IN T E R V E N T IO N ? A ^ T & S . . -., 1945 ~ . c : .
by •
M ARILYN JE A N DR EYER P IG O T T
S u b m itted f o r the D e g r e e of D o c to r of P h ilo s o p h y , School of O r i e n t a l and A f ric a n S tu d ies,
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The qu ality of this repro d u ctio n is d e p e n d e n t upon the q u ality of the copy subm itted.
In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be note d . Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved,
a n o te will in d ica te the deletion.
uest
ProQuest 10672864Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). C op yrig ht of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346
A B ST RA C T
The l e g i s l a t i v e and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , e s t a b l i s h e d by the n a t i o n a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t a f t e r 1948, p r o v id e d the b a s is f o r the l a r g e - s c a l e c o n s tr u c t i o n of r a c i a l l y s e g r e g a t e d to w n sh ip s f o r A f r i c a n w o r k e r s th ro u g h o u t South A f r i c a . D i r e c t s ta t e in te r v e n tio n in the p r o d u c t io n of h o u sin g p a r t i a l l y r e s o l v e d the h o u s in g s h o r t a g e w hich h ad e x i s t e d s in c e
b e f o r e the Second W orld W a r . The t h e s i s s e e k s to e x p la in why s ta t e in te r v e n tio n in the s p h e r e of h o u s in g a s s u m e d th is p a r t i c u l a r f o r m and how to w n ship p o l i c i e s w e r e a c tu a lly i m p l e m e n t e d . It a ls o s e e k s to u n d e r s t a n d the r o l e of t h e s e s p a t i a l f o r m s w ithin the s.ocial f o r m a t i o n It i s , t h e r e f o r e , an a n a l y s i s of p o lic y f o r m u l a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w ithin the co n te x t of p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic and id e o lo g ic a l r e l a t i o n s and c o n d itio n s e x i s t i n g in South A f r i c a o v e r the p e r i o d 1 9 4 5 't o 1965. The
t h e s i s a r g u e s th a t the o r i g i n s of to w n sh ip s p o l i c i e s , w hich w e r e l e g i t i m i s e d by the id e o lo g y of ’a p a r t h e i d 1, a r e to be t r a c e d , on the one h a n d , in the r e l a t i o n s w ithin the s ta t e - b etw e e n c e n t r a l and lo c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a ro u n d the q u e s tio n of h o u s in g s u b s id y , fo r e x a m p le - and, on the o t h e r h and, in the r e l a t i o n s b etw ee n o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s with i n t e r e s t s in h o u s in g , s u c h a s b u ild in g e m p l o y e r s and t r a d e u n io n s a r o u n d c o n d itio n s of h o u s in g p r o d u c tio n . The stu d y u t i l i s e s a wide r a n g e of p r i m a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l - in p a r t i c u l a r , a c o l l e c t i o n of u n p u b lish e d m e m o r a n d a , m i n u t e s and
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of a b o a r d c r e a t e d by the s ta t e , the o p e r a t i o n s of which w e r e c e n t r a l to th e im p l e m e n t a t i o n of the tow nship p o l i c i e s f r o m the m id - 1 9 5 0 s , w hich is n o t y e t a v a ila b le f o r p u b lic in s p e c tio n .
CONTENTS P age L i s t of T a b le s 7 L i s t of F i g u r e s 9 A b b r e v ia tio n s 10 A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts 11 C H A P T E R 1 INTRODUCTION 12 I R e s e a r c h C o n tex t I 2 C o n c e p tu a l F o c u s 16 H i s t o r i c a l S etting 2 0 1 .2 R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s and T h e o r e t i c a l 24 A p p ro a c h T h e o r e t i c a l A p p ro a c h 26 1 .3 M e th o d o lo g ic a l A p p ro a c h 32 R e s e a r c h P a r a m e t e r s 33 A r e a s of R e s e a r c h and T h e s i s S t r u c t u r e 36 A N ote on S o u r c e s 40
C H A P T E R 2 JOHANNESBURG C ITY COUNCIL: URBAN
.ADM INISTRATIO N AND THE PROVISION O F
HOUSING FO R A FRICA N WORKERS B E F O R E 1948 41
2 . 1 P r e - W a r U rb a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 42
M u n ic ip a l F i n a n c i a l P r a c t i c e : D i r e c t and 42
I n d i r e c t T a x a tio n
U r b a n i s a t i o n , S e g re g a tio n and the P r o v i s i o n of 48
M u n ic ip a l S e r v ic e s
* The N ativ e A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t and the E x t e n t - 56
ion of C o n tr o l
2 . 2 The W a r Y e a r s : H o u sin g S h o rtag e and H o u s in g 66
F in a n c e
P o l i t i c i s a t i o n of H ousing: S q u a tte r 'M o v e m e n ts ' 67
in the 1940s
The Q u e s tio n of S u b sid is a tio n : D i s tr i b u t i o n of 76
the C o s ts
2 . 3 J o h a n n e s b u r g 's P o s t - W a r B u ild in g P r o g r a m m e : 85
C H A P T E R 3 SOCIAL RELATION S IN THE PRO D U C T IO N O F HOUSING B E F O R E 1948: ORIGINS O F P O L IC Y AND THE D E V E L O P M E N T O F A D E B A T E
3. 1 The Q u e s tio n of P r o d u c ti v i t y in the B u ild in g
I n d u s t r y : C o s t and R ate of H o u s in g P r o d u c ti o n C o n d itio n s of P r o d u c tio n : The L a b o u r P r o c e s s in B u ild in g
R e la tio n s in the B uilding I n d u s tr y : W ag es and C o n d itio n s of E m p lo y m e n t
3 .2 The P r o c e s s of P o l i c y F o r m u l a t i o n : S tate
I n te r v e n t i o n in the R e la tio n s of B u ild in g P r o d u c ti o n
The D e m a n d f o r S killed L a b o u r and L a b o u r s ' D e m a n d s
S tate T r a i n i n g P r o p o s a l s
3 .3 T r a d e Union I n te r a c t i o n with the S tate: S o cial
R e la tio n s in a W id er C ontext
C H A P T E R 4 P R O C E S S O F P O L IC Y FO RM ULA TIO N A F T E R
1948; THE A PA R TH E ID FRA M EW ORK FOR IN TE R V E N TIO N IN THE R E P R O D U C T IO N O F LABOUR
4 .1 State I n te r v e n tio n in the R a c ia l D iv is io n of
L a b o u r
4 .2 H o u s in g P o l i c y and Social C o n tr o l
The Role of H o u s in g P o l i c y D efin ed
The D e p a r t m e n t of N ative A f f a ir s and the F o r m u l a t i o n of P o l i c i e s
4 . 3 The Role of R e s e a r c h and the 'S c i e n t i f i c ' B a s i s
to P o l i c y
S ta n d a r d s of A cc o m m o d a tio n : The F o r m u l a t i o n of 'I r r e d u c i b l e M in im a '
The B a s i s f o r 'R a tio n a l' E x p lo ita tio n of A f ric a n B u ild in g W o r k e r s P a g e 99 103 107 116 121 121 126 134 148 149 160 161 165 176 177 185
C H A P T E R 5 5. 5. 5. C H A P T E R 6 6.
TH E MAKING O F SOWETO: JOHANNESBURG C ITY COUNCIL AND THE IM P L E M E N T A T IO N O F A P A R TH E ID P O L IC IE S 1948 - 19 65.
