Study on the organisation of doctoral programmes in EU neighbouring countries

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December 2010

Study on the organisation of doctoral

programmes in EU neighbouring countries

Morocco

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General information on the study

Framework Contract: N°

No EAC 19/06

Specific Contract: Order form N°110 Project Director: Isabelle Collins

Project Manager: Elisabeth Zaparucha/ Philippe Larrue Tel. Number: +33 1 49 49 09 25

Fax Number: +33 1 49 49 09 29

E-Mail: [email protected]

The study was produced by a team of consultants within Technopolis Group (Lars Geschwind, Flora Giarracca, Jakob Hellman, Carlos Hinojosa, Pauline Mattsson) and GHK (Anca Dumitrescu).

Valuable comments were received during the Steering Committees from: Claire Morel, Philippe Ruffio, Dimitris Kokkalis, Helene Skikos, Florent Bernard, Vanessa Debiais-Sainton, Marta Touykova, David Crosier.

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There is a strong variety of Higher Education Institutions (HEI) in the Moroccan system of higher education. Public HEI are the most important both in terms of date of creation and size of student population. However, recent legislation (2007) allowing the creation of private HEI has led to a significant expansion of private institutions. In 2009, there were 174 private HEI in Morocco, and student enrolment grew by 121 % between 2000 and 2007. Private HEI do not offer doctoral programmes for the time being.

There are two types of public HEI offering doctoral programmes in Morocco: Universities and training institutes for executives1₍_{établissements de formation de}

cadres). This model strongly resembles the French model of higher education. There are three basic distinctions between these two types of HEI:

• First cycle admission into public university faculties is much less competitive than for training institutes for executives. University admission is generally open to all students having obtained the equivalent of a high school diploma. Faculties such as medicine, science and techniques, business and management and university engineering schools require students to undergo a competitive-based admission process. The admission procedure in training institutes on the other hand is extremely selective and competitive.

• The majority of university classes are taught in Arabic whereas classes in training institutes for executives are taught in French.

• As opposed to universities, training institutes for executives do not fall under the supervision of the Ministry of National Education, Higher Education, Training of Executives and Scientific Research (MENESFCRS), but are instead followed and financed by the relevant ministries in their field of education (agriculture, energy, etc.). The MENESFCRS has however recently reinforced its position over the organisation of education in this type of institutes. The Ministry’s National Commission for Coordination and Higher Education is now responsible for the recognition of second cycle diplomas (master) awarded by training institutes of top executives, as well as of the doctoral programmes centres they create2_.

There are 15 public universities in Morocco, most of which offer doctoral programmes: Figure 1 List of public universities

University City Doctoral programmes

Quaraouiyine Fès yes

Mohamed I Oujda yes

Mohamed V Rabat Agdal yes

Abdelmalek Assaadi Tanger -Tetouan yes

Mohammed V Rabat Souissi yes

Chouaib Doukali El Jadida yes

Hassan II Ain Chok Casablanca yes

Moulay Ismail Meknès yes

Hassan II Mohammedia yes

1 _{Training institutes for executives are fall under three main categories: Scientific and technical (}

engineering, architecture, nursing, and veterinary); economic, legal, administrative and social (art, trade, business, tourism, law, government); and educational.

2_{French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs.}

- Population: 31.6m - GDP per capita: €1,893 - % of GDP spent on education: 5.6% - % of GDP spent on research: 0.64% (2006) - Doctoral candidates enrolled: 29,580

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Ibn Tofail Kénitra yes

Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah Fès yes

Ibn Zohr Agadir yes

Cadi Ayyad Marrakech yes

Hassan I Settat no

Sultan Moulay Slimane Béni Mellal no

It is worth noting that universities regroup several faculties that may be located in one or several cities. The University of Caddi Ayad for example, one of the largest Moroccan universities, is composed of 12 faculties spread across four cities. The student population enrolled in Moroccan public universities has significantly increased over the last decade (+9 % between 2000 and 2007).

As mentioned previously, in addition to public universities there are approximately 20 training institutes for executives in Morocco. Most of these institutes lack the necessary critical mass of teaching staff and infrastructure required to open doctoral programmes centres on their own. As a result, the only training institute for executives having created a doctoral programmes centre and obtained accreditation to organise doctoral study programmes is the Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Science.

This doctoral study centre was created in July 2009 and will admit the first generation of doctoral candidates under the new system in the 2010/2011 academic year. The centre will host approximately 70 doctoral candidates distributed among four doctoral programmes. It is worth highlighting that the research units participating in the organisation of the four accredited doctoral programmes of the centre are made up of teaching staff and researchers from external institutions, including public universities. This represents an interesting example of cross-institutional cooperation aimed at obtaining the critical mass necessary to the organisation of doctoral programmes in specific fields.

According to the MENESFCRS’ official statistics, there were 10 723 doctoral candidates in Morocco in the 2006 – 2007 academic year. Thirty three percent of these were female students. Nearly half of all of these doctoral candidates are specialised in human and social sciences (52%)3_.

In Morocco, doctoral programmes are organised by doctoral programmes centres (centres d’études doctorales) hosted by HEI (see Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.). There are currently 49 doctoral programmes centres, out of which 12 specialise in legal, economic and management sciences, 15 in literature and human sciences and 21 in sciences and techniques4_{. Over 152 doctoral programmes were}

accredited in the 2008-2009 academic year5_{. Doctoral programmes centres usually}

host an average of 50 to 60 doctoral candidates.

At the University of Hassan II Ain Chock for example, doctoral programmes are organised by five doctoral programmes centres:

• Health sciences – 50 doctoral candidates; • Engineering sciences – 50 doctoral candidates; • Sciences and techniques – 150 doctoral candidates;

• Legal, social and economic sciences – 80 doctoral candidates;

3_MENESFCRS

4_{National Tempus Office Morocco}

5_{Accrédiation de 48 centres d’études doctorales en 2008-2009. 2009. Available at:}

http://www.affairemaroc.com/article-Enseignement-Superieur-...Accreditation-de-48-Centres-detudes-doctorales-en-2008-2009-3557.html

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• Humanities – 40 doctoral candidates.

