphology of flower (floral morphology): Because floral (reproductive) characters are more conservative as compared to veget4tive (Root, Stem, Leaf) characters i.e. they do not shows any major changes.
(6) When the species is determined on the basis of interbreeding then it is called as biological species. eg. All the humans in this world can interbreed among themselves.
So all the humans are the members of one biological species.
(7) When the determination of species is based on other characters then it is called as taxonomic species. eg.
These 3 have same morphological characters. Therefore they belong to same taxonomic species i.e. one taxonomic species. But these three can not interbreed among themselves. Therefore on the basis of interbreeding these are three biological species.
(B) Static concept of species
(1) The static concept of species was proposed by Linnaeus. According to Linnaeus “species is tin- changeable” i.e. there is. no change in the character of species. The species of present day are same as they were in past and they will remains same in future.
(2) Linnaeus believed in the “Theory of Special creation”
Father Suarez - gave the principle of special creation. According to this theory ‘All the living organisms are created by God (Every life is created by God) and God gave the basic size and shape of all living organisms, they are still present in their actual former form. But Lamarck rejected this hypothesis.
(C)Dynamic concept of species (1) It was proposed by “Lamarck”
(2) According to this concept “Species is always changeable”. Changes always occur in the characters of species from one generation to next generation. And these changes are known as ‘evolution’
(1) It was proposed by “Aristotle” and “Plato”.
(2) According to this concept ‘There is a definite type or pattern of characters in the each species of every living organisms and all the members of species show maximum resemblance with this pattern. (Typological concept is based on single individual of species)
The species in which a fixed pattern of characters is present are called as monotypic species. eg. Bacteria, blue green algee.
(3) In many species, more than one type or pattern of characters are present. These are called “Polytypic species” or “Macrospecies”.
eg. Brassica oleracea —, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol khol Polytypic Species are of three types
Biotype Members of same species inhabiting similar environment and having some genetic variations are known as biotypes. Variations found in these members are permanent. These members can not interbreed among themselves. eg. Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Khol are three biotypes of one species
Ecotypes Members of same species inhabiting different environment and having some genetic variations are known as ecotypes. Variations are permanent. These members can interbreed among themselves but due to geographical barrier they can not interbreed.
eg. Crow (Corvus splendense) found in different regions are ecotype of one species Corvus splendense splendense - Indian crow
Corvus splendense insolense - Myanmar crow Corvus splendense protegatus - Srilankan crow
Ecads or Ecophenes Members of same species having some non genetic variations due to environment is called Ecads. These variations are temporary eg. Every living being
This hypothesis is believed to be most acceptable. Some definition related to species
1. Linneon species: Those taxonomic species whose determination is based on morphology. They are called as linneon species. They are also called morpho-species or taxonomic species. eg. Most of species in taxonomy are linneon 2.Microspecies or Joardan’s species: Those species in which variations are very less are called Joardan’s species. They reproduce asexually so they have very less variations.
3. Sibling species or Cryptic species: Members of species which are morphologically similar but reproductively io1ated are known as sibling species i.e. they can not interbreed among themselves.
Sibling species is one taxonomic species (because these members have similar morphology) but they are different biological species. [Because they can not interbreed]
eg. Brassica oleracea
Allopatric species : Those species that are found in different geographical regions and have geographical barriess between them are known as allopatric species.
4. Geographical barriess are hills, oceans, himalyan mountains.
5. Sympatric species : The species found in similar geographical regions are sympatric species. 6. Allochronic species : The species found in different time periods. eg. Man and Dinosaurs. 7. Synchronic species Those species that are found in same era, eg. Dinosaurs and Archaeoptervx. 8. Palaeo species : Those species that are extinct now and are found in the form of fossils. eg. Dinosaurs 9. Neontological species : Those species which are living presently.
NOTE:
Biochemical resemblances are used in the identification of Moneran species. GENUS
Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to species of other genera.
Example Potato, tomato and brinjal are three different species but all belong to the genus Solanum. Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger (P. tigris) with several common features, are all species of the genus Panthera. This genu differs from another genus Felis which includes cats.
FAMILY
Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and species. * Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species.
* Example Three different genera Solanum, Petunia and Datura are placed in the family Solanaceae. Among animals for example, genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along with genus, Fells (cats) in the family Felidae. ORDER
§ Order being a higher category, is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar characters. The similar characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in a family.
§ Plant families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order Polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters.
§ The animal order, Carnivora, includes families like Felidae and Cancidae.
CLASS
• This category includes related orders.
Example : Order Primata comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon is placed in class Mammalia along with order Carnivora that includes animals like tiger, cat and dog. Class Mammalia has other orders also.
• Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals constitute the next higher category called Phylum. All these, based on the common features like presence of notochord and dorsal hollow neural system, are included in phylum Chordata. In case of plants, classes with a few similar characters are assigned to a higher category called Division.
KINGDOM
• All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom Animalia in the classification system of animals. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, and comprises all plants from various divisions.
TYPES OF TAXONOMY
1. Alpha taxonomy or classical taxonomy: It is based on external morphology, origin and evolution of plants. 2. Beta taxonomy or Explorative taxonomy: Besides externil morphology, it also includes internal characters like embryological, cytological, anatomical characters etc.
3. Omega taxonomy or Encyclopaedic taxonomy: Omega taxonomy has widest scope. It is based on all the informations or data available about plants.
4. Cytotaxonomy : The use of cytological characters of plants in classification or in solving taxonomic problems is called cytotaxonomy. Cytological characters constitute an important aid to plant taxonomy, especially in determining affinities at the generic and infrageneric levels.
5. Chemotaxonomy : The uses of chemical characters of plants in classification or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy or chemical taxonomy. It is based on the chemical constitution of plants. The fragrance and taste vary from species to species.
The basic chemical compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoids, tannins, polysaccharide, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds etc.
