Identifying and analysing existing research undertaken in the events industry: a literature review for People1st

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UK Centre for Events Management Leeds Metropolitan University Civic Quarter Leeds LS1 3HE Tel: 0113 283 3484 Fax: 0113 283 3111 Email: g.a.j.bowdin@leedsmet.ac.uk

Identifying and analysing existing research

undertaken in the events industry: a literature

review for People1st

Undertaken on behalf of the Association for Events

Management Education (AEME) by:

Glenn A J Bowdin

UK Centre for Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University Dr Gayle McPherson

Jenny Flinn

Caledonian Business School, Glasgow Caledonian University March 2006

The copyright and content in this research document is owned by or licensed to People 1st_{and may not be reproduced by any means without prior}

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Executive Summary

The term event or events industry is used by a number of people in a number of different ways, with continued discussion about the development of the events

industry, however, there is only limited data to support this. If the events industry is to be fully explored, researched and understood, alongside education, training and skills development, further work is required. It is within this context that AEME

(Association for Events Management Education) has been commissioned by People1st to undertake the current research. This project involved the collection, collation, synthesis and review of literature, predominantly through desk research. Its purpose was to identify and evaluate key research already undertaken relating specifically to the definition, size and scope of the events industry, skills and skills development. The literature review also identified gaps in the current research base in order to make recommendations for future research requirements.

Many authors have discussed the definition of events and the various terms used to describe these, however, there is only limited agreement on standardised terms, definitions or categories to use. Various terms are used to describe sectors or industries which may fall under the umbrella of the events industry, including:

• business events/business tourism (conferences/meetings, exhibitions, incentive travel, corporate events/corporate hospitality)

• festivals/fairs/cultural events

• community events

• outdoor events

• entertainment/live music events/concerts/theatre/shows

• sports events/spectator sports

• charity events/fundraising/voluntary sector

• party planning/wedding planning/social life-cycle events/special events.

These events originate from government, corporate and community sectors, together with serving individual private needs.

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The late twentieth century saw an events industry emerge, with various sectors, particularly those focussed on business related events, pushing forward the claim for an industry to be recognised, supported by dialogue with government, an increase in training, increasing support for industry related qualifications, an increasing body of knowledge, job opportunities and emerging career paths. Further indications of the emergence of an events industry are the formation and continued development of industry associations and the establishment of training courses, formal education programmes and accreditation schemes. In a skills context, the events industry was previously served by the Travel, Tourism Services and Events National Training Organisation and more recently by People1st, the new Sector Skills Council.

The events industry has a range of stakeholders, including the host organisation, customer/participants/spectators/delegates/attendees, host community, industry practitioners/professionals, sponsors, media, associations/federations/alliances, and educators/academia/students. Further, a number of key components are identified, including event organizations, event management companies, event industry suppliers or contractors, venues and industry associations.

One of the challenges in defining an industry is that, no matter what authors,

researchers, industry stakeholders, or other bodies believe should be included within the definition, if this is not reflected in National, European and International

conventions for classifying data, then data will not be collected in an identifiable form. For example, the events industry is one of only two industries within the People1st footprint without a four digit SIC code. However, the importance of events as an industry is beginning to be recognised, with the WTO (World Tourism Organisation) now recognising the meetings and exhibitions industry as an official category in its Tourism Satellite Account.

Problems encountered with attempting to devise adequate definitions for gathering data and reliable statistical analysis are not unique to the UK or Europe.

Internationally, the coding systems for industries are under review in order to revise them to more closely reflect modern industry and economies. Although this process is still in progress, early indications are that a number of event-related classifications are included in the revised SIC, which may form the basis for data gathering. There will be some cross over with other sectors within the footprint of People1st, and

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indeed other sector skills councils, however, it may be useful to include reference to such data in events-related studies, depending on the purpose for which it is being gathered and reported.

The events industry has seen a shift in the last 10 years. While it was previously seen to form a part of the wider hospitality, leisure, travel and tourism sectors this role has diminished and events has flourished as an industry in its own right. However, the events industry covers a broad spectrum of sectors, making it almost impossible to estimate the size or worth of the industry without further detailed research to gather labour market intelligence and establish a database for the

industry. It is difficult to measure the number of events businesses as many different types of organisations offer events services, with many organisations which could be classified as ‘events’ organisations classifying themselves in a different way.