In addition to doctoral programmes centres, the Moroccan system of scientific research is comprised of six research institutes and 982 accredited research units6_.

2. Doctoral programmes

2.1 Doctoral programmes overall organisation

The Moroccan Government is currently implementing an ambitious reform aimed at overhauling the country’s entire educational system. The National Charter for Education and Training adopted in 1999 sets down the principles guiding the reform process7_{. Law number 01-00 adopted on 19 May 2000 contains the changes}

concerning higher education. In 2008, the “2009 - 2012 emergency plan” was set in place to catalyse the reform process.

One of the main objectives of the reform is to reorganise Moroccan higher education according to the principles of the Bologna process. As a result, the Moroccan system of higher education has gradually been reorganised according to the Bologna three-cycle structure since 20038_.

At the doctoral level, the reforms aims to “improve the quality of doctoral research and the scientific visibility of universities, respect the legal delays of doctoral programmes and strengthen the contracting policies between universities, the State and other social partners”9_.

The reform has been fully implemented at first and second cycle level (bachelor and master) in public HEI. The reform of the third cycle (doctorate) in public universities and of all cycles of training institutes for top executives began in 2008 and is near completion. Newly created doctoral programmes centres are expecting to see doctoral candidates under the new system graduate in 2012.

Due to the advanced degree of implementation of the reform in Morocco, the system described in the following sections represents the system of doctoral programmes in Morocco as it shall function once the reform is complete10_{. It is worth noting however}

that the degree of implementation of the reform at the doctoral level varies among the country’s HEI. Some have shown a strong sense of initiative and have made considerable progress in establishing the new system of doctoral programmes. In other universities, especially smaller ones, the reform process is at a very early stage due to either a lack of interest of university authorities and teaching staff or due to the lack of necessary resources.

6_{National Tempus Office Morocco.}

7_{The reform is mainly aimed at: strengthening the autonomy (administrative, financial, academic) of HEI;}

offering students core scientific and generic skills and strengthening vocational education, reorganising cycles of higher education, strengthening life-long learning, implementing an evaluation and recognition system for higher education programmes, strengthen accountability of HEI, promoting private higher education.

8_{Morocco did not sign the Bologna Declaration}

9_{: Accrédiation de 48 centres d’études doctorales en 2008-2009. 2009. Available at:}

http://www.affairemaroc.com/article-Enseignement-Superieur-...Accreditation-de-48-Centres-detudes-doctorales-en-2008-2009-3557.html

10_{Moroccan HEI have made considerable progress establishing the new model at the doctoral level. In}

some HEI, it is still possible to find the former is still in use. This report however does not offer details on the organisation model of doctoral studies under the former system.

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In general terms however, Moroccan HEI authorities have dedicated considerable efforts to the implementation of the reform. This has enabled Morocco to make important progress in the adoption of the three-cycle structure compliant with the Bologna process.

There is no ministry in Morocco exclusively responsible for HE. Instead, HE falls under the responsibility of several directorates and departments of the Ministry of National Education, Higher Education, Training of Executives and Scientific Research (MENESFCRS). Doctoral programmes are the responsibility of the Directorate for Higher Education of the Ministry.

In Morocco, the opening of a doctoral programmes centre doesn’t require obtaining authorisation from the central government. Universities alone can emit authorisations for the creation of a doctoral programmes centre. As a result, the procedures for institutional authorisation may vary from one university to another. In general terms however, university councils award authorisations for renewable six-year periods. However, in order to open doctoral programmes leading to a national doctor’s diploma doctoral programmes centres must obtain accreditation from the Ministry’s Department of Higher Education, upon approval of the recently created National Coordination Commission for Higher Education (2003)11_{. This procedure is known as}

the educational programme implementation authorisation (autorisation d’ouverture de formation). The accreditation procedure is the same for universities and training institutes for executives.

In order to obtain this authorisation, HEI must submit an application presenting the project to open a new doctoral programme. Certain criteria have to be respected, specified in the national educational guidelines for the doctoral cycle. If approved, accreditation is given for a renewable four-year period. Doctoral programmes are evaluated upon the completion of every period of accreditation.

In addition to doctoral programme accreditation, the MENESFCRS is also responsible for certification of the doctoral diplomas awarded by the doctoral programmes centres.

Doctoral programmes in Morocco are regulated by the decision adopted on 23 September 2008, establishing the national educational guidelines for the doctoral cycle (Cahier des normes pédagogiques nationales du cycle du doctorat). This document represents a significant milestone in the organisation of the Moroccan doctoral programmes system. It adds clarity and structure to the system, and offers HEI clear guidelines on the way doctoral programmes are to be organised.

According to the national guidelines for the doctoral cycle, HEI offering doctoral programmes must adopt, after consultation with doctoral programmes centres, a thesis charter (charte de theses) in compliance with the guidelines. Thesis charters define the rights and commitments agreed between the doctoral candidate, the supervisor, the director of the doctoral programmes centre and the representative of the host HEI. Charters usually describe the following:

• the selection procedure for the thesis subject; • the conditions required to complete research work; • monitoring and supervision;

• doctoral candidates’ rights and responsibilities;

• the conditions and procedures to extend the duration of doctoral programmes; • the doctoral thesis defence procedure.

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Upon the selection of the thesis subject, all of the previously mentioned parties must sign the doctoral programmes centre’s thesis charter12_{.Theses charters are also}

expected to further reinforce accountability, efficiency, transparency and recognition of doctoral candidates in the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes.

2.2 Doctoral programmes structure

2.2.1

Definition of doctoral programmes

According to the national educational guidelines for the doctoral cycle, doctoral programmes represent the education that is acquired by means of research work; recognised by the awarding of a doctoral diploma, upon the defence of research results and a thesis before a jury. Doctoral programmes are comprised of an ensemble of taught courses, training and research work aimed at allowing the doctoral candidate to obtain the necessary knowledge, capacities and abilities to carry out high-level scientific research13_.

With the introduction of the HE reform, there is now a single diploma awarded by the State recognising the completion of doctoral programmes.