1 R a c ia l Z o n in g and L a n d P o l i c y
The W e s t e r n A r e a s R e m o v a l S chem e
The M e n tz C o m m itte e and the F o r m u l a t i o n of a M e tr o p o l i t a n L a n d P o l i c y
2 I m p le m e n ta tio n of the S o u th -W e st T o w n sh ip s
P r o g r a m m e
The Site and S e r v ic e Schem e The P r o d u c ti o n of H o u se s
3 The H o u s in g D iv isio n and D i r e c t L a b o u r ,
1954-1965 W ages
O p e r a tiv e L a b o u r and the T a s k S y ste m P a y m e n t by R e s u l t s
CO NSEQUENCES O F STATE IN TE R V E N TIO N : SOME ECONOMIC P O L IT IC A L AND
IDEO LO GICA L E F F E C T S O F TOWNSHIP P O L IC IE S
1 T ow nship P r o d u c ti o n and R e la tio n s of
P r o d u c ti o n
The B u ild in g L a b o u r F o r c e in T o w nship P r o d u c ti o n A p a r th e id and R e la tio n s of P r o d u c ti o n 2 C o s t of P r o d u c ti o n and C o s ts of R e p ro d u c tio n : Soweto 196 197 198 2 03 213 217 220 231 235 238 240 250 251 254 258 263 F i n a n c i a l R e la tio n s and R e n ta l P o l i c i e s 265
6 .3
CONCLUSION
P a g e
M a t e r i a l C o n d itio n s and C o n f r o n ta tio n s in 270
the T o w n sh ip s
'M a n a g e m e n t' of C o n d itio n s f o r the R e p ro d u c tio n 276 of L a b o u r
The C on tex t of P o l i c y F o r m u l a t i o n and P o l i c y 282
I m p le m e n ta tio n T o w n sh ip s and 'B a n t u s t a n s ' 283 S o c ia l C o n tr o l in J o h a n n e s b u r g : C e n t r a l and 288 L o c a l A u th o r ity R e la tio n s 305 BIBLIO G RA PHY 310
L i s t 2 . 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2 . 6 2. 7 2 . 8 2. 9 3. 1 3. 2 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 T a b l e s P o p u l a t i o n (to n e a r e s t t h o u s a n d ) , 1904 - 1936 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : S t a t e m e n t of E x p e n d i t u r e a n d I n c o m e o n R e v e n u e A c c o u n t ( s e l e c t e d D e p a r t m e n t s ) , 1 9 2 7 / 8 - 1 9 3 5 / 6 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , N a t i v e A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t , 1 9 2 6 / 7 - . 1 9 3 9 / 4 0 W i t w a t e r s r a n d A r e a , C o n v i c t i o n s 193 4 - 1936 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : ' N a t i v e R e v e n u e A c c o u n t 1, 1927 - 1948 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : C o m p a r i s o n of P r e - W a r ' S u b - E c o n o m i c ' H o u s i n g S c h e m e s J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : H o u s i n g S c h e m e s f o r t h e A f r i c a n P o p u l a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n b e f o r e 1948 B u i l d i n g C o n t r o l : A n a l y s i s o f H o u s i n g P e r m i t s I s s u e d 1 9 4 4 / 5 - 1 9 4 5 / 6 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : H o u s i n g S t o c k a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n of A f r i c a n P o p u l a t i o n , J u n e 1948 S t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e B u i l d i n g a n d C o n t r a c t i n g I n d u s t r i e s ( p r i v a t e ) , 1 9 3 8 / 9 - 1 9 4 8 / 9 H o u s i n g a n d S k i l l e d B u i l d i n g L a b o u r R e q u i r e m e n t s , S o u t h A f r i c a n U r b a n A r e a s , 1945 - 1955 S k i l l e d L a b o u r S h o r t a g e , 1951 A v e r a g e A n n u a l W a g e R a t e s f o r A f r i c a n s i n I n d u s t r y , ( e x c l u d i n g m i n i n g ) , 1 9 3 9 / 4 0 - 1 9 5 2 / 3 H o u s i n g S t o c k a n d S h o r t a g e a t 31 D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 1 , f o r U r b a n L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t i v e A f f a i r s : S i t e a n d S e r v i c e S c h e m e J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : N a t i v e S e r v i c e s L e v y F u n d J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : H o u s i n g S t a t i s t i c s , S o w e t o , J u n e 1965 50 53 59 61 62 81 83 89 96 112 123 155 168 181 219 227 232
5. 4 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , H o u s i n g D i v i s i o n : C a t e g o r i e s of B u i l d i n g L a b o u r a n d W a g e s 5. 5 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , H o u s i n g D i v i s i o n : T a s k S y s t e m E m p l o y e d o n N E . 5 1 / 6 T y p e H o u s e 5 . 6 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , H o u s i n g D i v i s i o n : I n c e n t i v e B o n u s S c h e m e , 1958 5 . 7 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , H o u s i n g D i v i s i o n : . P r o j e c t s C o m p l e t e d a n d C o s t s , 1 95 4 - 1965 6. 1 H o u s i n g A c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d O t h e r B u i l d i n g s C o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r t h e N a t i v e B u i l d i n g W o r k e r s A c t , 1952 - 1965 6. 2 C o m p o s i t i o n o f L a b o u r F o r c e E m p l o y e d u n d e r t h e N a t i v e B u i l d i n g W o r k e r s A c t , 1952 - 1965 6. 3 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : C a p i t a l E x p e n d i t u r e o n ' N a t i v e R e v e n u e A c c o u n t 1, 1953 a n d 1965 6. 4 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l : E x t r a c t s f r o m t h e ' N a t i v e R e v e n u e A c c o u n t ' , 1948 - 1965 6 . 5 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , N o n - E u r o p e a n A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t : E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l S u r v e y s , 1957 6. 6 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , N o n - E u r o p e a n A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t : T o w n s h i p R e n t a l s 6 . 7 J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l , N o n - E u r o p e a n A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t : R e n t A r r e a r s i n H o u s i n g S c h e m e s f o r A f r i c a n W o r k e r s 6. 8 O p e r a t i o n s of t h e N a t i v e s R e s e t t l e m e n t B o a r d i n J o h a n n e s b u r g M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a 6 . 9 J o h a n n e s b u r g M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a : R e s i d e n t a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f A f r i c a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1955 - 1965 P a g e 2 3 4 239 243 2 4 4 2 53 255 2 6 4 267 272 273 2 7 5 2 9 4 2 98
L i s t of F i g u r e s 2. 1 W i t w a t e r s r a n d : P r o p e r t i e s A d m i n i s t e r e d b y A n g l o -A m e r i c a n C o r p o r a t i o n a n d O t h e r M i n i n g G r o u p s 2. 2 J o h a n n e s b u r g M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a , 1 9 4 0 s 4. 1 N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , T y p e P l a n s 5. 1 J o h a n n e s b u r g M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a , 1952: F i n d i n g s of t h e M e n t z C o m m i t t e e 5. 2 M e n t z C o m m i t t e e R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g P r o p o s a l s 5 . 3 S o u t h - W e s t T o w n s h i p s : P r o p o s e d S i t e a n d S e r v i c e S c h e m e s , 1957 5. 4 A n n u a l H o u s i n g P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e T o w n s h i p s , 1955 - 1965 5 . 5 S o w e t o 1965: D e v e l o p m e n t b y J o h a n n e s b u r g C i t y C o u n c i l a n d t h e R e s e t t l e m e n t B o a r d 6. 1 A n n u a l H o u s i n g P r o d u c t i o n u n d e r t h e N a t i v e B u i l d i n g W o r k e r s A c t o f 1951: A l l L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s 6. 2 C o m p o s i t i o n o f B u i l d i n g L a b o u r F o r c e E m p l o y e d o n T o w n s h i p P r o d u c t i o n , 1952 - 1965 47 71 18 0 2 0 5 207 223 2 28 2 3 0 252 25 6 P
A b b r e v i a t i o n s
AN A n n e x u r e s to V otes and P r e c e e d i n g s
ASI A f r i c a n S tu d ie s I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of W i t w a t e r s r a n d
BIFSA B u ild in g I n d u s t r i e s F e d e r a t i o n of S outh A f r i c a
CBM C o n t r o l l e r of B uilding M a t e r i a l s
COLA C o s t of liv in g a llo w a n c e
COTT C e n t r a l O r g a n iz a tio n of T e c h n ic a l T r a i n i n g
CSIR C o u n c il fo r S c ie n tific an d I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h
ICS I n s titu te of C o m m o n w e a lth S tu d ie s , U n i v e r s i t y of London
JC C J o h a n n e s b u r g C ity C o u n cil
NBRI N a tio n a l B u ild in g R e s e a r c h I n s titu te
NEAD N o n - E u r o p e a n A f f a i r s D e p a r tm e n t
N F B T E N a tio n a l F e d e r a t i o n of B u ildin g T r a d e E m p l o y e r s
OFS O ra n g e F r e e S tate
SAB T he S outh A f r i c a n B u ild e r
SAIRR South A f r i c a n I n s titu te of R a c e R e la tio n s
SALDRU S o u th e rn A f r i c a n L a b o u r & D e v e lo p m e n t R e s e a r c h Unit
SA TLC South Africa# T r a d e s and L a b o u r C ou n cil
TUCSA T r a d e U nion C o un cil of South A f r i c a
A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts
T h is t h e s i s is the o u tco m e of a le n g th y p e r s o n a l in v o lv e m e n t in the 'h o u s in g q u e s t i o n ', p a r t i c u l a r l y the q u e s tio n s w hich a r o s e when, a s an a r c h i t e c t e n g a g e d in the d e s ig n of l o w - c o s t h o u s in g s e t t l e m e n t s , I b e c a m e c o n s c io u s of the r o l e of te c h n ic ia n s in p o lic y i m p le m e n ta tio n , and the p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of 'p la n n in g ' and ' a r c h i t e c t u r e ' . M an y p eo p le o v e r the y e a r s h a v e c o n tr ib u te d in s e v e r a l w ay s to th is s tu d y . I n te ll e c tu a ll y m y g r e a t e s t d eb t i s p e r h a p s due to R o nald o R a m i r e z ano^ C a r o lin e M o s e r w h o se s e m i n a r s at the D e v e lo p m e n t P la n n i n g Unit a ffo rd e d m e the f i r s t o p p o rtu n ity of f o r m u l a t i n g s o m e of t h e s e i d e a s .