Events work is generally seen to form a part of other sectors, rather than as an industry in its own right, making it almost impossible to gain an accurate view of how many people are employed in the events industry or their characteristics in terms of gender, ethnicity, training, qualifications, salary or full-time/part-time employment status. As a profession, as discussed earlier, events work is only just beginning to be recognised, resulting in a great deal of crossover with other sectors. It is often the case that although people are working in events related jobs they are not officially classed in such a way, for example, the main concern of music promoters is events management yet they are classified under music occupations, making it difficult to establish set event jobs. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that there is currently no official classification for events jobs. Within the UK, Standard Occupation Codes are available which may provide the basis for gathering

occupation related data, particularly when using a broader definition of the events industry.

The organisation of events may entail the use of many different companies and thus involves a large number of people in different occupations. In addition, due to the emerging nature of the profession and consequent cross over with other sectors, many of the people currently employed in events occupations have developed their skills elsewhere, but the recent growth in the events industry has led to a rise in the demand for sector specific skills. The type of work in which events staff specialise is

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likely to be dependent upon the type of organisation that they work for. Although most people employed in events related jobs tend to specialise in a certain area, for example, event manager, conference organiser and exhibition co-ordinator, it is possible to identify core event occupations which are visible across these sub sectors, for example, event manager, event producer, event coordinator, event marketer and event sales,

Identifying appropriate knowledge and skills categories for the events management field presents a challenge, given the range of alternatives available. Some research considers it appropriate to use a traditional management approach, focusing on traditional disciplines, for example, management, finance, human resources and marketing. Others may consider an event-specific approach more suitable,

incorporating health and safety, production and logistics. Although either approach is appropriate, research suggests that neither approach would currently provide a comprehensive framework. This report presents an examination of previous studies which provides a useful basis for further discussion, including the recently identified International Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK).

The attractiveness of the events industry makes the events profession highly competitive - it is therefore no surprise that a number of college and university courses are beginning to emerge in this area. No comprehensive studies have yet taken place to establish the number and content of event courses nationally and internationally. However, through a scan of university, college, association and associated industry course materials, together with event-related textbooks and journal articles, a picture begins to emerge of an increasing range and volume of courses at further education, undergraduate and postgraduate levels. For example, there are currently approximately 44 colleges and universities offering

undergraduate, and seven offering postgraduate, events courses in the UK. In addition, competency-based qualifications in events-related areas have been developed in a number of countries, including National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) in the UK. Finally, there are an increasing range of courses, including self-study and training courses.

What has become apparent in writing this report is that there are pockets of research available in the public domain that can inform policy and development in the events

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industry. However, although there are a number of people who refer to the events industry, including increasingly the education sector given the growth in provision in this area, this is not always reflected in research, in categorisation or in official publications. It could be observed that the events industry has not been taken seriously as an industry. This may be due to the range of activities covered and the problems in defining it, together with the crossover of business into other industries and sectors.

It is clear from this study that there are gaps in research. Although some evidence of skills, employment, occupations and education research are evident, the events industry requires a significant amount of research to be undertaken to fill the gaps identified and bring it into line with other industries, including those within the People1st footprint.

This report has provided a snapshot of the events industry, the issues affecting it and as a result, a number of research requirements have been identified and

recommendations for further work. It is not presented as the end of the research process, rather a starting point for the next stage in development of the events industry. Hopefully, it will prompt discussion and debate, it will raise questions and gaps will be identified in the literature and research referred to, and the research gaps identified. By drawing material together and making recommendations for further studies, it serves as a baseline for the future.

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1.0 Introduction

Events vary in their size and impacts, with terms such as special events, mega events, hallmark events and major events used to describe and categorise them internationally. Events are also categorised according to their type or sector, such as public/private, government, association, cultural, festivals, sporting, music related, tourism and business/corporate events (including meetings, incentives, corporate hospitality, conferences/conventions and exhibitions).