2.2.2

Duration

The legal standard duration for doctoral programmes in Morocco is three years. Doctoral candidates can however obtain authorisation for an extension period of up to two years with consent from their supervisor, the dean of the faculty hosting the centre and the director of the doctoral programmes centre.

In practice, before the implementation of the higher education reform and the creation of doctoral programmes centres, it usually took candidates an average of five or six years to finish their doctoral programmes. As in many other countries, extended delays are usually the result of a lack of supervision capacities, access to the necessary resources and the complexity of administrative procedures.

One of the main objectives of the higher education reform is to reduce the duration of doctoral programmes and bring the average delay of doctoral programmes down to between three and four years. The new system requires doctoral candidates and supervisors to present a detailed research project and timeline respecting the three-year duration before thesis work is undertaken. Doctoral programmes centres now make sure that timelines are respected on a yearly basis (see Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.) before allowing doctoral candidates to register. Due to the recent implementation of the reform however, there is a lack of evidence on whether progress has been made in this field.

Certain professors express scepticism with regard to the adequacy of this new time frame. According to them, pressuring doctoral candidates into completing their theses in three years could potentially reduce the quality of their work. In addition, there is a high level of uncertainty regarding the likelihood of respecting the new timeframe imposed by Moroccan legislation. When asked if they believed whether doctoral candidates would be able to complete their studies in five years, most professors and supervisors stated not knowing if this objective could be reached. This may pose a considerable problem as the first generations of doctoral candidates under the new system approach the five-year deadline in the next three years.

12_{Decision no. 1371-07.} 13_{Decision no.1371-07.}

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2.2.3

Funding

The majority of funding for doctoral programmes centres is provided by the Moroccan State. However, doctoral programmes centres may also obtain additional funding from the following sources:

• work carried out for an external client;

• co-operation projects carried out with public or private organisations;

• benefits obtained from the organisation of scientific activities (congresses, seminars, publications…);

• donations.

Traditionally, state funding for research activities was extremely limited in Morocco. Universities usually used a part of their budgets to finance research activities carried out by their researchers and research units. With the creation of a State Secretariat for Research in 1998 and the recent adoption of the “2009 - 2012 emergency plan” however, the Moroccan Government has considerably increased funding for research activities carried out by public HEI. 14

Public HEI now benefit from two independent public sources of funding to finance doctoral programmes:

• Funding for research-related activities: Funds are generally distributed among research units through lump sums based on the quality and volume of the research they carry out.

• Funding for doctoral programmes centres: Funds are destined to all uses other than laboratory research (administrative and operational costs, teachers, educational material). HEI spend approximately 300 € per doctoral candidate every year.

HEI are responsible for the distribution and the management of both types of funding, and are held accountable for their use before the Government. Indeed, the central government has imposed a strict set of rules and regulations for the use of these public funds. University officials and teaching staff often complain about the lack of flexibility of this framework and believe it to be one of the main obstacles to the development of the system of doctoral programmes.

The Mohammed V University of Agdal has recently set in place two innovative practices in order to reduce the administrative burden linked to research financing and to increase efficiency in the use of distributed funds:

• Firstly, the university has implemented a new competitive-based funding allocation scheme directed at university research structures. Approximately three quarters of the previously mentioned research funding will be distributed to research units based on a selection process upon publication of call for proposals. Research units will be required to demonstrate the capacity to obtain additional funding from alternative sources (business sector – 40 %, and international co-operation – 20 %) in order to be eligible to be selected.

• In addition, the university has recently created an independent structure15 responsible for promoting collaboration with the business sector and other external economic actors. If approved by the Ministry of Finance, this structure will implement an outreach strategy aimed at developing partnerships and

14_{The Moroccan Government currently destines 0,7 % of its overall budget to scientific research. The}

majority of this funding goes to support research in practical and hard sciences. Only 7 % of this funding goes to Social and Human Sciences.

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securing and administering these funds. This would allow strengthening co-operation with the economic sector, diversifying funding for research and simplifying administrative spending procedures. The university is also considering the possibility of establishing a similar structure for co-operation with foreign partners.

Doctoral programmes are free of cost for doctoral candidates. The introduction of tuition fees for doctoral candidates seems unlikely for the time being.

Doctoral candidates may benefit from three types of financial support during their doctoral programmes:

• Basic scholarships: Approximately 70 % of doctoral candidates benefit from this type of scholarship given out by the Moroccan Government. Scholarships are given out on the basis of a ranking system carried out by the host institution based on the results of the admission procedure. Basic scholarships offer doctoral candidates a monthly stipend of approximately 110 € per month.

• Merit-based scholarships: Doctoral candidates under 26 years of age, with an exemplary academic record may benefit from this type of scholarship. In order to obtain this scholarship, doctoral candidates must submit an application to the National Centre for Scientific and Technical Research. The centre is responsible for the selection of candidates and for the allocation of the scholarships. Doctoral candidates receive the equivalent of 230 € per month.

• Research contracts: Doctoral candidates carrying out research within the framework of a research contract may receive a monetary compensation for their work.

Despite a lack of official statistics, doctoral candidates are usually dependent on external sources of funding during the completion of their doctoral programmes. A number of doctoral candidates find work opportunities outside of their HEI during their doctoral programmes. However, part-time student jobs are relatively limited in the Moroccan labour market.

2.2.4

Doctoral candidate status

Doctoral candidates are considered to be students. Their status does not differ significantly from that of students enrolled in the first and second cycle of higher education. Even when carrying our research in research units, doctoral candidates do not sign work contracts offering them access to a worker’s status. As a result, these doctoral candidates may not benefit from a fixed salary or worker’s rights.

However, there seems to be a trend in the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes towards the recognition of a specific doctoral candidate status. The implementation of thesis charters in doctoral programmes centres offers a clear example of this trend. One doctoral programmes centre director stressed the need to develop a distinct status for doctoral candidates in order to increase the recognition of the value of their work.

2.2.5

Doctoral candidates rights

As students, doctoral candidates do not benefit from any rights resembling workers’ rights. The only rights doctoral candidates benefit from are contained in the doctoral programmes charters they sign upon admission into a doctoral programmes centre. These may include the right to individual supervision or the right to obtain assistance from the supervisor to gain access to funding for doctoral programmes. The

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establishment of doctoral programmes charters represents a significant advancement in the formal recognition of doctoral candidates’ rights16_.