T h e ir c o n tin u in g i n t e r e s t in m y w o rk and t h e i r c o m m e n t s at c r i t i c a l
cJ
s t a g e s of the r e s e a r c h h a v e been a g r e a t s u p p o r t . I would like to th an k
m y s u p e r v i s o r s : Shnla M a r k s , f o r h e r i n s i g h t s and q u e s ti o n s w hich
led m e to the r i c h n e s s of e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h , and f o r h e r p a t i e n t r e a d i n g and c o m m e n t s on e a r l y d r a f t s ; and D ick H o d d e r, f o r h i s co n fid e n c e th a t I would e v e n tu a lly 'g e t it a l l d o w n ', and h is e n c o u r a g e m e n t th ro u g h o u t t h e s e y e a r s . T h a n k s a r e due too to the f r i e n d s who l a b o u r e d th ro u g h and c o m m e n te d on c h a p t e r s - p a r t i c u l a r l y , C a r e n L e v y , Rob T u r r e l l , D avid S a tte r th w a ite and J a m i e M a c k ie ,
I a m g r a t e f u l to the S c h o la r s h ip s C o m m itte of the School of O r i e n t a l and A f r ic a n S tudies f o r a s s i s t a n c e , and to the C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h F und of the U n i v e r s i t y of London and the B r i t i s h C o u n c il who e n a b le d m e to u n d e r ta k e the fie ld w o rk ; I am a ls o in d eb ted to the D i r e c t o r of BIFSA,
who f in a lly g a v e m e a c c e s s to t h e i r a r c h i v e s . To N o r m a M a h sh i O g e r m a n n , m y ty p is t who m a d e the f in a l s t a g e s a p le a s u r e ^ I ex ten d m y g r a t e f u l th a n k s
a ls o to m .y f a m ily , who h av e b een e x t r e m e l y s u p p o r tiv e th ro u g h o u t t h e s e y e a r s ; m y m o t h e r , B ev and A nne. F in a lly , th an k s to m y c o m p a n io n and p a r t n e r , R o n ald D r e y e r , w ithout w hose m o r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p p o r t I m ig h t n e v e r h av e c o m p le te d th is t h e s i s . T h is t h e s i s is d e d ic a te d to the m e m o r y , of m y f a t h e r who e n c o u r a g e d m e to e m b a r k on it.
v*
C H A P T E R ONE
INTRODUCTION
The p u r p o s e of th is c h a p t e r is to p ro v id e the r e s e a r c h c o n tex t and to ex p la in the t h e o r e t i c a l and m e th o d o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s ad o p ted . A s w ill be i l l u s t r a t e d , the d e v e lo p m e n t and d e fin itio n of the r e s e a r c h f o c u s h a s e n ta ile d c o n fro n tin g , on the one h an d , s t i m u l a t i n g y et c o m p le x t h e o r e t i c a l d e b a te s and, on the o th e r , a la c u n a in e x i s t i n g a c c o u n ts of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s in South A f r ic a a f t e r the Second W o rld W a r . P a r t i c u l a r q u e s tio n s f o r e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h w hich a d d r e s s the gap in th is l i t e r a t u r e h av e to be f o r m u l a t e d , but t h e s e in t u r n a r e i n f o r m e d and a r i s e on the b a s i s of a c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k and a p a r t i c u l a r
m e th o d o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h .
The f i r s t s e c tio n of th is c h a p t e r id e n tif ie s the r e s e a r c h c o n te x t and s u g g e s t s the r e l e v a n c e of the stu d y to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s , i . e . p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic and id e o lo g ic a l r e l a t i o n s , in South A f r i c a . The fo cu s of the s tu d y is defin ed , both c o n c e p tu a lly and
h i s t o r i c a l l y . Q u e s tio n s f o r r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g to the f o r m u l a t i o n and im p l e m e n ta tio n of p o l i c i e s a r e o u tlin e d in the sec o n d s e c tio n w hich a ls o r e f e r s
b r i e f l y to the t h e o r e t i c a l d e b a t e s c o n c e r n in g the s t a t e and the n a t u r e of s t a t e i n t e r v e n ti o n . The t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h ad o p te d in the p r e s e n t s tu d y is d e s c r i b e d . In the f in a l s e c tio n of the c h a p t e r , the m e th o d o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h is p r e s e n t e d . H e r e a r e o u tlin ed the r e s e a r c h p a r a m e t e r s , the a r e a s of r e s e a r c h and th e o r g a n i s a t i o n of m a t e r i a l .
1 .1 R e s e a r c h C o n tex t
C l a s s r e l a t i o n s and c l a s s s tr u g g l e in South A f r i c a a p p e a r to h a v e a s s u m e d a p a r t i c u l a r r a c i a l f o r m and, with the l e g i t i m i s a t i o n of r a c i s t id eo lo g y and the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n of a p a r t h e i d a f t e r 1948, the s ta te
h a s h ad a d e t e r m i n i n g r o l e in r e i n f o r c i n g t h e s e r a c i a l p a t t e r n s . Much of the e x i s t i n g w o rk on 20th c e n t u r y South A f r i c a f o c u s e s on the
a c t i v i t i e s and r o l e of the s t a t e in c r e a t i n g and f o s t e r i n g d iv is io n s w ithin the w o rk in g c l a s s . The e f fe c ts of t h e s e i n t e r v e n ti o n s h a v e b e en to c r e a t e a p r iv i l e g e d w hite s t r a t u m w ithin the s t r u c t u r e of p r o d u c tio n , i n c o r p o r a t i n g w hite w o r k e r s w ithin s t a t e s t r u c t u r e s in w hich t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m ic i n t e r e s t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d w hile s im u l t a n e o u s l y e x c lu d in g the m a j o r i t y of A f ric a n w o r k e r s f r o m s t r u c t u r e s of p o w e r o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e s e a n a l y s e s h a v e ten d ed to e x a m in e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een the r o l e of th e s t a t e and the r a c i a l f o r m w hich c l a s s r e l a t i o n s hav e a s s u m e d a t the l e v e l of the w o r k p la c e o r , in o t h e r w o r d s , at the po in t of p r o d u c tio n , and h av e looked at t h e i r e f fe c ts o r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the
2
a c c u m u la tio n of c a p i t a l . T h is t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , s e e k s to u n d e r s t a n d
the r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n the r o l e of the s ta t e and the r a c i a l f o r m of co n d itio n s f o r th e r e p r o d u c t i o n of the w o rk f o r c e in u r b a n a r e a s . It is c e n t r a l l y c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e f o r e , with why and how th e r a c i a l l y s e g r e g a t e d
'to w n s h ip s ' on the p e r i p h e r i e s of u r b a n i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s th ro u g h o u t South A f r i c a c a m e ab ou t.
The m a t e r i a l c o n d itio n s f o r m il l i o n s of A f r i c a n s r e s i d i n g in
u r b a n to w n s h ip s w e r e d r a m a t i c a l l y h ig h lig h te d by the s tu d e n t u p r i s i n g and g e n e r a l s t r i k e s in 1976, w hich s p r e a d f r o m Soweto, the l a r g e s t to w nship
1. A p a r t h e i d is the o f fic ia l g o v e r n m e n t p o lic y of r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n
i m p l e m e n t e d in a l l s p h e r e s s in c e the e le c tio n to g o v e r n m e n t of the N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y in 1948. The t e r m 'a p a r t h e i d ' h a s been
o ffic ia lly s u p e r s e d e d p e r i o d i c a l l y by su ch e u p h e m i s m s a s 's e p a r a t e d e v e l o p m e n t ' o r 'p l u r a l i s t d e m o c r a c y ',
2. See in p a r t i c u l a r K ap lan, D . , 'C l a s s C o n flict , C a p ita l A c c u m u la tio n
and the S tate: An H i s t o r i c a l A n a ly s is of the State in T w en tie th
C e n tu r y South A f r i c a ', (U n iv e rs ity of S u ss e x , D . Phil.- t h e s i s , 1977);
s e e a l s o D a v ie s , R . , C a p ita l, State and W hite L a b o u r in South A f r i c a 1 9 0 0 -1 9 60. An H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l i s t A n a ly s is of C l a s s F o r m a t i o n and C l a s s R e la tio n s , (B rig h to n , 1979).