6. Karyotaxonomy: Based on characters of nucleus and chromosomes. Pattern of chromosomal bands (dark bands and light bands) is most specific characters,
BRANCHES OF BOTANY
1. Anatomy- Study of internal structure 2. Phycology or Algology- Study of Algae 3. Agrostology -Study of grass
4. Anthology - Study of flowers
5. Aerobiology- Study of substances of plants, found in air. 6. Agronomy- Study of crops plants
7. Arboriculture- Study of culture of decorated plants,
9. Biophysics- Study of importance in metabolic reactions of different physical theories 10. Bacteriology- Study of bacteria
11, Bryology- Study of bryophytes
12. Bio-metrics- Study related to different biotic reactions & their results. 13. Bio technology - Study of isolation of protoplasm & their culture 14. Cytology - Study of structure & functions of cell
15. Cecidology - Study of diseased knots in Plants 16. Dendrology - Study of tree
17. Dendrochronology- Study of age of trees
18. Embryology - Study of gametes formation fertilization & formation of embryo 19. Ecology - Study of inter relations between living organism & their atmosphere 20. Evolution - Study of different development process of living organism
21. Economic Botany - Study of plants of economic importance 22. Ethenobotany- Study of uses of plants by Tribals
23. Exobiology - Study of presence of possible organism on other planet 24. Euphenics - Study of control of heredity disease
25. Edaphology - Study of organism in soil
26. Floriculture - Study of culture of ornamental flowers 27. Foresty - Study of forests
28. Genetics - Study of heredity & variations 29. Gymnology - Study of Gymnosperm
30. Gerentology - Study of changes in cell with age
31. Genetic Engineering- Study of artificial genes & their transfers 32. Histology - Study of structure of tissues
33, Histochemistry- Study of different chemicals found in cells & tissues. 34. Horticulture- Study of culture of garden plant, fruits & vegetables 35. Lichenology- Study of lichens
36. Limnology - Study of fresh water plants 37.. Karyology - Study of Nucleus
38. Morphology - Study of external characters of Plants 39. Mycology - Study of fungi
40. Microbiology - Study of micro organisms 41. Mycoplasmology - Study of mycoplasma
42, Molecular Biology - Study of nucleic Acid (DNA & RNA) 43 Morphogenesis - Study of development
44. Nematology - Study of relation of plants & Nematodes 45. Olericulture - Study of culture of vegetables
47. Physiology - Study of biotic activity of plants 48. Paleobotany - Study of fossil plants
49. Plant geography- Study of distribution of plants according to different geographical zones. 50. Pleriodology - Study of pteridophytes
51. Pedology - Study of soil
BOTANICAL GARDENS, HERBARIA AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE I. Oldest botanical garden is “Padua Botanical Garden” Italy (Established -1545).
2, Largest Botanical garden in the world is Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, Surrey, England, established by William Aiton, 1759.
3. Largest herbarium of the world is “Museum of Natural History’ - Paris - with a collection of 8880000 specimens. 4. Largest Botanical Garden of Asia is Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Kolkota. Established by Robert Kyd, 1786. * Largest herbarium of Asia is Central National Herbarium located in Indian Botanical Garden, with a collection of 25 lakh specimens.
* Indian Botanical Garden is famous due to the presence of “Great Banyan Tree’ in its campus.
* In campus of Indian Botanical Garden Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is present which is established by William Rouxburgh 1890. BSI — Botanical Survey in India is done by BSI
5. National Botanical Garden, Lucknow. National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) is located in National Botanical Garden.
6. Forest Botanical Garden, Dehradun. Forest Research Institute (FRI)is located in Forest Botanical Garden. 7. Lloyd Botanical Garden - Darjeeling.
8. CDRI - Central Drug Research Institute - Lucknow 9. CAZRI - Central Arid Zone Research Institute - Jodhpur
10. CIMAP - Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Lucknow 11. IARI - Indian Agriculture Research Inst. (Pusa Inst.)- New Delhi
12. Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany (National Institute of Paleobotany) - Lucknow.
CONTRIBUTIONS AND CONTRIBUTORS
Contributions Contributors
Cell theory Schleiden and Schwann
Central Dogma of Molecular genetics (Name) Crick Chromosomal Theory of Linkage Morgan and Castle Chromosomal Theory of inheritance Sutton and Boveri Cohesipn Theory of Ascent of Sap Dixon and Jolly
Double fertilization of Angiosperms Nawaschin & Guingard Gene Theory (Linkage of genes) Morgan
Germplasm Theory Weissmann Germ Theory of disease L. Pasteur Induced fit hypothesis of enzyme Koshland
Mutation Theory Hugo de Vries
Omnis cellula e cellula R. Virchow One gene one enzyme theory Beadle and Tatum Operon Concept of Gene action Jacob and Monod
Organic evolution Darwin and Wallace
‘Protoplasm is the physical basis of life (Book) Huxley Sol gel theory of amoeba Locomotion Hyman,Pantin Survival of the fittest (term) Spencer Telome Theory of Pteridophyta Zimmernunn theory of Accquired Characters Lamarck
Theory of Natural Selection Charles Darwin Tunica
Corpus Theory Schmidt
INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES
Inventions and discoveries Contributors Blood groups A, B and O K. Landsteiner
ATP Lohmann (1929)
Blood group AB de Castello and Sturli
C3 pathway of plants Malvin Calvin C4 pathway of plants Hatch and Slack First test tube baby Edwards and Steptoe
First vaccination Edward Jenner
Heterothallism in fungi Blakeslee Insecticidal properties Of DDT Muller (1939) Jumping genes (transposons) Mc Clintock
Pataiis syndrome K.Patau
Penicillin A. Aeming (1920)
Photophosphorylation in chloroplast Arnon TMV virus (discovery) Iwanowski
Vitamin Funk (1911)
CONNECTING AND MISSING LINKS OF BIOLOGICAL WORLD
Link Between the groups
Actinomycetes Bacteria and Fungi Archaeopteryx Birds and Reptiles
Chimaera (rat or rabbit fish) Bony and Cartilaginousfishes Club moss Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Cycas Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms Gneriurn Gymnosperms and Angiosperms Neopilina Annelida and Mollusca
Ornithorhynchus Reptiles and Mammals (Duck billed Platypus)
Peripa ins (Walking worm) Annelida and Arthropoda Protopterus (Lungfish) Pisces and Amphibia Rickettsia Virus and Bacteria
Virus Living and non-living
Muscles Number 639
Smallest Stapedius
Largest Gluteus maximus
Longest Sartorius
Number of cranial nerves 12 pairs Number of spinal nerves 31 pairs Smallest cranial nerve Abducens Smallest bone Stapes Smallest endocrine gland Pituitary
Speed of Sneezing 60-100 miles/hour Spinal cord weight 35gm.