2.2.6

Organisation of doctoral programmes

Since the introduction of the HE reform in Morocco, doctoral programmes are organised by doctoral programmes centres. Doctoral programmes centres assemble doctoral programmes, as well as research units, teaching staff and researchers from different university faculties within a single structure. Doctoral programmes making up doctoral programmes centres usually cover several disciplines. The Doctoral Programmes centre of literature and human sciences of the University of Cadi Ayyad for example, offers programmes in tourism; linguistics and critical studies; communication, enterprise and culture development; territorial dynamics; philosophy and sciences in the western Islamic world; interpretation in modern innovation. The main objectives of doctoral programmes centres are to supervise the organisation of the doctoral programmes and doctoral candidates and to coordinate the actors involved (academic departments and research units).

HEI can usually decide if they create a doctoral programmes centre within a single faculty or if they create a common doctoral programmes centre between several faculties. Despite the possibility of doing so, there are no inter-university doctoral programmes centres for the time being. As mentioned previously, the only example of cross-HEI co-operation is the recently created doctoral programmes centre of the Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine which associates external researchers and doctoral supervisors in it’s doctoral programmes17_.

Doctoral programmes centres offer education destined to and by means of research, which leads to the awarding of a doctoral diploma18_{. The organisational model of}

higher education adopted by the Moroccan government, as well as the structure of doctoral programmes centres, is clearly inspired from the French model.

A doctoral college at university level is responsible for coordinating all of the university’s doctoral programmes centres. Colleges are usually made up of the directors of the doctoral programmes centres and a university representative (usually a deputy-dean). At the Cadi Ayyad University, the doctoral college plays an important role in the organisation of generic skills courses common to all doctoral programmes. Doctoral programmes centres are generally headed by a director and a deputy-director. In addition, doctoral programmes centres are usually composed of a scientific council and a bureau. Scientific councils are collegiate structures responsible for establishing the main guidelines and defining the content of doctoral programmes schools. They are also responsible for the operation of the schools, applying thesis charters, distributing financial aid, the admission selection procedure and preparing study plans. They are usually composed of the director or deputy-director of the doctoral programmes centre, the president or a representative of the host HEI, the directors of each doctoral study programme attached to the doctoral programmes centre, representatives of the student community and representatives of the laboratories and research institutions attached to the doctoral programmes centre. The bureau is responsible for carrying out the administrative procedures linked to the doctoral programmes centre. In some cases, doctoral programmes centres also set up a

16_{Decision no. 1371-07.}

17_{Research units participating in this particular doctoral studies centre include a significant number of}

researchers and professors belonging to external HEI. Doctoral candidates will thus have the possibility of enrolling in the doctoral centre while carrying out research under at a partner institution and under the supervision of a partner professor.

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liaison office allowing them to coordinate with other doctoral programmes centres within the same HEI19_.

It is worth noting that the creation of doctoral programmes centres has greatly contributed to adding clarity and structure to the doctoral programmes system in Morocco. Their existence allows for a better organisation of programmes, closer supervision of doctoral candidates, enhancing communication among different stakeholders, formalising procedures and reinforcing the levels of transparency. Moroccan HEI managed to establish their doctoral programmes centres in a relatively short period of time and with a particular ease. According to one centre supervisor, this is mainly due to the fact that the majority of professors and research unit members were convinced of the benefits brought about by the adoption of such a system20_.

Doctoral programmes in Morocco are mainly based on a one-to-one relationship between the doctoral candidate and the supervisor (traditional master-apprentice model – see 2.4.2). The HE reform intends to introduce changes to this model. Doctoral candidates must now follow taught courses (200 hours of seminars, classes, conferences), making them less dependent on their supervisors in the acquisition of skills and knowledge during doctoral programmes. However, supervisors still play a predominant role in the organisation of doctoral programmes and research on an individual basis. The relation between the doctoral candidate and the supervisor are monitored by the HEI, as both candidate and director must submit a yearly report containing work progress and planning (see Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.).

2.3 Doctoral programmes content

2.3.1

Research

Research represents the core activity during doctoral programmes. Doctoral candidates consecrate an average of 80% of their time to research during their studies which is carried out for the most part in laboratories and research units attached to the doctoral programmes centre. In a limited number of cases, doctoral candidates carry out their research or internships in the business sector or private companies (industrial thesis). However, this is extremely rare and is only beginning to develop in fields such as health and medicine (research in pharmaceutical laboratories for example).

Thesis subjects are normally defined and assigned to doctoral candidates by doctoral programmes centres in collaboration with attached research units. Thesis supervisors supply the doctoral programmes centre with one or two subjects for a research project they wish to carry out. They must also include a description of the research project, a timeline and the resources needed for completion of the project. In most cases, candidates receive the subject upon admission to doctoral programmes centres. In other cases, doctoral candidates may choose from two possible subjects.

2.3.2

Training during doctoral programmes besides research

The new national educational guidelines for the doctoral cycle establish that doctoral candidates must follow 200 hours of taught courses in order to obtain their doctoral diploma. The guidelines state that “in addition to research activities, doctoral

19_{Idem (idem as what?)}_.

20_{According to this professor, the new system reduces the exposure of thesis supervisors to excessive}

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candidates must follow complementary courses (specialised courses, project management, foreign languages and communication, introduction to university education, supervision and doctoral forums)”21_{. Generally, half of these courses (100}

hours) offer transferable/generic skills aimed at increasing doctors’ employability. These courses include language courses (scientific English), information technology, and entrepreneurship.

The University of Caddi Ayad is currently undertaking considerable efforts to ensure that their doctoral candidates acquire generic skills outside of their research work in order to increase their employability. Coursework is organised at three levels:

• The doctoral college at the university level is responsible for organising generic skills courses followed by all doctoral candidates. The college has recently implemented mandatory certification in IT and internet use, as well as mandatory English courses among others. Doctoral candidates wishing to defend their theses must all justify having followed these courses.