3
o u tsid e J o h a n n e s b u r g , to o t h e r u r b a n a r e a s in South A f r i c a . The
g ro w in g m a s s s t r u g g l e s , w hich w e r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t s y m b o ls of the 'a p a r t h e i d s t a t e ' in the to w n s h ip s , s u g g e s t the e x te n t to w hich th e s e
4 c o n d itio n s h av e b een both p r o d u c e d and r e p r o d u c e d by the s t a t e .
The c u r r e n t s tu d y w as p r o m p te d by s e v e r a l q u e s tio n s a r i s i n g n o t only f r o m the fa c t th a t, h i s t o r i c a l l y , the s t a t e in South A f r i c a had b e c o m e involved, in the p r o v is i o n of h o u s in g and s e r v i c e s and t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h e d s o m e of the c o n d itio n s r e q u i r e d fo r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the l a b o u r f o r c e , but a ls o th a t th e s e in t e r v e n ti o n s a p p e a r to h a v e a s s u m e d a v a r i e t y of f o r m s . T h e to w n sh ip s of to d ay e x p r e s s a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m and w e r e s h a p e d by a s e r i e s of p o lic y r e s p o n s e s a f t e r the Second W o rld W a r to the i n c r e a s e d u r b a n i s a t i o n of the A f ric a n p o p u la tio n . T he v a r i e t y of p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to 'h o u s in g ', such a s land p o l i c i e s , h o u s in g fin a n c e , s u b s i d i e s and r e n t a l p o l i c i e s , s y s t e m s of t e n u r e and p o l i c i e s g o v e rn in g s p a c e s t a n d a r d s , give r i s e to d i f f e r i n g co n d itio n s f o r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the l a b o u r f o r c e , w hich, a s the e v e n ts d u r in g and s in c e 1976 r e v e a l , c a n
5
h av e i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t s . It is t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y to e x a m in e
3, F o r the b e s t a c c o u n t of the e v e n ts d u r in g 1976, s e e B ro o k s , A.
and B r i c k h i l l , J . , The W h irlw in d b e f o re th e S t o r m . T h e o r ig i n s and d e v e lo p m e n t of the u p r i s i n g in Soweto and th e r e s t of South A f r i c a f r o m J u n e to D e c e m b e r 1976, (London, 1980); s e e a ls o H i r s o n , B . , Y e a r of F i r e , Y e a r of A sh, the Soweto R e v o lt.
R o o ts of a r e v o lu tio n ? (London, 1979) and K a n e - B e r m a n , J . , Soweto: B lack R e v o lt, W hite R e a c tio n , (Jo h a n n e s b u rg , 1978),
4, D u r in g the u p r i s i n g , t h e r e w as w i d e s p r e a d d e s t r u c t i o n of s c h o o l
b u i l d i n g s ,s y m b o l s of th e s e p a r a t e 'B a n tu e d u c a tio n ' s y s te m ;
m u n ic ip a l b e e r h a l l s , the m o n o p o lis a tio n of b e e r b r e w in g and s a l e s b e in g a c e n t r a l f e a t u r e of fin a n c in g tow nship e x p e n d itu r e (see
b elow , c h a p t e r two); and the o ffice s of the B antu A f f a i r s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n B o a r d s , c e n t r e s of s o c ia l c o n t r o l and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of r e p r e s s i v e law s in the to w n s h ip s .
5, F o r a p r e - 1 9 7 6 d e s c r i p t i o n of the m a t e r i a l c o n d itio n s f o r A f r i c a n s
and an in d ic a tio n of the r e l a t io n s h i p b e tw ee n e c o n o m ic s t r u g g l e s and p o l i t i c a l s tr a t e g i e s , s e e Study P r o j e c t on E x t e r n a l I n v e s tm e n t in South A f r i c a and N a m ib ia , The C o n d itio ns of the B lack W o r k e r (London, 1975), in p a r t i c u l a r , ch, VIII 'A B la c k South A f r i c a n 's View of the P r e s e n t U rb a n , R u r a l and I n d u s t r i a l S itu atio n in the R ep u b lic ' (SASO s tu d e n t l e a d e r ) , and c h . IX, 'S o w e to ', (N tsh o n a, C) f o r a s u b je c tiv e d e s c r i p t i o n of c o n d itio n s.
the f o r m and c o n te n t of p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to the i n c r e a s e d p r o l e t a r i a n i s a t i o n and u r b a n i s a t i o n of A f r i c a n s in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d and ex p la in the
d if f e r in g c o n d itio n s of c l a s s s tr u g g l e w hich h av e a r i s e n f o r w hite and
6
b la c k w o r k e r s in South A f r i c a .
The a i m of th is stu d y is t h e r e f o r e twofold: to e x p la in why and how the l a r g e - s c a l e c o n s tr u c t i o n of to w n sh ip s w as e m b a r k e d upon f r o m the e a r l y -1950s' on a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , 'and to u n d e r s t a n d .the r o l e of t h e s e s p a t i a l
7
f o r m s w ithin the o v e r a l l s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n . The r e s e a r c h looks a t the
s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s in v o lv ed in p o lic y f o rm u la tio n , the m e c h a n i s m s f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g v a r i o u s p o l i c i e s and the s o c ia l e f f e c ts of t h e i r o u tc o m e . It is n e c e s s a r y at th is p o in t to c l a r i f y s o m e of the c o n c e p tu a l i s s u e s r a i s e d by the ab o v e. 6. T h is is n o t to s u g g e s t a ty p e of r a c i a l / s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , o r a c o r r e l a t i o n b etw e e n r a c i a l c a t e g o r i e s and a c c e s s to s o c ia l r e s o u r c e s , as an a p r i o r i b a s i s f o r r e s e a r c h . The i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s w ith in a p a r t i c u l a r group to w hom a c o m m o n r a c i a l
d e s ig n a tio n is s o c i a l l y im p u te d m a k e su ch r e d u c t i o n s p r o b l e m a t i c . F o r a c r i t i q u e and d i s c u s s io n on the ' r a c i s m / c a p i t a l i s m ' t h e s i s
and r a c i a l i s t p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s , s e e G a b r i e l , J . , and B e n - T o v im , G . , 'M a r x i s m and the C o n ce p t of R a c i s m ', E c o n o m y and S o c ie ty , vo l. 7,n o . 2, 1978, p p . 118-153. N o r is it p o s s i b l e to d i s c u s s
fu lly the d e b a te on the c l a s s p o s itio n of 'w h ite w o r k e r s '; s e e D a v i e s , C a p ita l, S tate and White L a b o u r , c h a p t e r 1, in w hich the d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s and c l a s s d iv is io n s a m o n g 'w a g e - e a r n e r s ' a r e d i s c u s s e d in r e l a t i o n to the t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s of P o u l a n t z a s , C a r c h e d i and B r a v e r m a n .
7. T h is i s n o t to s u g g e s t th a t p r i o r to the Second W o rld W a r s e g r e g a t e d
to w n sh ip s did n o t e x i s t . The P u b lic H ealth A ct, No. 23 of 1897 r e f e r r e d to 'N ativ e L o c a t i o n s ', and s e v e r a l m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t i e s
h ad e s t a b l i s h e d s e g r e g a t e d to w n sh ip s b e f o re the N a tiv e s (U rb an A r e a s ) A ct, No. 21 of 1923. See below , p . 21 . The c o n c e r n
of th is stu d y , h o w e v e r , is with the fa c t th a t the to w n sh ip p r o g r a m m e s in the 19 50s w e r e c o o r d in a te d a t the n a t i o n a l le v e l.