Length 42-45 cm.
Organisms with their Taxonoinic Categories.
1. Most acceptable concept of species is —
(1)Static concept (2) Biological concept (3)Typological concept (4) Genetic concept 2. Artificial system of classification classifies plants on the basis of —
(1) One or two characters (2) Phylogenetic trends (3) Many naturally existing (4) None of the above
3. The term new systematics was introduced by
(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham (3) Hutchinson (4) Huxley
4.Group of organisms that closely resemble each interbreed in nature,other and freely constitute a— (1) Species(2) Genus (3) Family (4) Taxon
5. ICBN was first revised in -
(1) 1961 (2)1964 (3) 1975 (4) 1733 6.The term taxon refers to —
(1) Name of a species (2) Name of genus (3) Name of family (4) A taxonomic group of any rank 7.The herbarium specimen on whose basis a new species is described for the first time is called as
(1) Syntype (2) Holotype (3) Paratype(4) Neotype
8.The scientific naming of plants began with publication of Linnaeus book —
(1) Genera plantarum (2) Systema nahirae (3) Species plantarum (4) Charaka sanhita 9. Which book most impressed the opinion of taxonomists —
(1) Enquiry into plants (2) Origin of life (3) Genera plantarum (4) Origin of species 10.The basic unit of classification is —
(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Order (4) All of the above 11. Suffix for sub species is —
(1) Phytina (2) Oideae (3) Ineae (4) None
12.Individuals of same species having non-genetic differences due to environment are called — (1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype (3) Ecophenes (4) None
13.Morphologically similar but reproductively isolated species are called —
(1) Neontological species (2) Sibling species (3) Allopatric species (4) Morpho-species 14.Plant nomenclature means
(1) To give names to plants without any rules (2)Nomenclature of plants under the international rules (3)Nomenclature of plants in local language (4) Nomenclature of plants in english language
15.Taxonomy refers to —
(1) Plant classification (3) Plant affinity (2) Plant nomenclature (4) All the above 16. Which of the following is a correct name
(1) Solanuni tuberosum (2) Solanum Tuberosum (3) Solanum tuberosum Linn. (4) All the above 17.Systematics deals with —
(1) Classification (3) Plant description (2) Nomenclature (4) Plant exploration
18.Scientific name of Mango plant is Mangfera indica(Linn.) Santapau. In the above name Santapaurefers to — (1) Variety of Mango
(2) A taxonomist who proposed the present nomenclature in honour of linnaeus (3) A scientist who for the first time described Mango plant
(4) A scientist who changed the name proposed by Linnaeus and proposed present name 19.Type specimen selected from the original material in case the holotype is missing, is called (1) Lectotype (3) Syntype (2) Neotype (4) Para type
20. Phylogeny refers to —
(1) Natural classification (2) Evolutionary classification (3) Evolutionary history (4) Origin of algae 21. Static concept of species is given by -
(1) Linnaeus 2) Bentham (3) Koch (4) Mayr 22. In taxonomy the first step is
(1) Identification (2) Nomenclature (3) Classification (4) Affinities 23. The suffix - mae signifies the rank
(1) Tribe (2) Subtribe (3) Suborder (4) Sub family 24, Species living in different geographical areas are called —
(1) Allochronic (2) Allopatric (3) Sympatric (4) Siblings
25, A large number of unknown species of plants and animals are believed to be present in — (1) Temperate forests (2) Antarctica (3) Taiga (4) Tropical forest 26 Biological concept of species proposed by —
(1) Linnaeus (2) Mayr (3) John Ray (4) De Candolle 27. For higher plants, flowers are chiefly used as a basis of classification, because —
(I) These show a great variety in colour (2) It can be preserved easily (3) Reproductive parts are more conservative than vegetative parts (4) None of these
28. Individuals of same species having genetic variation and occur in same environment are called— (I) Biotypes (2) Ecotype (3) Ecophenes (4) Ecads
29. The smallest unit of classificati on is —
(1) Family (2) Order (3) Genus (4) Species
30. The binomial system of nomenclature was initially proposed by —
(1) Magnus (2) Bauhmn (3) Caesalpinno (4) Discorides 31. Biochemical resemblances are used in the identification of
(I) Protistan species (2) Moneran species (3) Fungal species (4) Higher plants 32. Concept of phylogeny was proposed by —
(1) John Ray (2) Lamarck (3) Ernest Haeckel (4) Darwin 33. A division is formed by combining several —
(1) Orders (2) Familiea (3) Classes (4) Tribes 34. An international code of botanical nomenclature was first proposed in the year
(1) 1930 (2) 1830 (3) 1913 (4) 1813
35. For declaration of new species of higher plants,what characters are used —
(1) Floral character of new species (2) Anatomical characters of new species (3) Physiological character of new species (4) Character of endosperm
36.The standard size of herbarium sheets is
(1) 11.5” x 16.5” (2) 15.5” x 16.5 ’ (3) 18.5” x 10.5” (4) 20.5” x 21.5” 37.Which statement is true —
(3) Tautonyms normally occur in animals and some time occur in plants (4) Tautonyms occur only in bacteria 38. Trinomial nomenclature of classification was proposed by—
(1) Linneaus (2) Huxley and Stricklandt (3) John-Ray (4) Theophrastus 39. Most of the botanical names are drawn from the following language —
(1) German (2) Greek (3) Latin (4) Spanish
40. Evolutionary classification is called —
(1) Artificial system (2) Natural system (3) Phylogenetic system (4) None of the above 41. Which of the following statements regarding nomenclature is correct —
(1) Generic name always begins with capital letter whereas specific name with small letter (2) Scientific name should be printed in italics
(3) Scientific name when typed or handwritten should be underlined (4) all the above
42. The systematic arrangement of taxa is called
(1) Key (2) Taxonomy (3) Geneology (4) Hierarchy 44. Number of obligatory categories in taxonomy are—
(1) 7 (2) 8 (3)9 (4)5
43.Which is the most important but generally not used criteria for the identification of the speties — (1) Interbreeding (3) Genetic material (2) Morphology (4)’ None
45. Herbarium is —
(1)A garden where medicinal plants are grown (2)Garden where herbaceous plants are grown (3)Dry garden (4)Cherriical to kill plants
46. The year of publication of ‘Species plantarum’
(1) 1853 (2) 1857 (3) 1753 (4) 1786
47. The biological concept of species is mainly based on—
(1) Morphological features (2) Morphology and method of reproduction (3) Method of reproduction only (4) Reproductive isolation
48. A duplicate of holotype is called —
(1) Isotype (2) Syntype (3) Neotype (4) Para type 49. Term taxom given by —
(1) Adolf Mayer (2) Linnaeus (3) Darwin (4) Koch 50. Which of the following is a species?