• Doctoral programmes centres are responsible for the organisation of scientific courses followed by all doctoral candidates enrolled in the centre.

• Finally, the heads of each doctoral programme are responsible for the organisation of specialised scientific courses followed by doctoral candidates at the programme level.

In some cases, universities have established graded examinations within the framework of generic skills courses. Doctoral candidates in the University of Hassan II Ain Chock for example must pass a certain number of written examinations in order to be eligible to defend their theses.

It is also worth noting that the Cadi Ayyad University is responsible for the organisation of the national “doctoral days” aimed at offering a selected number of doctoral candidates generic skills on entrepreneurship and business creation. Sixty doctoral candidates are given the opportunity to participate in a weeklong session allowing them to prepare a business creation project. During this time, they receive assistance and guidance from national and foreign HEI professors and in the end a winning project is selected. In previous years, doctoral day projects have led to the creation of successful businesses.

2.3.3

Teaching during doctoral programmes besides research

The existing legislation makes it extremely complicated for doctoral candidates to teach during the realisation of their doctoral programmes. The Moroccan legislation imposes a strict set of requirements in order to fill teaching positions in higher education. In addition, teaching is not a compulsory activity during doctoral programmes and HEI are in no way required to offer teaching positions to their doctoral candidates. According to some, this is one of the major flaws of the recent reform of doctoral programmes.

However, certain doctoral programmes centres have begun to open tutoring and monitoring positions for their doctoral candidates displaying a high level of academic performance. The Doctoral Programmes Centre for sciences and techniques at the University of Caddi Ayyad, for example, offers a number of its students such possibilities. The centre has set in place a selection process in order to choose doctoral candidates filling available positions. Tutors usually offer academic assistance and counselling to first year undergraduate students in their host universities. They normally follow up to ten groups of ten students during a full semester. Tutors are paid by the university in order to do so, allowing them not only to acquire a valuable

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teaching experience but also to dispose of additional income during their studies. Due to the recent implementation of this mechanism, its level of impact is yet to be determined. For the time being, doctoral candidates have displayed much interest in being tutors.

2.4 Doctoral programmes process: admission, supervision, monitoring and

assessment

2.4.1

Admission/ recruitment

Admission to doctoral programmes centres takes place on a yearly basis. Students in possession of a master’s diploma or an equivalent22_{are eligible to apply. In certain}

doctoral programmes centres, entry is also open to students in possession of a five-year engineering diploma.

Each HEI announces the admission period (usually in September and October) within which students may apply. Candidates must submit an application, which is studied by the scientific council of each doctoral programmes centre. A first selection process is carried out based on the quality of the submitted applications. Eligible students must then undergo an interview. The admission procedure is normally completed upon the signature of the doctoral thesis charter.

Doctoral programmes centres usually determine the number of students they will admit before the admission procedure takes place. In general, the number of students admitted into doctoral schools does not exceed 20 for every academic year. Admission results are published once the procedure has concluded.

The higher education reform has strongly contributed to improving the admission procedure to doctoral programmes. Firstly, the selection criteria have now become much stricter, which improves the chances of admitting high quality candidates. This will surely lead to higher quality theses and shorter delays for completion of doctoral programmes. Secondly, the admission process has become more transparent as it involves an increased number of stakeholders. Before the implementation of the reform and the creation of doctoral programmes centres, the admission procedure was relatively informal and opaque. Supervisors could intervene in favour of certain students, and formal admission procedures were often ignored. Currently, a number of checks and balances has been established aimed at making the academic merit and potential of the student priority criteria in the selection process. Candidates now undergo a strict selection process in order to be admitted into doctoral schools. The application each candidate must prepare is studied not only by the doctoral programmes centre council, but also by the research structure that will host him. In addition to the written application and the oral examination, some doctoral programmes centres also require candidates to undergo a written examination before they are admitted.

2.4.2

Supervision system

Supervisors (otherwise known as thesis directors) are responsible for the supervision of doctoral candidates and for the work they carry out. Doctoral programmes charters explicitly establish that supervisors may not delegate this responsibility to a third person. However, in practice, laboratory and research institution staff members informally contribute to the supervision of doctoral candidates.

22_{The MENESFCRS has published a list of diplomas equivalent to a master's diploma under the Bologna}

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Before the reform was implemented, the candidate-supervisor relationship was extremely isolated from the rest of the host institution. There was little or no supervision on behalf of fellow professors or university authorities. Today, the reform has contributed to integrating the doctoral candidate and the supervisor into a wider supervision system, reducing the risks of conflict, and improving the chances of achieving good quality results in shorter periods of time. The main tool for allowing doing so are the progress reports both doctoral candidate and supervisor must submit to the doctoral programmes centre on a yearly basis. Doctoral programmes centres do not authorise doctoral candidates to register from one year to the other unless both reports are submitted, indicating the work has been carried out according to the timeline and in a satisfactory manner.

According to the national guidelines for the doctoral cycle, any higher education professor may supervise doctoral candidates as long as he or she is attached to one of the research units hosted by the university. There are no additional qualifications or requirements in order for HEI teaching staff to supervise doctoral candidates

Supervisors usually follow an average of three to five doctoral candidates. Some universities establish limits to the number of doctoral candidates followed by a single supervisor. Traditionally, the lack of supervising capacity due to an excessive workload for supervisors has represented a significant problem in the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes.

2.4.3

Doctoral thesis and defence

The authorisation to defend a thesis is given by the head of faculty, upon the request of the thesis supervisor and the director of the centre for doctoral programmes.

The thesis is then distributed among three rapporteurs, which are usually university professors designated by the director of the host faculty. One rapporteur must be external to the HEI hosting the candidate. Each rapporteur must submit a written report, emitting an appreciation on the thesis to be defended. Doctoral candidates may defend their thesis only if they obtain a minimum of two positive reports. If approved, the reports are transmitted to the jury members and a summary of the thesis is published internally.

The jury members are designated by the head of the host faculty, based on the recommendations of the director of the centre for doctoral programmes. The jury must be composed of at least four members, including the thesis supervisor. The president must be a higher education professor. The additional members can be professors or external personalities recognised for their expertise in the field.