C o n c e p tu a l F o c u s
The s tu d y is c o n c e r n e d to e x a m in e s t a t e in t e r v e n ti o n in the s p h e r e of h o u s in g f o r A f ric a n w o r k e r s . It m u s t be s t r e s s e d a t the o u t s e t , h o w e v e r , th a t h o u s in g p e r se is n o t the o b je c t of r e s e a r c h
an d the stu d y is not, t h e r e f o r e , p r i m a r i l y an a c c o u n t of the d e v e lo p m e n t of h o u s in g p o lic y in South A f r i c a . But h o u s in g c o n s t i t u t e s an a r e a in
8 w hich, and the m e a n s th ro u g h which, s o c ia l p r o c e s s e s m a y be a n a l y s e d . T h is i s b e c a u s e v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic and id e o lo g ic a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x ist, a ro u n d the 'h o u s in g q u e s ti o n ', and th is c o m p le x of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s a c o n te x t w ithin which s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s m a y be e x a m in e d The fo cu s of th is stu d y is the e ffe c tiv e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r
f o r m s of s t a t e in t e r v e n ti o n in h o u s in g , n a m e ly , the r a n g e of p o l i c i e s and p r a c t i c e s r e l a t i n g to the c o n d itio n s f o r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the la b o u r f o r c e which a r e e x p r e s s e d in the s p a t i a l f o r m a t i o n s of the to w n s h ip s .
The e x p r e s s i o n 'c o n d itio n s f o r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the la b o u r f o r c e ' r e f e r s to the r a n g e of s o c i a l p r o v i s i o n s , o r m e a n s of c o n s u m p tio n , w hich c o n s ti t u t e the m a t e r i a l c o n d itio n s n e c e s s a r y f o r the 'r e p r o d u c t i o n ' of a w o rk f o r c e c o n c e n t r a t e d in u r b a n a r e a s , s u c h a s h o u s in g , h e a lth f a c i l i t i e s , s c h o o ls , t r a n s p o r t and r e c r e a t i o n . A v a s t body of l i t e r a t u r e a t t e m p t s to ex p la in the r o l e of h o u s in g and o t h e r s o c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w ithin c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s and the c a u s e s of s t a t e in te r v e n tio n in t h e s e a r e a s .
8. A r e a l w e a k n e s s of m a n y South A f ric a n 'h o u s in g s t u d i e s ' is th a t
s e r i o u s p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m ic i s s u e s h av e b ee n l e f t u n e x p lo r e d . T h is f a i l u r e to r e c o g n i s e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic and s o c i a l inter*-
r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a s r e s u l t e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of s y m p to m s which avoid an y focus on the s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e s of h o u s in g 'p r o b l e m s ' . See f o r e x a m p le : M o r r i s , P . , Soweto: a R eview of E x i s t i n g
C o n d itio n s and Some G u id e lin e s f o r C h an ge , ( J o h a n n e s b u rg , 1980): A H i s t o r y of B la ck H o u sin g in South A f r i c a , ( J o h a n n e s b u rg , 1981); and in p a r t i c u l a r the v a r i o u s p u b lic a tio n s of the U rb a n P r o b l e m s R e s e a r c h Unit, U n i v e r s i t y of Cape Town; s e e D e w a r , D. and E l l i s ,
G. , Low In co m e H o u s in g P o l i c y in South A f r i c a, (L a n sd o w n e, Cape 1979). A s i m i l a r c r i t i q u e h a s been m a d e of m a n y South A f r ic a n r e s e a r c h e s in o t h e r a r e a s , v i z . , th a t d e s c r i p t i o n s of r u r a l p o v e r t y o r the 'i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ' te n d to " flo u n d e r in a p o l i t i c a l v a c u u m " .
W e llin g s , P . and M c C a r th y , J . , 'W h ith e r S o u th e rn A f ric a n H u m a n G e o g r a p h y ? ', A r e a , vol. 15,No, 4, 1983, pp. 337-345; s e e a ls o S u tcliffe , M . , 'R ev iew of D, M. Sm ith (ed. )(1982), L iv in g U n d e r A p a r th e id ,' South A f r ic a n G e o g r . J o u r n a l 65, 1982, pp. 1 7 8-9 .
R e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts in s e v e r a l a c a d e m ic d i s c i p l i n e s r e c o g n i s e the i m p o r t a n c e of s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s in the a n a l y s e s of s o c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l p r o v is i o n s s u c h a s h o u s in g . W ithin the g e o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , a c c o r d i n g to K ir b y , Knox and P i n c h , the e m p h a s i s on s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s of r e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n h a s b een r e p l a c e d by a focus on the q u e s tio n of c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e , f in a n c i a l and o t h e r a l l o c a t i o n s . I n t e r e s t in f in a n c ia l v a r i a t i o n s h a s w id en ed to in c lu d e the whole f i s c a l c o m m i t m e n t of the
g
s t a t e . W ithin s o c io lo g y , v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s , b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on the
w o r k s of M a r x o r W e b e r , h av e a t te m p te d to a n a ly s e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een u r b a n i s a t i o n and p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s a r o u n d the p r o v is i o n of
10
s e r v i c e s . S a u n d e r s m a i n t a i n s , h o w e v e r, th a t w hile both W e b e r ia n and
M a r x i s t a p p r o a c h e s in 'u r b a n s o c io lo g y ' h av e d i r e c t e d a tte n tio n to the n eed to a n a ly s e the c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of s o c i a l p r o v i s i o n s -in the co n te x t of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een the s ta t e , the p r i v a t e s e c t o r and the w o rk in g p o p u la tio n - n e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r
11
s u c h a n a l y s i s .
The a t t e m p t a t a g e n e r a l th e o r y h a s b ee n c o m p l i c a t e d , h o w e v e r , by a d iv is io n w hich h a s d ev elo p e d w ithin the l i t e r a t u r e and w hich h a s
9. R e c e n t B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n r e s e a r c h in v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s
on the 'p u b lic s e c t o r ' and s e r v i c e p r o v is i o n s is a s s e s s e d in
K irb y , A . , Knox P . and P in c h , S. 'D e v e lo p m e n ts in P u b lic
P r o v i s i o n and U rb a n P o l i t i c s : An O v erv ie w and A g e n d a ', A r e a ,
vol. I SjNo. 4, 1983, pp. 295 - 300.
10. F o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v ie w of the l i t e r a t u r e , s e e S a u n d e r s , P . ,
S o cial T h e o r y and the U rb a n Q u e s tio n (London, 1981).
11. A c c o r d in g to S a u n d e r s , th is is b e c a u s e , while 's p a c e ' f ig u r e s p r o m i n e n t l y in both a p p r o a c h e s , the f a i lu r e to r e l a t e ' p r o c e s s e s ' to s p a t i a l c a t e g o r i e s h a s p r e c l u d e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an ad e q u a te t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r e i t h e r a p p r o a c h . He in s t e a d a r g u e s f o r a 'n o n - s p a t i a l u r b a n s o c io lo g y ' w hich f o c u s e s f i r m l y on c o n s u m p tio n i s s u e s . I b i d . , pp. 2 4 9 -2 7 8 .
12
ten d ed to co n fu se m a n y of the i s s u e s . On the one h an d , t h e r e a r e
a p p r o a c h e s w hich fo cu s on h o u s in g a s a m e a n s of c o n s u m p tio n and r e l a t e s t r u g g l e s o v e r the l e v e l of p r o v is i o n to the s p h e r e of
c o n s u m p tio n o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . On the o t h e r h an d , t h e r e i s a body of w o rk w hich a n a l y s e s the p r o v is i o n of h o u s in g and o t h e r s o c ia l
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e in t e r m s of the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u la tio n and m a k e s the r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c tio n its p o in t of d e p a r t u r e . In the
f o r m e r a p p r o a c h , the a c t i v i t i e s of the s ta t e in the p r o v i s i o n and a llo c a tio n of h o u s in g a r e e x p la in e d in t e r m s of i t s 'u r b a n m a n a g e r i a l ' r o l e , o r in
13
t e r m s of 'r e g u l a t i n g the s y s t e m ' In the l a t t e r a p p r o a c h , a n a l y s e s
12. I n s o f a r a s t h is d iv is io n h a s i m p lic a tio n s f o r the l e v e l a t w hich
s o c i a l p r o v i s i o n s a r e e x p la in e d (se e below , n s . 13 and 14). See f o r e x a m p le , D u n can , S. and Goodwin, M . , 'T h e L o c a l
S tate: F u n c t i o n a l i s m , A u to n om y and C l a s s R e la tio n s in C o c k b u rn and S a u n d e r s ', P o l i t . G e o g r . Q . l , 1982, pp . 7 7 -9 6 , c ite d in K i r b y e t a l. 'D e v e lo p m e n ts in P u b lic P r o v i s i o n 1, p . 2 98; s e e a ls o ,
S a u n d e r s , S o c ia l T h e o r y , c h a p t e r s 6, 7 and 8.