(1) Tamarindus (2) Indicus (3) Indica (4) Tamarindus indicus 51. Tautonyms are valid names according to —
(1) ICBN (2) Species plantarum (3) Genera plantarum (4) ICZN 52. Practical significance of taxonomy is —
(1) Classification (2) To understand diversity (3) To understand evolution (4) Identification of organisms 53. Which name is invalid?
(3) Name which is not in latin (4) Name for which holotype is not designated 54. Which system classifies a plant in more than one groups?
(1) Practical classification (2) Artificial classification (3) Natural classification (4) Phylegenetic classification 55. Author of book ‘Fla British Indica’ —
(1) Father Santapau (2) J.D. Hooker (3) William Rouxburgh (4) G. Bentham 56, The art of growing short plants is called —
(1) Bonsai (2) Horticulture (3) Topiary (4) Tissue culture 57. Science of characters and distribution of races is known as
(1) Ethnology (2) Sociology (4) Anthropology (3) Taxonomy 58. The study of reptiles is
(1) Ichthyology (2) Herpetology (3) Serpentology (4) None of these 59. The branch of study dealing with microscopic anatomy of tissues is —
(1) Histology (2) Cytology (3) Morphology (4) Palaeontology 60. Olericulture is the cultivation of —
(1) Vegetables (3) Crop plants (2) Fruits (4) Mushrooms 61. Oncology is the study of —
(1) Dead cells (2) Living cells (3) Dividing cells (4) Cancer cells 62. Ornithology is the study of —
(1) Reptiles (2) Birds (3) Fossils (4) Fishes 63. Pedology is the science of —
(1) Rocks (3) Soil (2) Diseases (4) Pollution 64. Synecology refers to the ecological study of
(1) Plants (3) Community (2) Animals (4) Microbes 65. Study of abnormal embryonic growth comes under—
(1) Teratology (3) Morphogenesis (2) Ontogeny (4) Parthenogenesis 66. The bacteria were first observed in the year 1675 by —
(1)Robert Koch (2)Louis Pasteur (3)Robert Brown (4)Antony van Leeuwenhoek 67. Plant virus was first crystallized by
(1) Pine (2) Bawden (3) Stanley (4) Beijèrinck 68. The term cell was first coined by —
(1) Robert Brown (2) Schwann (3) Robert Hooke (4) Schleiden 69. Who studied blood groups in man —
(1) Landsteiner (2) Francis Galton (3) Stanley Miller (4) Gregor Mendel 70. 10% law of energy transfer in food chain was given by—
(1) Tansley (3) Lindeman (2) Stanley (4) Weismann 71. The law of limiting factor was proposed by —
72. Who is famous in the field of palaeobotany
(1) Bose J.C. - (3) Metha K.C (2) Birbal Sahni (4) Maheshwari P 73. Photophosphorylation was discovered by
(1) Arnon D.I. (3) Calvin M. (2). Hill R. (4) Ruben and Kamen 74. Who was developed the concept of phagocytosis in immunity —
(1) T.H. Huxley (2) Strasburger (3) Ernst Haeckel (4) E. Metchnikoff 75. The term Hormone was coined by —
(1) Starling (2) Huxley (3) Bayliss (4) Harris
76. Who wrote a. memoir on the earthworm, Pheretima, to describe in morphology and anatomy (1) Baini Prasad (2) Bahl K.N; (3) Thillayampalam E.M. (4) Das S.M. 77. Aquaculture does not include —
(1) Pisces (2) Prawns (3) Silkworm (4) Shell fishery
78. Match the names of branches of biology listed under column I with the help of study given under column II, choose the answer which gives the correct combination of the alphabets of the two columns —
Column I Column II
(Branch of biology) (Field of study) (A)Palynology (p)Silkworks (B)Oncology (q)Pollens (C)Phycology (r)Cancer (D)Sericulture (s)Algae (1) A=s..B=q,C=r,D=p (2) A=q,B=r,C=s,D=p (3) A=s,B=r,C=q,D=p (4) A=r,B=q,C=s,D=p
79. The branch which is associated with diagnosis, prevention and cure of mental disorders is — (2) Psychiatry (1) Neurology (3) Psychology (4) Neuropsychiatry 80. Match the following by using codes
(A) Vernalization (1) Camerarius (B) Double fertilization (2) Hofmeister (C) Pollination (3) Lysenko (D)Alternation of (4) Nawaschin Generations (1)A=1,B=2,C=4,D=3 (2)A=4,B=1,C=2,D=3 (3)A=3,B=2,C=1,D=4 (4)A=3,B=4,C=1,D=2
81. Match the branches of biology listed in column I with the areas of study listed in column II. Choose the answer which gives the correct combination of alphabets of the two columns —
Column I Column II (Branches of biology) (Area of study) (A) Helminthology (p) Study of insects (B) Entomology (q) Study of fungi (C) Ornithology (r) Study of algae (D) Phycology (s) Study of birds (t) Study of worms (1) A=p,B=s,C=q,D=t
(2) A=t,B=p,C=s,D=r (3) A=s,B=t,C=r,D=p (4) A=r,B=p,C=s,D=q
Note (Q.82-Q.85) Each questions contain
STATEMENT-1 (Assertion) and STATEMENT-2
(Reason). Each question has 4 choices (1), (2), (3) and (4) out of which ONLY ONE is correct
(1) Statement- 1 is True, Statement-2 is True, and Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement 1 (2) Statement -1 is True, Statement -2 is True Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement -1 (3) Statement - 1 is True, Statement- 2 is False
(4) Statement -1 is False, Statement -2 is False
82. Statement 1 Botany deals with the study of plants and zoology deals with the study of animals. Statement 2 Biology is the study of living beings.