Juries are responsible for emitting a decision on the quality of the thesis and the defence. Theses are either admitted or adjourned, based on the decision taken by the jury. Admitted theses are distributed among the scientific community of the university and sent to the National Centre for Scientific and Technical Research. If the thesis is adjourned, the jury members must produce a written report justifying their decision. Doctoral candidates are then given a supplementary delay to carry out modifications and re-defend their thesis.

2.4.4

Quality assurance mechanisms

Quality assurance mechanisms, both at the individual and the institutional level, are only beginning to develop in the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes. Higher education evaluation and quality assessment have traditionally been limited to specific initiatives carried out during times of crisis or prior to the introduction of new legislation. The system had been characterised by a lack of institutionalised quality assurance strategy and mechanisms.

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Despite this lack of quality assurance culture, the Moroccan Government and HEI have made considerable progress in establishing a quality assurance system since the introduction of the reform process. The reform was designed to introduce three concepts into higher education: accreditation, evaluation and auditing. As a result, three steps destined to reinforce quality assurance in higher education have been recently taken :

• the creation of an accreditation procedure for all higher education programmes, both public and private;

• the establishment of an evaluation system;

• the creation of higher education evaluation and regulation institutions.

The 01-00 law governing higher education requires all HEI to obtain accreditation for the creation of higher education programmes leading to a national diploma. Accreditation is given by the Department of Higher Education of the Ministry upon the approval of the National Commission for the Coordination of Higher Education. The law also aims to reinforce and institutionalise evaluation procedures in higher education. It states that “the system of higher education must be evaluated on a regular basis. Evaluations must cover all aspects of higher education including educational, administrative and research-related issues”. In addition, “public and private HEI, must establish a system of self-evaluation”. Results obtained from these evaluations must be published at the national and regional level.

The reform has also set the basis for the creation of several institutions in order to reinforce the following bodies :

• The National Commission for the Coordination of Higher Education; • The Coordination Council for non-university HEI;

• The National Commission for the Coordination of Private Higher Education; • The National Evaluation Service;

• The National Observatory for the Adjustment of HE to the Economic and Professional Conditions.

The work of the National Commission for the Coordination of Higher Education is of particular relevance to the institutionalisation of quality assurance in Moroccan higher education. This commission is headed by the Minister of Education and is composed of government representatives, university presidents, research institution directors, a labour union representative and a private sector and community representative. It is responsible for approving the creation of new HEI, offering recommendations on the creation of new higher education programmes, establishing admission criteria for entry into the different cycles of higher education, as well establishing student examination procedures (including theses defence). It must be noted that all of the above also applies to doctoral programmes in Morocco.

The reform also foresees the creation of a National Evaluation Service, which would be responsible for evaluating the entire educational system at national level. Within this service, there would be a higher education agency in charge of HEI evaluation. It is unclear whether this institution would be completely autonomous or if it would be attached to the MENESFR.

Despite the introduction of these mechanisms, an evaluation culture is yet to be built in Moroccan HEI and among authorities responsible for the organisation of doctoral programmes. As mentioned by one official of the MENESR, it is necessary to explain the advantages brought about by evaluation in order to changes people’s mentalities. Overcoming this barrier will be one of the key elements in order to establish an efficient quality assurance system.

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In addition, the Government must ensure that the necessary funding is available for doctoral programmes centres to carry out evaluation activities if a self-evaluation culture is to be developed in HEI.

At the individual level, the assessment of doctoral candidates’ work is mainly carried out by supervisors. External supervision is only beginning to develop and consists mostly of the submission of a signed document from doctoral candidates and thesis supervisors to the host HEI stating the doctoral candidate has carried out work in a satisfactory manner and reporting on the progress made on research work. Unfortunately, in many universities this procedure is considered to be a mere formality and doctoral candidates are for the most part systematically allowed to register for the following academic year.

Quality assurance of doctoral candidates' work is carried out upon completion of rather than during their doctoral programmes. As mentioned previously (see Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.), before being able to defend their thesis, doctoral candidates must obtain approval from three rapporteurs responsible for verifying the quality of their work. This lack of quality assessment mechanisms during the realisation of doctoral programmes makes the system vulnerable to hosting low performing and low quality doctoral candidates.

2.5 After the graduation

The primary source of employment for doctoral graduates is higher education. Despite a lack of official statistics, it is believed that approximately 70 % of doctors find work as teaching staff in HEI. There are two minor additional sources of employment for Moroccan doctors: public administration institutions and the private sector. It must be noted that the number of doctors working in the private sector is extremely limited23_.

Currently, there is no official tracking system enabling to follow the career development of Moroccan doctoral graduates. The higher education emergency plan foresees the creation of such a system but this has not been done so far. As a result, there is a strong lack of indicators on the subject.

There are different opinions regarding entry into the labour market for Moroccan doctors. These diverging opinions might be explained by the lack of a tracking system as mentioned above.

According to some, doctors in Morocco encounter significant difficulties finding adequate positions and career development opportunities on the labour market. This is partially explained by the fact that employers don’t always appreciate the added value of holding a doctoral diploma from a Moroccan HEI. This may act as a counterincentive for students intending to carry out doctoral programmes. According to one doctoral programmes centre director, this lack of recognition represents one of the greatest challenges the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes is currently facing.

On the other hand, some experts point out that due to the expansion of the higher education system and the strong demand for teaching staff in HEI, doctors do not encounter difficulties entering the labour market. It is believed unemployment rates for doctors are significantly lower than those of graduates holding a bachelor’s or a master’s degree.

There does seem to be a consensus, however, around the fact that finding work varies strongly according to the field of specialisation. Doctors specialised in practical sciences, management and business and information technologies seem to encounter

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less difficulty in finding adequate positions and possibilities for career advancement than those specialised in social and human sciences.

Yet, the Moroccan public and HEI authorities seem to have become increasingly aware of the importance of diversifying sources of employment and improving employability in the labour market for doctors. As a result, the integration of doctors into the socio-economic world has become a key priority and some initial steps have been taken in this direction. As mentioned previously (see Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.), doctoral candidates must now follow a number of generic skills courses aimed at improving their chances of finding work outside of academia. However, one of the most important remaining challenges is the chronic lack of cooperation that exists between the business sector and HEI.