13. F o r e x a m p l e s b a s e d on W e b e r 's a n a l y s is of c l a s s and c l a s s c o n
f li c t (lo c a te d in th e s p h e r e of d is t r i b u t i o n r a t h e r th an p r o d u c tio n r e l a t i o n s ) , s e e R ex, J . and M o o re , R . , R a c e , C o m m u n ity and C o n f lic t, (London, 1967); Rex, J . , 'T h e C o n c e p t of H o u s in g C l a s s and the S ociology of R a c e R e l a t i o n s ', R a c e , v o l. 12, 1971, pp. 29 3 -301; S a u n d e r s , S o c ia l T h e o r y , pp. 136-148; P a h l 's e a r l y w o rk on 'u r b a n m a n a g e r i a l i s m ' and how h o u s in g a s a c o n s u m p tio n r e s o u r c e is a l l o c a t e d , i s d i s c u s s e d in i b i d . , p p . 1 1 8 -1 3 6 . F o r m u c h of the M a r x i s t l i t e r a t u r e , the t h e o r e t i c a l s t a r t i n g p o in t is the r o l e of h o u s in g in the 'r e p r o d u c t i o n of l a b o u r - p o w e r '. W ithin the t o t a l c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m , c o n s u m p tio n is the n e c e s s a r y end p o in t of c o m m o d ity p r o d u c t io n . In ad d itio n , the p r i n c i p a l fu n ctio n of c o n s u m p tio n i s th a t it i s the m e a n s w h e r e b y th e h u m a n la b o u r p o w e r ex p en d ed in the p r o d u c tio n of c o m m o d i t i e s c o m e s to be r e p l a c e d ; it is only by c o n s u m in g s o c ia ll y n e c e s s a r y u s e v a lu e s s u c h a s h o u sin g , h o s p i t a l s , s c h o o ls e t c . , th a t the w o r k f o r c e is ab le to r e p r o d u c e i t s c a p a c i t y f o r l a b o u r w hich is so ld a f r e s h e v e r y d a y . The p r o v i s i o n of n e c e s s a r y m e a n s of c o n s u m p tio n is a c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o c e s s w ithin c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s due to the c o n t r a d i c t io n w hich e x i s t s , a c c o r d i n g to C a s t e l l s , b e tw e e n
c o n s u m p tio n and p r o d u c tio n , i. e . , b e tw e e n the n e e d to r e p r o d u c e l a b o u r - p o w e r a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r co n tin u ed p r o d u c tio n and
a c c u m u la tio n , and the n e e d to p r o d u c e c o m m o d i t i e s a t the m a x im u m p o s s i b l e p r o f i t . The s t a t e h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r v e n e d in the p r o c e s s
of r e p r o d u c t i o n a s the a g e n c y of 's o c i a l c o h e s io n ' and r e g u l a t o r of the to t a l s y s t e m , w ith the r e s u l t th a t the m e a n s of c o n s u m p tio n ha v e b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in s p e c if ic s p a t i a l u n its
d e a l w ith the 'p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y ' of h o u s in g and the p r o d u c tio n of
14 the 'b u ilt e n v i r o n m e n t' f o r the e x p a n s io n and r e p r o d u c t i o n of c a p i t a l . O b v io u sly , the a r e a s of c o n s u m p tio n and p r o d u c tio n a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d and the a p p a r e n t d i c h o t o m y / p o l a r i s a t i o n h a s a r i s e n , a s S a u n d e rs s u g g e s t s , b e c a u s e a d i f f e r e n t s e t of q u e s tio n s h a s c o n s ti t u t e d the 15 p r i m a r y fo c u s w ith in e a c h b r o a d o r ie n ta ti o n . and t h e i r p r o v i s i o n i n c r e a s i n g l y c e n t r a l i s e d . C a s t e l l s ' c o n c e p t of 'c o ll e c t i v e c o n s u m p t i o n 1 and i t s r e l a t i o n to the r e p r o d u c t i o n
of l a b o u r - p o w e r , and h i s a r g u m e n t th a t c o n s u m p tio n is the s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s th ro u g h w hich s p a c e a r t i c u l a t e s w ith the
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a s a w hole, is e x t e n s iv e ly t r e a t e d in S a u n d e r s , S o c ia l T h e o r y , p p . 1 8 0 -2 1 8 . In l a t e r w o rk , C a s t e l l s s t a t e s th a t the the c a u s e s of s t a t e in t e r v e n ti o n a r e l o c a te d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t
of the c l a s s s t r u g g l e , a s w e ll a s the fu n c tio n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of the s y s t e m . See below , p. 29 n . 31.
14. The 'p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y ' l i t e r a t u r e a d d r e s s e s q u e s ti o n s r e g a r d i n g
the r o l e of h o u s in g a s a c o m m o d ity and i t s s ig n if ic a n c e in the c r e a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u r p l u s v a lu e , in ad d itio n to h o u s in g a s an a s p e c t of c o n s u m p tio n and r e p r o d u c t i o n of l a b o u r - p o w e r . Q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g to the p r o d u c tio n of h o u s in g ( c r e a t i o n of
s u r p l u s v a lu e), the o w n e r s h ip of h o u s in g ( d is t r i b u t i o n of s u r p l u s v alu e in r e n t ) and the c o n s u m p tio n of h o u s in g ( r e p r o d u c t i o n of l a b o u r - p o w e r ) a r e a d d r e s s e d in s e v e r a l p u b lic a tio n s of the
C o n f e r e n c e of S o c i a l i s t E c o n o m i s t s , P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y of H o u sin g W o rk sh op ; s e e f o r e x a m p le : P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y and the H o u s in g Q u e s tio n , (London, 1975); H o u sin g and C l a s s i n B r i t a i n , (London
1976); and H o u s in g , C o n s tr u c tio n and the State , (London, 1980); s e e a ls o B all, M . , 'B r i t i s h H o u s in g P o l i c y and the H o u s e - B u ild in g I n d u s t r y ', C a p ita l and C l a s s , v o l. 4, 1978, pp. 78-99; and m a n y of th e c o n tr ib u tio n s to the p u b lis h e d P r o c e e d i n g s of the
B a r t l e t t S u m m e r School, The P r o d u c ti o n of the B u ilt E n v i r o n m e n t , (London, 1979, 'SO, '81 and ’82). A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of
th is l i t e r a t u r e i s th a t the e f fe c ts of c l a s s s t r u g g l e tend to be r e g a r d e d a s s e c o n d a r y to the e f fe c ts and r e q u i r e m e n t s of c a p i t a l
a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h is i s i l l u s t r a t e d in the e x p la n a tio n s o f fe r e d f o r the in tr o d u c tio n of r e n t c o n t r o l in the p r i v a t e s e c t o r , the g ro w th of s t a t e h o u s in g p r o v i s i o n s a f t e r the F i r s t W o rld W a r and f in a n c ia l
s u p p o r t f o r o w n e r - o c c u p a tio n in B r i t a i n , and th e s t a t e is p e r c e i v e d in 'i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t ' t e r m s . See below , p. 28, n . 30.
T he q u e s ti o n s w hich u n d e r l y the p r e s e n t s tu d y c o n c e r n both r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c tio n and r e l a t i o n s of c o n s u m p tio n : it e x a m in e s the c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich h o u s in g is p r o d u c e d and the c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich h o u s in g is fin a n c e d and a l l o c a t e d . F o r th is r e a s o n , and in the a b s e n c e of an a d e q u a te g e n e r a l th e o r y of 'h o u s i n g ', h e u r i s t i c and s o m e t i m e s i m p l i c i t u s e i s m a d e of c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s and c o n c e p ts d e v e lo p e d in both a p p r o a c h e s . But b e f o re o u tlin in g the q u e s tio n s f o r r e s e a r c h and d e s c r i b i n g the t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h ad o p ted in th is s tu d y of s ta t e i n t e r v e n ti o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to e x a m in e the
h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g to the r e s e a r c h .
H i s t o r i c a l S e ttin g
In d e fin in g the c o n c e p tu a l fo c u s of th is s tu d y , a d i s tin c tio n w a s m a d e b e tw e e n (i) 'h o u s in g p o l i c y 1 in g e n e r a l and (ii) the s p e c ific p o l i c i e s w hich r e l a t e to c o n d itio n s f o r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the A f ric a n l a b o u r f o r c e in u r b a n a r e a s , w hich, f o r e a s e of r e f e r e n c e , can be
t e r m e d 'to w n sh ip p o l i c y '. T h is d i s tin c tio n i s a ls o r e f l e c t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y in l e g i s l a t i o n : the H o u sin g A ct of 1920 e s t a b l i s h e d the fo u n d atio n s f o r p u b lic h o u s in g w h ils t the N a tiv e s (U rb an A r e a s ) A ct N o. 21 of 1923 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k f o r u r b a n s e g r e g a t i o n .