83. Statement 1 Study of internal structure is called anatomy. Statement 2 It is useful for phylogentic study.
84. Statement 1 The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy. Statement 2 : Systematics and taxonomy have same meaning.
85. Statement 1 Formation of new species is called speciation. Statement- 2 The deme has a common gene pool.
HINTS & SOLUTION (5) (3) ICBN waS first revised in 1975.
(10) (2) The basic. unit of classifications is species. (20) (3) Phylogeny refers to evolutionary history. (29) (4) The smallest unit of classification is species.
(36) (1) The standard size of herbarium sheets is 11.5” x 16.5. (45) (3) Herbarium is dry garden.
(56) (1) Bonsai is the art of growing of dwarf tree in a pot, produced by special method of cultivation. (57) (1) Science of characters and distribution of races is known as Ethnology.
(58) (2) The study of reptiles is known as Herpetology.
(59) (1) The branch of study dealing with microscopic anatomy of tissues is Histology. (60) (1) Olericulture is the cultivation of Vegetables
(61) (4) Oncology is the study of Cancer cells (62) (2) Ornithology is the study of Birds (63) (3) Pedology is the science of Soil.
(64) (3) Synecology refers to the ecological study of Community. (65) (1) Study of abnormal embryonic growth comes under Teratology
(66) (4) The bacteria were first observed in the year 1675 by Antony van Leeuwenhoek (67) (3) Plant virus was first crystallized by Stanley
(68) (3) The term cell was first coined by an English microcopist Robert Hooke in 1665. (69) (1) Landsteiner studied blood groups in man.
(70) (3) 10% law of energy transfer in food chain was given by Lindeman. (71) (1) The law of limiting factor was proposed by Blackman.
(72) (2) Birbal Sahni is famous in the field of palaeobotany.
(73) (1) Photophosphorylation refers to ATP synthesis during light reaction of photosynthesis. It is proposed by Arnon D.I.
(74) (4) Elie Metchnikoff won the 1908 Nobel prize in physiology and medicine for the concept of phagocytosis. (75) (1) The term Hormone was coined by Starling.
(76) (2) Bahi K-N. wrote a memoir on the earthworm, Pheretima, to describe in morphology and anatomy. (77) (3)Aquaculture does not include Silkworm.
(78) (2) Palynology - Study of spores and pollen grains Oncology - Study of cancer/tumorus
Phycology Study of algae
Sericulture - Rearing of silkworm
(79) (2) The branch which is associated with diagnosis, prevention and cure of mental disorders is Psychiatry (80) (4) Vernalization - Lysenko
Double fertilization - Nawaschin Pollination - Camerarius Alternation of Generations - Hofmeister
(81) (2) Helminthology - Study of worms Entomplogy - Study of insects
Ornithology - Study of birds Phycology - Study of algae
(82) (1) Biology (Bio-living, logy-science). The study of living beings is called biology. Living beings on earth are mainly classified into two forms- plants and animals. Botany and zoology are the fundamental branches of biology. Word botany has been derived from greek word botane which means pasture or plants and zoology has been derived from word zoo- animals, logos-study. Theophrastus and Aristotle is called the father of botany and father of zoology respectively. (83) (2) Anatomy is the study of internal structure which can be observed with unaided eye after dissection. By studying anatomy of large number of organisms, it is useful for knowing phylogenetic similarity (homology) and phylogenetic dissimilarity (analogy).
(84) (3) Taxonomy is the science of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms. But taxonomy and systematics are different terms. Systematics is the branch of biology that deals with diversity of organisms at every level of classification.
(85) (2) All new species develop from the pre-existing species. The phenomenon of development of a new species from pre-existing one is called speciation. A species is a collections of demes. The deme is a groups of populations with a common gene pool.
CLASSIFICATION
Biological classification : The art of identifying distinctions among organisms and placing them into groups that reflect their most significant features and relationship is called biological classification.
The purpose of biological classification is to organise the vast number of known plants into categories that could be named, remembered and studied.
According to “Ad’. de Candolle”, Classification is of two types (1) Empirical Classification
(2) Rational Classification 1. Empirical Classification
(i) In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.
(ii) Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order. i.e. on the basis of the name of plant. (iii) On the basis of name, plant kingdom can be classified in 26 groups.
(There are 26 alphabets in English’ According to this classification, all plants having same initial alphabet, are placed in one group. For example : If the name of plants, starts from ‘A’, then it is placed in A group”. Similarly if it starts with ‘B’, then it is placed in ‘B - group”)
(iv) This is not a true classification.
It has only one application: “Listing of flora”.
(v) If any scientist, writes the flora of a particular area then he uses empirical classification. Flora
→
Plants growing in a particular area.Two books in which flora of India is written: (i) Flora British Indica
→
By J.D. Hooker (ii) Flora Indica→
By William Rouxburgh2. Rational Classification : In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature i.e. by viewing the characters. Type of rational classification
(I) Practical classification : In this type of classification, plants are classified on the basis of their economic importance. In this type of classification morphology of plants is not considered.
Medicinal plants: Rauwolfia, Cinchona, Eucalyptus Note: In this classification, any plant can be a member of more than one group.
eg. Turmeric: Multi uses plant it gives both medicines and spices.
(ii) Artificial classification In this type of classification plants are classified on the basis of one or two morphological characters. i.e. over all morphology is not considered.
e.g. Classification proposed by Linnaeus is Artificial.
Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on the basis of only two characters (1) Stamens (2) Style On the basis of stamens and style, Linnaeus classified plant kingdom in to 24 classes (1) Monandria — Those flowers in which only 1stamen is present.
(2) Diandria — 2 stamens in flower (3) Triandria — 3 stamens in flower (23) Polyandria Many stamens
(24) Nonandria/Cryptogamia — No stamens
Note: Linnaeus divided flowering plants into 23 classes starting with class monandria with a single stamen (eg Canna) and plants with twenty or more stamens attached with calyx were assigned to class Icosandria. He also included all non-flowering plants such as algae, fungi, lichens, mosses and ferns in a separate class called cryptogamia or nonandria. tiii) Natural classification: In this type, plants are classified on the basis of their complete morphology. hi it the classification of whole plant is included (stem, root, Leaves, flower etc). Maximum characters are tak. in this classification.
Importance : Natural classification is believed to be the best classification, because it represents the natural similarities and dissimilarities of plants i.e. it represents the interrelationship among plants. In this classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows many similarities, while in artificial classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows only, for 2 similar characters. They have many dissimilarities.
Natural classification is of two types (a)Natural formal (b) Natural phylogenetic
(a) Natural formal In this classification, the phylogeny of the plant is not considered i.e. only the morphclosy of the plant is considered.
(b) Natural phylogenetic hi this classification, both morphology and phylogeny are considered. In phyh4genetic classification, the plants are arranged on the basis of their evolution. Lamarck : Proposed the term Phylogeny” Ernest Haeckel :- Gave the concept of phylogeny Charles Darwin : Gave broad explanation of phylogeny in his book ORIGIN OF SPECIES”(1859)
(Geneology
→
Sequence of evolution) Geneology of plant kingdom:Thallophyta
→
Bryophyta→
Pteridophya→
Gymnosperm→
Angiosperm (Most advanced plants) (iv) Adansonian system or phenetic classification or Numerical classificationProposed by “Sokel and Sneath”. In it plants arc classified on the basis of numbers of similarities and dissimilarities. In this, importance to single character is not given, all characters have same importance. While in natural classification floral (reproductive) characters have more importance than vegetative (root, stem and leaves) characters.
HISTORY OF TAXONOMY
1. Aristotle : Father of biology & father of zoology. 2. Theophrastus
(A) Time - 370 - 285 B.C.
(B) He is known as father of ancient plant taxonomy and father of botany. (C) Both Theophrastus & Aristotle are Greek political philosophers. (D) Theophrastus wrote many books on plants.
Few of them are as follows
(a) Historia plantarum (b) Causes of plants (c) Enquiry into plants
(E) Theophrastus gave names and descriptions of 480 plants in his book Historia plantarum.
(F) Theophrastus proposes the first classification of plant kingdom. He classified plant kingdom in to four groups on the basis of growth habit.
(a) Trees (b) Shrubs (c) Under shrubs (d) Herbs (G) It is artificial classification.
(H) He proposed the term Annual, Biennial and Perennials. 3. Carolus Linnaeus : 11707 - 1778
(A) His real name was -Carl Von Lime
(B) On the basis of work in latin language, he changed his name to Carolus Linnaeus. He was the Swedish scientist. (C) He is known as father of taxonomy, father of plant taxonomy and father of animal taxonomy.
(D) Linnaeus gave the two kingdom system
classification. He grouped plants and animals into kingdom plantae and kingdom Animalia respectively. (E) Linnaeus wrote many books. Some important books are:
(1) Hortus uplandicus - First book (2) Flora lapponica (3) Philosophia botanica (4) Critica botanica (5) Systema naturae (1737) (6) Genera planta rum (7) Species plantarum -last book (1753)
(F) In “Philosophia botanica Linnaeus gave the principles of nomenclature.
(G) In “Systema naturae Linnaeus gave the scientific names of animals. lit this book he gave the detailed description of animal kingdom.
• He also gave the outline classification of plant kingdom in this book. (H) In Genera plantarum” Linnaeus gave the detailed description of plant kingdom.
• He classified the plant kingdom into 24 classes on the basis of stamens and style. • This was an artificial classification.
• The main basis of Linnaeus classification was the ‘Sex organs” Therefore this classification is also known as “Sexual classification’.
(I) In ‘Species plantarum” he gave the scientific names of plants. IHe gave the description of 6000 plant species) 4. A.P. De Candolle:
(A) He wrote the book - “Theories Elementaire de la botanique”
(B) He was the first to propose the significance of vascular tissue in taxonomy. On this basis of vascular tissue he classified plants into two groups
(a) Cellular plants (Non vascular plants) - This group includes Thallophyta and Bryophyta (b) Vascular plants - This group includes Pteridophyta, Gymnosperm and Angiosperms. 5. George Bentham (1800 -1884) and Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817 -1911):
(A) Both Bentham and Hooker were related to Royal botanical garden. (B) Scientists working in botanical garden are known as curator. (C) They wrote the book “Genera plantarum” (1862 - 1883).
In this book, Bentham and Hooker gave the biggest and natural classification of spermatophyta i.e. plants with seeds.
In Genera plantarum, there is description of 202 families, In it, basically the description of plants with seeds is present. Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification:
The classification of Bentham and Hooker was natural formal.
The classification of Bentham and Hooker was mainly based on the floral characters. This was very appreciable because floral characters are more stable than vegetative (root, stem, leaves) characters,
It is the simplest classification. Therefore the arrangement of all plants in the botanical gardens and herbarium of the world is based on it. Although it is not the best classification but yet the arrangement of plants in botanical gardens and herbariums is based on it, because it is the simpler one. The main reason for its simplicity is that this classification is based on actual observations.
Demerits of Bentham and Hooker
In this classification the phylogeny of plants is not considered, because in it, gymnosperms are placed in between dicots and monocots. The sequence of evolution is as follows
Phylogeny
→
Gymnosperm→
Dicots→
Monocots 6. A. W. Eichler:• In this book, Eichler gave the first phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom. • The classification of Eichler is very little phylogenetic.