It could be argued that events within the UK have always had a high profile, with the successful summer calendar of sporting events, such as Wimbledon Tennis, Henley Regatta, high profile festivals such as the Edinburgh International Festival and Glastonbury Festival and consumer shows such as the Daily Mail Ideal Home Show and British International Motor Show gaining mass media coverage. However, the prominence of events within the United Kingdom has increased further over recent years, with major events such as the Millennium Festival, 2002 Manchester

Commonwealth Games, the Queen’s Golden Jubilee, Live 8 concerts, the G8 Summit and the recent success of the bid to host the London 2012 Olympic Games keeping events in the mainstream media. This growth in interest has placed the spotlight on the role of the organisations behind these involved in planning and managing them.

The late twentieth century saw an events industry emerge, with various sectors, particularly those focussed on business related events, pushing forward the claim for an industry to be recognised, supported by dialogue with government, an increase in training, increasing support for industry related qualifications, an increasing body of knowledge, job opportunities and emerging career paths. Further indications of the emergence of an events industry are the formation and continued development of industry associations and the establishment of training courses, formal education programmes and accreditation schemes. In a skills context, the events industry was served by the Travel, Tourism Services and Events National Training Organisation and more recently by People1st, the new Sector Skills Council.

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The business events sector is one of the fastest growing areas of the events industry and makes a significant contribution to business related tourism which is increasingly acknowledged, particularly through the work of the Business Tourism Partnership and member associations. With increased regulation and the growth of government and corporate involvement in events, the environment has become much more complex. Event managers are now required to identify and service a wide range of stakeholders and to balance their needs and objectives, while also ensuring safe and professionally managed events.

It is within this context that AEME (Association for Events Management Education) has been commissioned by People1st to undertake the current project in order to provide the basis for future development. Although the term event or events industry is used by a number of people in a number of different ways, and there is continued discussion of the development of the events industry, there is only limited data to support this. If the events industry is to be fully explored, researched and understood, alongside education, training and skills development, further work is required. This research seeks to address some of these issues. This study will only scratch the surface, or provide a snapshot, of what data and information already exist about the industry, based on literature available in the area. It will identify further work that is required to address the shortfalls in data and begin to address the imbalance in information that is available for other sectors within the People1st footprint of industries.

1.1 Project Aim

The project aim identified by People 1st is:

• To undertake a thorough literature review of existing research into the events industry.

Specifically, the two main areas to be covered are:

• The definition, size and scope of the events industry.

• Skills and skills development.

As a result of the literature review, recommendations will be made identifying further research required to address the needs of the events industry from a skills

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1.2 Project Scope

The project scope was identified in the People1st specification. The project is required to identify existing research undertaken in the events industry in the following areas:

1.2.1 Primary Level

On a primary level, the literature review should cover the following areas:

1.2.1.1 Definition

Identify and assess how the industry is defined (including relevant sub-industries), the consistency of these definitions, and the support they have received from industry. The literature review should also include the possible duplication and overlap these definitions have with other industries within the People1st footprint. Specifically, it needs to address issues around the definition of both ‘temporary structures’ and ‘business tourism’.

1.2.1.2 Occupations

Identify which occupations are commonly found in the industry and the extent to which these occupations are commonly found across different businesses and sub-industries. It should also identify the degree to which these occupations can be said to be unique to the industry, or require particular skills requirements that are specific to it. The literature review should also assess the extent of self-employed, full-time and part-time job roles, and their occupational mix.

1.2.1.3 Size

Identify what figures are provided for total employment and establishments for the events industry as a whole and its sub-industries, bringing out any geographic and size factors that may be available. Assess to what extent these figures are

consistent, how they have changed, and are forecast to change. 1.2.1.4 Influences

Identify and assess the factors that have been identified that can be said to be influencing the industry and the demand for skills and labour. These factors can be external such as political (such as regulation etc.), economic (looking at the demand

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for events), social (changing consumer expectations etc.) and technological factors. It should also include internal factors, such as the changing ownership of the industry.

1.2.2 Secondary Level

Identify key research that provides an insight into the following areas: 1.2.2.1 Current and future skill needs

• What are the current and future skill needs of the industry?