3. International collaboration, mobility and joint doctoral degrees

3.1 International co-operation data

The Moroccan Government as well as Moroccan HEI have been very active in establishing ties with foreign institutions and HEI. Of course, due to its historical, linguistic and geographical proximity, France is Morocco’s first international partner in the field of research and doctoral co-operation.

At the bilateral level, co-operation for doctoral programmes is mainly organised around four instruments:

• The programme for Agricultural Research for Development is co-financed by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing. The programme offers financial support for joint-research projects between French and Moroccan research teams, including doctoral candidates. • The French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the MENESFCRS also offer support to

research collaboration projects through the VOLUBILIS integrated research actions programme. Integrated actions are bilateral research projects leading to the production of joint-publications between French and Moroccan research teams. Doctoral candidates usually receive support to carry out part of their research work at French universities. Since the programme’s creation in 1983, it has contributed to the realisation of 1 644 doctoral theses. On the Moroccan side, the programme is organised by the Mohammed V University, Souissi24_{. The}

Volubilis programme is highly appreciated by participating Moroccan HEI and has proved to contribute to the development of doctoral programmes and of a joint-research culture between both countries. Participants appreciate the opportunity given to doctoral candidates to carry out research at French HEI, as well as the administrative simplicity of the programme.

• The Moroccan Government has also established a programme similar to Volubilis with the Spanish Government (Morocco-Spain Committee). This programme has grown considerably over recent years, as opposed to Volubilis, which has seen a decline in the number of financed integrated actions.

• The Moroccan and Tunisian Governments have established a joint project aimed at enhancing research co-operation and knowledge exchange between both countries. Selected projects are funded for two-year periods, offering doctoral

24_{The MENESFCRS delegates the organisation of several international cooperation programmes to large}

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candidates the possibility of benefitting from this support. A total of 82 projects were funded during the 2008-2010 period.

In addition to the previously mentioned mechanisms, the French Government and HEI have offered considerable support to their Moroccan counterparts helping them to establish the new doctoral programmes centres. Within the framework of the “Support for the higher education reform” programme, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs offered assistance based on the French experience creating doctoral schools. This programme also provided support for the organisation of several “doctoral” workshops aimed at favouring entry into the labour market for doctors and doctoral candidates in 2008 and 200925_.

It must be noted that the recent implementation of the higher education reform based on the principles of the Bologna process has increased the compatibility of the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes with that of foreign HEI, especially in Europe. This has allowed reinforcing international cooperation with foreign governments and HEI, and should continue to do so in the oncoming years.

Moroccan actors of HE are also actively involved in European cooperation mechanisms directly impacting doctoral programmes26_.

Two Moroccan universities27_{are currently involved in the “Support for the reform of}

doctoral programme in the Maghreb” Tempus project. This project involves six universities from the Maghreb countries as well as three European universities, and is aimed at strengthening and developing doctoral programmes systems based on the exchange of experiences and good practices between participants. The project is organised around six workshops, which cover a series of topics relating to the organisation of doctoral programmes (doctoral candidate supervision, institutional frameworks for doctoral programmes, administrative procedures and support, university-private sector relations). Moroccan participants have been very active in this project and have demonstrated a strong interest and sense of initiative in developing their doctoral programmes based on the experiences of their European counterparts.

Tempus projects have significantly contributed to the adoption of the Bologna model of higher education and have acted as a catalyst for the implementation of the reform of higher education in Morocco.

Three Moroccan universities28_{are partners within the Erasmus Mundus external}

cooperation window AVERROES network. Several additional HEI and economic actors have gained access to the network as associates. The programme has provided funding for the international mobility of 237 Maghreb students at all levels of higher education.

Finally, there are numerous bilateral and multilateral co-operation projects at the university level.

The University of Cadi Ayyad has been particularly successful in establishing both national and international cooperation mechanisms aimed at supporting doctoral programmes. Since its creation, the university has established an ambitious international cooperation strategy aimed at increasing the university’s international exposure. One of the main outputs of this strategy is the number of currently existing programmes and mobility schemes for teachers and students. Nearly 450 researchers

25_{French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs.} 26_{FP7, Erasmus Mundus, Tempus.}

27_{University of Mohammed V Souissi in Rabat and University of Cadi Ayyad (?) in Marrakech} 28_{Cadi Ayyad, Mohammed V Agdal and Abdelmalek Essaadi of Tetouan.}

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and doctoral candidates travel abroad on a yearly basis on a short and long-term basis. Of course, in order to promote student and teacher mobility and international cooperation, the university dedicates a considerable amount of resources to this end. Nearly 10% of the university’s operational funds go to financing mobility29_.

The university has also been very successful in attracting competitive-based funds available through international cooperation. According to one university official, approximately 25 % of international calls for projects directed at Moroccan HEI are won by the University of Cadi Ayyad. One of the elements contributing to this success rate is the existence of assistance centres for project coordinators within each faculty. These centres are usually made up of three or four permanent employees and are responsible for providing support to answer questions, identify and communicate on project calls on a timely basis and offer administrative and management assistance during project implementation. These centres have allowed the university to respond and participate in a significant number of EU projects, among others30_{. Several}

Moroccan HEI have taken up this example and are planning on opening similar structures.

3.2 Foreigners as doctoral candidates

Despite a lack of official statistics on the issue, there is an important number of foreigners enrolled in Moroccan centres for doctoral programmes. The majority of these students come from neighbouring African countries and carry out their entire doctoral programmes in Morocco. One doctoral programmes centre director pointed out that they are often encouraged by the Moroccan Government to accept foreign candidates into their programmes. In this particular doctoral programmes centre approximately 20 % of doctoral candidates come from abroad.

The MENESFCRS has published a list of international diplomas that are recognised as equivalent to Moroccan diplomas for acceptance into doctoral programmes centres. However, the majority of foreign doctoral candidates already possesses a Moroccan diploma of higher education before beginning their doctoral programmes. Doctoral programmes' rules and guidelines, including tuition fees, are the same for foreign doctoral candidates as for Moroccan nationals.