In this way Eichler classified plant kingdom into five divisions and arranged them in the order of evolution (Phylogeny)
Thallophyta
→
Bryophyta→
Pteridophyta→
Gymnosperm→
Angiosperm7. Engler (1844 - 1930) & Prantl (1849 - 1893) Book - “Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien’
lIe gave the phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom. This classification was more phylogenetic as compared to Eichlers classification.
8. Oswald Tippo
(B) This classification is the complete classification of plant kingdom. (C) This is the most acceptable classification for books and study.
These ten divisions include three types of organisms (1) Algae - 7 - div. (2) Bacteria - 1- div.
(3) Fungi - 2div.
Note Tippo does not use the word pteridophyta 9. Karl Menz:
(A) He showed the importance of serology in taxonomy.
(B) Similarities and dissimilarities in stru. of proteins help to know the phylogenetic relationship of living beings. Living organisms which are phylogenetically close relatives have more similarities in their proteins.
Organisms which are distantly related have different proteins.
NOTE:
Phylogenetic relationship of plants and animals can be established by animal serum.Serology indicates that chimpanzee is closest relative of man.
10. Haeckel
(B) Haeckel established the kingdom Protista. (C) The term Trotista was given by C. Cuvier.
(D) Haeckel grouped those living organisms in Protista which did not have tissues. Kingdom Protista Prokaryotes, Protozoa, Porifera, Algae & fungi
* First tissue was originated in animal kingdom in
→
Coelentrata * First tissues was originated in plant kingdom in→
Bryophyta11. Copeland: He gave the four kingdom system of classification.
(I) Mychota : Dougherty & Allen gave the name “Monera” to Mychota of Copeland. All the prokaryotes are grouped in Monera.
(ii) Protista or Prototista Copeland grouped those eukaryotes in protista, which are visually different than normal plants and animals. e.g. Brown algae, Red algae, Fungi, Protozoa
(iii)Plantae or Metaphyta : Remaining all eukaryotic plants are grouped. (iv) Animalia or Metazoa : Remaining all eukaryotic animals are grouped.
12, R.H. WHITTAKER (1969):
(A) He gave the five kingdom system of classification. (B) This classification was believed to be modern -
The five kingdom classification of Whittaker was based on 3 main characters
(a) Complexity of cell : Cell is prokaryote or Eukaryote, on this basis, kingdom Monera is formed. And all the prokaryotes are grouped in to it.
(b) Complexity of organism Organism is unicellular or multicellular, on this basis kingdom Protista was formed, and all the unicellular eukaryotes are grouped into it.
(c) Nutrition : Organism is autotrophic or heterotrophic, on this basis kingdom Mycota, Plantae and Animalia was formed. Except fungi (heterotrophic) all the plants are autotrophs. Therefore fungi is separated from plants and placed in kingdom mycota. And remaining all the autotrophic plants are placed in kingdom - Plantae,
Since all the animals are heterotrophs, therefore they are placed in fifth kingdom i.e. kingdom Animalia. Five Kingdom
1. Monera : All the prokaryote (Eubacteria, Actinomycetes BGA, Mycoplasma) and Akaryote (virus) 2. Protista All the Unicellular eukaryotes (Protozoans, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Euglenoids, Slime molds) 3. Mycota: True fungi
4. Plantae MUlticellular plants (Algae, Bryophyte, Pteridophyte, Gymnosperm, Angiosperm) 5. Animalia Multicellular animals
13. SIX KINGDOM
Carl Woese suggested separate kingdom for “Archaebacteria”. He proposed six kingdom classification. Carl woese divided living beings in three domain on the basis of r -RNA gene sequencing.
KINGDOM MONERA
* Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
• Bacteria are grouped under four categories based
• on their shape; the spherical Coccus, the rod- shaped Bacillus, the comma-shaped Vibrium and the spiral Spirillurn.
• Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates, They may be
photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic. The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they do not synthesise their own food but depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food.
Characteristics of monera
• Monera (Monos - single) includes prokaryotes and shows the following characters • They are typically unicellular organisms (but one group is mycelial).
• The genetic material is naked circular DNA, not enclosed by nuclear envelope.
• Ribosomes and simple chromatophores are the only subcellular organelles in the cytoplasm. The ribosomes are 70 5. Mitochondria, plastids, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome, etc., are lacking. • Sap vacuoles do not occur. Instead, gas vacuole may be present.
• The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive but some groups are photosynthetic (holophytic) and chemosynthetic.
• The organisms are non-motile or move by beating of simple flagella or by gliding.
• Flagella, if present, are composed of many intertwined chains of a protein flagellin They are not enclosed by any membrane and grow at the tip.
• Moneran cells are microscopic (1 to few microns in length). • Most organisms bear a rigid cell wall (Peptidoglycan).
• Reproduction is primarily asexual by binary fission or budding. Mitotic apparatus is not formed during cell division,
Bacteria shape
Cocci: They are oval or spherical in shape. They are called micrococcus when occur singly as in Micrococcus,
diplococcus when found in pairs as in Diplococcus pneuinoniae, tetracoccus in fours, streptococcus when found in chains as in Streptococcus lactis, staphylococcus when occurring in grape like clusters as in Staphylococcus aureus and Sarcine, when found in cubical packets of 8 or 64 as in Sarcina.
Bacilli: They are rod—shaped bacteria with or without flagella. They may occur singly (bacillus), in pairs (diplobacillus) or in chain (streptobacillus).
Vibrios : These are small and ‘comma or kidney’ like, They have a flagellum at one end and are motile, vibrio bacteria has curve in its cell e.g., Vibrio cholerae,
Spirillum : They are spiral or coiled like a corkscrew. The spirillar forms are usually rigid and bear two or more flagella at one or both the ends e.g., Spirillum, Spirochaetes etc.
Filament: The body of bacterium is filamentous like a fungal mycelia. The filaments are very small e.g., Beggiota, Thiothrix etc.