D u r in g the e a r l y p h a s e of i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n in South A f r ic a , w hich fo llo w ed on the m i n e r a l d i s c o v e r i e s , the e m e r g i n g i n d u s t r i a l p r o l e t a r i a t f r e q u e n t l y s tr u g g l e d a g a in s t s lu m c o n d itio n s . When the q u e s tio n of r e f o r m in h o u s in g c o n d itio n s w as c o n f ro n te d by the s t a t e , h o w e v e r , it w a s i d e o lo g ic a lly p r e s e n t e d a s r e f o r m th ro u g h r a c i a l
X 6
s e g re g a tio n , , T h u s , a H o u sin g C o m m itte e w as a p p o in te d in 1919
to e x a m in e the q u e s tio n of f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t to lo c a l a u t h o r i t i e s f o r the p r o v is i o n of h o u s in g to p e o p le of 'l i m i t e d m e a n s '. The r e p o r t of th is C o m m itte e r e s u l t e d in th e H o u s in g A c t of
17
1920. S im u lta n e o u s ly , the q u e s tio n of the f in a n c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s in
the p r o v i s i o n of h o u s in g w as a d d r e s s e d in r a c i a l t e r m s by the T r a n s v a a l L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t C o m m i s s i o n which w as a ls o ap p o in te d in 1919. The C o m m i s s i o n lin k ed the q u e s tio n of m u n ic ip a l f in a n c e s to the q u e s tio n s of r e s i d e n c e and the m u n i c i p a l f r a n c h i s e f o r A f r i c a n s in u r b a n a r e a s .
16. The o r i g i n s of u r b a n s e g r e g a t i o n w e r e r e c o g n i s e d in the p r o v i s i o n s
of the P u b l i c H e a lth A ct No. 2 3 of 1897, in t e r m s of w hich l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e fo r r e g u l a t i n g th e u s e of N a tiv e l o c a tio n s and f o r m a in ta in in g good o r d e r , c l e a n l i n e s s and s a n ita tio n t h e r e i n , and f o r p r e v e n t i n g o v e r c r o w d i n g and the
e r e c t i o n o r the u s e of u n h e a lth y o r u n s u ita b le h u ts and d w e l l i n g s " . R e p o r t of the N ativ e L a w s C o m m i s s i o n , (Fagan C o m m is s io n ) ,
UG 2 8 -1 9 4 8 , p a r a . 2. F o r the b a c k g ro u n d to u r b a n s e g r e g a t i o n , see a l s o D a v e n p o r t, T. and H unt, K . ( e d s . ), The Right to L a n d ,
(Cape Town, 1974); D a v e n p o r t, T . , 'T h e B eg in n in g s of U rb a n S e g r e g a tio n in South A f r i c a U rb a n A r e a s ; . t h e N a tiv e s (U rb an A r e a s ) A ct and i t s B a c k g ro u n d ', O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r No. 15, I n s t i t u t e of S o c ia l and E c o n o m ic R e s e a r c h , R h o d es U n iv e r s ity , ( G ra h a m s to w n , 1971); and R ich, P . , 'M i n i s t e r i n g to the White M a n 's N e e d s ; the D e v e lo p m e n t of U rb an S e g r e g a tio n in South
A f r i c a , 1 9 1 3 -1 9 2 3 ', The W i t w a t e r s r a n d ; L a b o u r , T o w n sh ip s and P a t t e r n s of P r o t e s t , H i s t o r y W o rk sh o p , U n i v e r s i t y of the W i t w a t e r s r a n d , ( J o h a n n e s b u r g , 1978). R ich s u g g e s t s th a t the c a m p a ig n a g a i n s t s lu m co n d itio n s b e c a m e bound up w ith, on the one h and, the s tr u g g l e w ag ed by white w o r k e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y on the m i n e s , a g a i n s t a t t e m p t s to u n d e r m in e t h e i r p o s itio n in the s t r u c t u r e of p r o d u c tio n , and, on the o t h e r , the 's e g r e g a t i o n i s t ' id e o lo g y of the g ro up of m i d d l e - c l a s s r e f o r m e r s w hich in vo lv ed
i t s e l f in the s t r u g g l e . See a ls o Swanson, M . , 'T h e S an itatio n S y n d ro m e : Bubonic P la g u e and U rb a n N a tiv e P o l i c y and the Cape Colony, 1900-1909; J o u r n a l of A f ric a n H i s t o r y , XVIII, 3, 1977.
17. R e p o r t of the H o u s in g C o m m itte e , UG 4 -1 9 2 0 . A C e n t r a l H o u sin g
B o a rd w as e s t a b l i s h e d in t e r m s of the H o u s in g A ct to p r o v id e lo a n s f r o m c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t to lo c a l a u t h o r i t i e s f o r the c o n s tr u c t i o n
of d w e llin g s . T h e r e w as no f o r m of f in a n c i a l s u b s i d i s a t i o n u n til
1930 (se e belo w , p . 24 n . 23). F o r a d i s c u s s i o n on f in a n c ia l r e l a t i o n s and the h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t in h o u s in g fin a n c e p o lic y , s e e W a tk in s - B a k e r , J . , 'M u n ic ip a l H o u sin g F in a n c e in South A f r i c a ', P a p e r
d e l i v e r e d to the I n s titu te of M u n ic ip a l T r e a s u r e r s and A c c o u n ta n ts , South A f r i c a , Cape Town, 1976.
The T r a n s v a a l L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t C o m m i s s i o n c o n s i d e r e d th a t a l l s e c t io n s of the " p e r m a n e n t c o m m u n ity " sh o u ld be r e p r e s e n t e d in l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t. The n o w - n o to r io u s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n th a t " i t sh o u ld be a r e c o g n i s e d p r i n c i p l e of g o v e r n m e n t th a t N a t i v e s . . . sh o u ld only be
p e r m i t t e d w ithin m u n i c i p a l a r e a s in so f a r and f o r so lo n g a s t h e i r p r e s e n c e i s d e m a n d e d by the w an ts of the w hite p o p u la tio n " , e n s u r e d th a t A f r i c a n s w e r e to be e x c lu d e d f r o m th is 'c o m m u n i t y ', and h e n ce
18
f r o m a c c e s s to r e p r e s e n t a t i o n th ro u g h the m u n ic ip a l f r a n c h i s e . The
C o m m i s s i o n c a l l e d f o r a d e fin ite p o lic y and m a d e d e t a i l e d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , m o s t of w hich w e r e e n s h r i n e d in the N a tiv e s (U rb an A r e a s ) A c t of 192 3,
a s a r e s u l t of w hich s e v e r a l 'p r i n c i p l e s ' on w hich u r b a n p o lic y w as to be b a s e d w e r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d . C e n t r a l to the p r e s e n t stu d y w as i t s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n th a t "th e n u m b e r of N a tiv e s in u r b a n a r e a s " should be lim i t e d to "th e la b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s of s u ch u r b a n a r e a s " and the m e c h a n i s m s it e s t a b l i s h e d f o r h o u s in g t h e s e 'l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s ' in
19 s e g r e g a t e d u r b a n 'l o c a t i o n s '.
18. R e p o r t of the T r a n s v a a l L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t C o m m i s s i o n ( S ta lla r d
C o m m i s s i o n ) , T. P . 1-1 9 2 2 , p a r a . 267.
19. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s and the h o u s in g
q u e s tio n w a s a c o n tin u in g th e m e in r e p o r t s of o ffic ia l c o m m i s s i o n s . See f o r e x a m p le R e p o r t of the D e p a r t m e n t a l C o m m itte e
a p p o in te d to E n q u i r e in to and R e p o r t upon the Q u e s tio n oi R e s id e n c e of N a tiv e s in U rb a n A r e a s ( Y o u n g - B a r r e t t C o m m itte e ) of 1935, e x t r a c t s p r i n t e d a s A n n e x u re 5 to R e p o r t of the N ativ e L a w s C o m m i s s i o n ( F a g a n C o m m is s io n ) , UG 2 8 -1 9 4 8 . See in
p a r t i c u l a r s e c t io n 1 of the F a g a n R e p o r t, 'T h e o p e r a tio n of law s in f o r c e in th e Union r e l a t i n g to N a tiv e s in o r n e a r u r b a n a r e a s ,
and in a r e a s w h e r e N a tiv e s a r e c o n g r e g a te d f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s o t h e r th an m i n i n g '. The 192 3 le g i s l a t i o n p r o v id e d f o r t h r e e f o r m s of a c c o m m o d a tio n : h o s t e l s f o r s in g le w o r k e r s , c h ie fly m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s ; lo c a tio n s f o r , a c c o r d i n g to a f o r m e r U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y f o r N a tiv e A f f a i r s , "the n o r m a l flo a tin g and l e s s s ta b l e s e c tio n of
the p o p u la tio n who co u ld n o t a ffo rd m o r e than the n e c e s s a r i e s of l if e " and who would be h o u s e d in d w ellin g s owned by l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ; and, "N ativ e V illa g e s , w hich w e r e c o n c e iv e d a s an a r e a of the m o r e s ta b le and afflu e n t s e c t io n of the p o p u latio n w h o se e m p lo y m e n t w as fixed and w hose r e s i d e n c e m ig h t be r e g a r d e d a s m o r e o r l e s s
p e r m a n e n t " . A llis o n , J . S . , 'U rb a n N ativ e L e g i s l a t i o n ', R ace R e la tio n s J o u r n a l , v o l. 8, No. 4, 1941, p. 58.
The i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k e s ta b l i s h e d in t e r m s of the 192 3 u r b a n a r e a s l e g i s l a t i o n m a r k s the h i s t o r i c a l p o in t of d e p a r t u r e f o r p o t e n t i a l s t a t e i n t e r v e n ti o n a t a n a tio n a l le v e l, n o t only in the q u e s tio n s of l a b o u r su p p ly and a llo c a tio n th ro u g h the m e c h a n i s m
of 'influx c o n t r o l ', but a l s o in the q u e s tio n of the c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich
20
the 'l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s ' of u r b a n a r e a s w e r e to be h o u s e d . It is th is
i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n l a b o u r and h o u s in g and, by i m p lic a tio n , the
r e l a t i o n b etw e e n the s p h e r e s of p r o d u c tio n and c o n s u m p tio n , which w as e s t a b l i s h e d h i s t o r i c a l l y a s an a r e a f o r s ta t e in t e r v e n ti o n , with w hich t h i s s tu d y i s c o n c e r n e d . M o re p a r t i c u l a r l y , th is s tu d y t r a c e s the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e en la b o u r and h o u s in g u n d e r the ch an g ed h i s t o r i c a l c o n d itio n s a s s o c i a t e d with the e x p a n s io n of i n d u s t r y in South A f r i c a d u r in g the y e a r s of the Second W o rld W a r , and the r e s p o n s e of the s t a t e to th e c o n c o m ita n t i n c r e a s e in u r b a n i s a t i o n and p r o l e t a r i a n i s a ti o n . It i s c e n t r a l l y c o n c e r n e d w ith the f o r m s of in t e r v e n ti o n by the s t a t e in the m a t e r i a l co n d itio n s of the u r b a n i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e and the r a n g e of p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to the u r b a n i s a t i o n of A f r i c a n s , w hich w e r e f o r m u l a t e d and i m p l e m e n t e d by the 'a p a r t h e i d ' s t a t e a f t e r 1948.
It i s n e c e s s a r y now to o u tlin e the q u e s tio n s f o r r e s e a r c h and to in d ic a te the t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h ad o p ted in th is s tu d y of s t a t e in t e r v e n ti o n a f t e r the Second W o rld W a r .
2 0. An h i s t o r i c a l c a s e stu d y of u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on the b a s i s
of th is l e g i s l a t i o n f o r the a r e a of J o h a n n e s b u r g d u r in g the
p e r i o d up t i l l 1948 is p r o v id e d in the n e x t c h a p t e r of th is s tu d y . T he N a tiv e s (U rb a n A r e a s ) A ct, No. 21 of 192 3 r e m a i n e d the b a s i s f o r p o l i c i e s of u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n though i t w as
e x t e n s iv e ly a m e n d e d in 1930, 1934, 1937, 1941, 1942, 1944 and s u p e r s e d e d by the N a tiv e s(U rb an A r e a s ) C o n s o lid a tio n A ct, No. 2 5 of 1945, which in tu r n w as am e n d e d by f u r t h e r a c t s in 1945, 1946 and 1947, d u r in g the p e r i o d p r i o r to the N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y e le c tio n to g o v e r n m e n t.
1 .2 R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s and T h e o r e t i c a l A p p r o a c h
I m p le m e n ta tio n of h o u s in g s c h e m e s f o r A f r i c a n w o r k e r s in
u r b a n a r e a s b e f o r e the Second W orld W a r w a s , by a l l a c c o u n ts , s u b je c t to the v a g a r i e s of l o c a l i s e d i n t e r e s t s a s the p r o v i s i o n s of the N a tiv e s
21
(U rb an A r e a s ) A c t of 1923 w e r e n o t m a n d a t o r y . T h u s , w hile l o c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h o u s in g ’l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s ',
u n til 1937 it a p p e a r s th a t, th ro u g h o u t South A f r i c a , a c c o m m o d a tio n had
22
b een p r o v id e d a l m o s t e x c l u s iv e ly f o r m i g r a n t w o r k e r s . A g r e e m e n t
b e tw e e n c e n t r a l and l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t on the q u e s tio n of f in a n c i a l s u b s id y w a s r e a c h e d only in 1936, and ju s t i f i c a t i o n , on e c o n o m ic g r o u n d s , f o r th e b u ild in g of h o s t e l s r a t h e r th an f a m ily a c c o m m o d a tio n w a s r e i n f o r c e d b y the p r e v a i l i n g id e o lo g y of ’i m p e r m a n e n c e ’ f o r the m a j o r i t y of A f r i c a n
23
w o r k e r s in u r b a n a r e a s . D u r in g the y e a r s of the Second W o rld W a r ,
h o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s an u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n c r e a s e in u r b a n i s a t i o n a s a r e s u l t of the ex p a n d ed l a b o u r d e m a n d s of the w a r t i m e eco n o m y , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y the d e v e lo p m e n t of i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and d i v e r s i f i e d 21. T h u s in 1938, w hile t h e r e w e r e 472 u r b a n l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , only 234 'l o c a t i o n s ' had b e en p r o c l a i m e d u n d e r the r e g u l a t i o n s . T h o rn to n C o m m itte e R e p o r t 19 3 8 -3 9 , c ite d in H e llm a n n , E , 'U rb a n A r e a s ' , in H e llm a n n , E . ( e d . ), H andbook on R a c e R e l a t i o n s in South A f r i c a , (Cape Town, 1949), p. 244.
22. See S o cial and E c o n o m ic P l a n n in g C o un cil, R e p o r t No. 8,
UG 4 0 -1 9 4 5 , L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t F u n c tio n s and F i n a n c e s , p a r a . 39; and R e p o r t N o. 10, UG 37-1946, P u b lic W o rk s P r o g r a m m e and P o l i c y , T a b le XV, p. 31. See above, n . 19. 2 3. U n til 1930, s u c h funds a s w e r e p r o v id e d w e r e on an 'e c o n o m ic ' b a s i s , i . e . t h e r e w as no f o r m of s u b s i d i s a t i o n and lo a n s had to be r e p a i d a t p r e v a i l i n g i n t e r e s t r a t e s . A s c h e m e f o r g r a n t in g 's u b - e c o n o m i c ' lo a n s f o r r e h o u s i n g p eo p le f r o m s lu m s w as i n a u g u r a t e d in 1930 but, u n til 1934, A f r i c a n s w e r e e x p r e s s l y e x c lu d e d . In t e r m s of the
S lum s A ct of 1934, the C e n t r a l H o u sin g B o a r d co uld r e c o m m e n d the f in a n c in g of 'lo c a tio n s c h e m e s ' with ' s u b - e c o n o m i c ' i n t e r e s t lo a n s , if t h e s e w e r e m o tiv a te d by l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s on the b a s i s of s lu m c l e a r a n c e . In 1936, a g r e e m e n t on f i n a n c i a l s u b s id y h ad b een r e a c h e d w h e r e b y s u b - e c o n o m i c lo a n s w e r e m a d e a v a ila b le p r o v id e d l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , in fix in g the r e n t a l s , 'm a d e a l o s s ' e q u iv a le n t to o n e - h a l f of th a t b o rn e by c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t. See W a t k i n s - B a k e r , 'M u n ic ip a l H o u s in g F i n a n c e '.