3.3 National doctoral candidates going abroad

See 3.1.

4. Challenges and possible future policy actions

The integration of doctoral programmes within a wider research and innovation development strategy involving both HEI and economic actors (public and private) is one of the main challenges the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes is currently facing. Doctoral programmes must be adequately aligned with a national R&D and innovation policy, as well as with the needs of the Moroccan labour market and economy. In spite of the efforts carried out by Moroccan Government and HEI

29_{This includes airfare, tuition fees, per-diems and registration fees for conferences.}

30_{The university is currently in its third year of participation in an Erasmus Mundus cooperation network}

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authorities, there is still a strong need to close the gap between the system of doctoral programmes and the country’s business sector and economic actors. As one university authority puts it, cooperation between these two types of actors is still virtually inexistent. One of the reasons for this is the fact that the majority of research carried out by doctoral candidates is fundamental research. Companies are more interested in applied research offering short-term outputs with an increased market use.

An additional downstream challenge the system is currently facing has to do with improving the career development perspectives and employment opportunities for doctors graduating from Moroccan HEI. The country’s researcher community seems to be composed of two groups. A first group is made up of researchers displaying high levels of international competitiveness. These researchers are strongly integrated into international research networks and circuits. Researchers belonging to this group have excellent career perspectives and are well adjusted to the labour market.

A second group of researchers is made up of professionals with more limited experience and international exposure and recognition. Unfortunately, in Morocco the majority of researchers fall within this second category. These researchers encounter more difficulties finding positions on the labour market and possibilities for career advancement. The challenge that needs to be addressed is how to strengthen the first group of researchers without failing to support the second.

This double-geared system can be partially explained by the fact that universities themselves have not yet developed a strong scientific research culture. Universities are predominantly educational institutions, rather than research institutions. As a result, Moroccan professors are rarely implied in national and international scientific research networks.

As is the case in its neighbouring countries, the transition towards the new organisational model according to the principles of the Bologna process represents a significant challenge for the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes. Moroccan HEI have already made good progress in adopting the new system and its guiding principles. However, there is a lot of work to be done, particularly with regard to the duration of doctoral programmes and the implementation of an adequate administrative and quality assurance structure, responsible for overseeing and following doctoral candidates.

Finally, the Moroccan system of doctoral programmes faces a series of broader challenges which are common to several of its neighbouring countries. The first has to do with the lack of doctoral supervisors and professors implied in the organisation of doctoral programmes. This supervisor-deficit will probably deepen in the oncoming years as many of the system’s supervisors are approaching retirement. Certain disciplines such as economics, management, IT and social sciences are already suffering strongly from a lack of teaching staff.

Secondly, many of the country’s doctoral schools suffer from a lack of financial resources as well as a lack of access to the necessary documentary resources and equipment. Several teaching staff members expressed the need to gain access to European on-line library resources.

Finally, the Moroccan Government and HEI will need to continue strengthening the culture of quality assurance within the system of doctoral programmes. The responsible actors have already come a long way in the establishment of a quality assurance system. However, further institutionalisation of quality assurance practices and the allocation of additional resources will be key to capitalise on the efforts made so far.

In general terms, European programmes are well known and highly appreciated by Moroccan higher education actors. The University of Cadi Ayyad, one of the main beneficiaries of European programmes in Morocco, seeks to participate in such programmes for three main reasons:

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• Firstly, European programmes contribute to giving the University international visibility and improving the reputation of the quality of their research.

• Secondly, European programmes are an important source of funding for doctoral programme development.

• Thirdly, participation in these programmes contributes to enlarging their cooperation portfolio and developing a network of international contacts.

Universities participating in FP7 projects expressed high levels of satisfaction with the results obtained from their involvement in such projects. FP projects are seen as highly enriching for both participating doctoral candidates and teaching staff. For Moroccan universities, participation in joint projects with European counterparts gives them the opportunity of improving the scientific capacities of their teaching staff, learning from their foreign counterparts and importing good practices from abroad. The director of the Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine stated that the Institute’s participation in the FRYMED project, for example, contributed to increasing the international competitiveness of the institute, and to improving the structure and quality of their research. According to him, publishing results with European counterparts improves their quality standards and gives them good international visibility.

The points of view regarding the effectiveness of Tempus projects are more mitigated. Participants usually appreciate the value of being able to share experiences and developing networks with European and Maghreb counterparts, but fail to see the practical outputs to this type of project. One university authority pointed out the fact that Tempus projects have a greater impact when they are linked at a specific institutional development objective. For example, his university greatly profited from the implementation of a Tempus project (QAREM) aimed at allowing the university to carry out a self and an external evaluation process. According to this professor, this project contributed greatly to the creation of an evaluation culture and system in the university.

With regard to the “Support for the reform of doctoral programmes in the Mahgreb” Tempus project, there are different opinions. Generally speaking, participants appreciate the opportunity to share experiences and practices with their European and Mahgreb counterparts on the implementation of the new model of doctoral programmes. There was also positive feedback concerning the regional format that was selected in order to carry out the project.

However, one professor pointed out that most of what was said during the workshops so far is already being implemented by their university. In one particular case the workshops were described as follows: “There was a lot of talking going on, but no practical results”. The project is also criticised for neglecting to involve doctoral supervisors considered to be key actors in the implementation of the new system, as well a larger number of universities. Indeed, it is believed that the impact of this project could be considerably increased by promoting a vertical (university teaching staff) and horizontal (external universities) dissemination of the results and main conclusions.

Tempus project participants and coordinators were highly critical of the administrative procedures and guidelines they were required to follow during the implementation of the projects. According to them, the complexity of these guidelines often impeded them from executing the projects as planned, and consumed both time and efforts that could have been better used otherwise. The most significant problems include:

• Participating and coordinating institutions spend a considerable amount of monetary and human resources due to the strict restrictions on spending imposed by European guidelines. Organisers of the “Support for the reform of doctoral

Study on the organisation of doctoral programmes in EU neighbouring countries

December 2010