Stalked: The body of bacterium possesses a stalk e.g., Caulobacter. Budded : The body of bacterium is swollen at places e.g., Rhodomicrobiu Structure of bacteria
Capsule : In a large number of bacteria, a slimy capsule is present outside the cell wall. It is composed of polysaccharides and the nitrogenous substances (amino acids) are also present in addition. This slime layer becomes thick, called capsule.
The bacteria, which form a capsule, are called capsulated or virulent bacteria. The capsule is usually found in parasitic forms e.g., Bacillus anthracis, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
* Cell wall : All bacterial cells are covered by a strong, rigid cell wall. Therefore, they are classified under plants. Inner to the capsule cell wall is present. It is made up of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids.
In the cell wall of bacteria there are two important sugar derivatives i.e., NAG and NAM (acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid) and besides L or D - alanine, D-glutamic acid and diaminopimelic acid are also found.
* Plasma membrane Each bacterial cell has plasma membrane situated just internal to the cell wall. It is a thin, elastic and differentially or selectively permeable membrane. It is composed of large amounts of phospholipids. proteins and some amounts of polysaccharides but lacks sterols. It is characterised by possessing respiratory enzymes.
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is a complex aqueous fluid or semifluid ground substance (matrix) consisting of
carbohydrates, soluble proteins, enzymes, co-enzymes, vitamins, lipids, mineral salts and nucleic acids. The organic matter is in the colloidal state.
The cytoplasm is granular due to presence of a large number of ribosomes- Ribosomes in bacteria are found in the form of polyribosome. Membranous organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes and
vacuoles are absent, In some photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane gives rise to large vesicular thylakoids which are rich in bacteriochlorophylls and proteins.
Nucleoid: It is also known as genophore, naked nucleus, incipient nucleus. There is nuclear material DNA which is double helical and circular. It is surrounded by some typical protein (polyamine) but not histone proteins. Histones (basic proteins) are altogether absent in bacteria. This incipient nucleus or primitive nucleus is named as nucleoid or genophore.
Plasmid: In addition to the normal DNA chromosomes many bacteria (e.g., E.co?i) have extra chromosomal genetic elements or DNA. These elements are called plasmids. Plasmids are small circular double stranded DNA molecules. The plasmid DNA replicates independently maintaining independent identity and may carry some important genes. Plasmid terms was given by Lederberg (1952). Some plasmids re integrating into the bacterial DNA chromosome called episomes.
Flagella: These are fine, thread-like, protoplasmic appendages which extend through the cell wall arid the slime layer of the flagellated bacterial cells. These help in bacteria to swim about in the liquid medium.
Bacterial flagella are the most primitive of all motile organs. Each is composed of a single thin fibril as against the 9+2 fibrillar structure of eukaryotic cells. The flagellum is composed entirely of flagellin protein.
Pill or Fimbriae Besides flagella, some tiny or small hair-like outgrowths are present on bacterial cell surface. These are called pill and are made up of pilin protein. They measure about 0.5—2tm in length and 3—5iim in diameter. These are of 8 types I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and F types. I to F are called sex pili. These are present in all most all gram —ve bacteria and few gram +ve bacteria. Fimbriae take part in attachment like holding the bacteria to solid surfaces. The function of pili is not in motility but they help in the attachment of the bacterial cells. Some sex pili acts as conjugation canals through which DNA of one cell passes into the other cell.
Staining of bacteria
(1) Simple staining: The coloration of bacteria by applying a single solution of stain to a fixed smear is termed simple staining. The cells usually stain uniformly.
(2) Gram staining: This technique was introduced by Hans Christian Gram in 1884. It is a specific technique which is used to classify bacteria into two groups Gram +ve and Gram —ye. The bacteria are stained with weakly alkaline solution of crystal violet. The stained slide of bacteria is then treated with 0.5 percent iodine solution. This is followed by washing with water or acetone or 95% ethyl alcohol. The bacteria which retain the purple stain are called as Gram +ve. Those which become decolourised are called as Gram —ye. In general the wall of Gram +ve bacteria have simpler nature as compared to Gram —ye bacteria. E.coli is a Gram —ve bacterium. Gram negative bacterium can be seen with other stain safranin.
Gram positive bacteria : e.g., Pneumococcus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, mycobacterium, Streptomyces.
Gram negative bacteria e.g., Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Haemophilus, Helicobacter, Vibria, Rhizobium, Nutrition in bacteria
On the basis of mode of nutrition, bacteria are grouped into two broad categories. First is autotrophic and second is heterotrophic bacteria.
Autotrophic bacteria These bacteria are able to synthesize their own food from inorganic substances, as green plants do. Their carbon is derived from carbon dioxide. The hydrogen needed to reduce carbon to organic form comes from sources such as atmospheric H2, H2S or NH3.
Heterotrophic bacteria : Most of the bacteria can not synthesize their own organic food. They are dependent on external organic materials and require atleast one organic compound as a source of carbon of their growth and energy. Such bacteria are called heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic bacteria are of three typesParasites, Saprotrophs and Symbionts. Archaebacteria
• These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles). hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
• Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
• Methanogens are present in the guts of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals. Eubacteria (True Bacteria) • There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’. They are characterised by the presence of a rigid
cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.
• The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATh production. They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in nature. The majority are important decomposers. Many of them have a significant impact on human affairs. Theyare helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different bacteria.
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission. Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce sporeá. They also
reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other. The Mycoplasmas are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants. Mycoplamsa hominis causes pleuropneumonia inflammation of genitals and endocarditis, etc. Myco plasma pneumoniae causes primary a typical pneumonia (PAP), haemorrhagic laryngitis, etc. Mycoplasma fermentatus and M. hominis cause infertility in man, otitis media (inflamation of middle ear).
* Mycoplasma mycoides causes pneumonia in cattle.
Mycoplasma bovigenitalum, causes inflammation of genitals in animals. Mycoplamsa agalactia causes agalactia of sheep and goat.
* Common mycoplasmal diseases of plants are:
Bunchy top of papaya, witches’ broom of legumes, yellow dwarf of tobacco, stripe disease of sugarcane, little leaf of brinjal, clover phylloidy, big bud of tomato etc.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined. • Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals
and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organeiles. Some have flagella or cilia.