• What are the specific skills issues for sub-industries and occupations?

• How does the industry compare with other countries or industries when looking at its productivity and competitiveness?

1.2.2.2 Employment practices

• How do events employers approach employment practices, such as use of appraisals and wider human resource practices?

• What impact do factors such as seasonality have on employers’ employment practices?

• To what extent do these approaches have on their attitude to skills and skills development?

1.2.2.3 Training and development

• What evidence exists as to how employers approach training and development?

• How do these approaches change when looking at occupations and sub-industries?

• What type of training is carried out in the industry (on the job, off the job, formal qualifications etc)

• What factors influence the extent to which employers train their staff? 1.2.2.4 Recruitment and retention

• How do employers approach recruitment and retention?

• Do these approaches change when looking at occupations and sub-industries?

• What factors influence the extent to which employers recruit and retain their staff?

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1.3 Project Methodology

This project has involved the collection, collation, synthesis and review of literature, predominantly through desk research. Its purpose was to identify and evaluate key research already undertaken in order to achieve the project aim. The literature review also identified gaps in the current research base in order to make recommendations for future research requirements.

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2.0 Overview of the Events Industry

2.1 Introduction

When beginning a study of this type, a traditional starting point is the definition of terms that will be used throughout the research. However, as one of the main purposes of the research is to define the terms, this is somewhat problematic. As discussed earlier, this study attempts to define the events industry and the sectors within it. However, is there an events industry?

In order to answer this question, a literature review was undertaken of contemporary literature, industry reports, research journals and conference papers. What emerged is presented and discussed in the sections below. This section of the report explores the events industry, its history, definition and scope, occupations, size and

influencing factors.

2.2 Historical Context

The UK has a history of local and national events, traditions and ceremonies

spanning thousands of years that has influenced the development of events. Palmer and Lloyd (1972) highlighted that Britain has many customs and traditions that are tied in with the changing seasons and country life, while with developing immigration, particularly after the war, settlers, including migrants from overseas, brought their own customs and traditions that have now become part of Britain’s heritage. However, many events have taken place in one form or another for hundreds of years, including fairs, festivals, sporting events, exhibitions and other public celebrations (Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris and McDonnell, 2006).

Britannica.com (2005) notes that the term ‘festival’, as commonly understood today, was first used in England in 1655, when the Festival of the Sons of the Clergy was first delivered at St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Established as an annual charity sermon, it assumed a musical character in 1698. Other examples of early festivals include the Three Choirs Festival (1713), the Norfolk and Norwich Festival (1789) and the Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales (revived in 1880 although it originates from 1176) (PSI, 1992). Festivals of secular music started in the eighteenth century –

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the first devoted to Handel took place in Westminster Abbey in 1784 – with many of these continuing well into the twentieth century (Britannica.com, 2005).

Exhibitions, consumer and trade shows have taken over much of the traditional purpose of the fairs. The Exhibition Liaison Committee (1995, pp. 2–3) noted:

Since pre-Biblical times producers and merchants have displayed their wares at fairs. However the present UK exhibition industry can trace its origin back to the first industrial exhibitions held in London in 1760 and 1791. These were organised by the Royal Society of Arts and culminated . . . in the Great Exhibition of 1851 which was housed in the impressive ‘Crystal Palace’ erected in Hyde Park.

Dale (1995) highlights that the Great Exhibition was a triumphant success, with over 6 million visitors – around 25 per cent of the population. It proved to be an excellent promotional tool for Britain, British industry and related trades, and was the first international trade show (Cartwright, 1995). The exhibition generated profits of over £180 000 (Exhibition Liaison Committee, 1995). The following years saw the

development of many exhibition facilities that are in existence today, including Alexandra Palace and the Royal Agricultural Hall (1862), Olympia (1886) and Earls Court (originally opened 1887, current structure from 1936).

Britain has an international reputation for sport and stages many international world-class events each year, drawing in large visitor numbers and generating major benefits for local economies (English Tourism, 1999). Many famous UK sporting events have their origins in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, including equestrian events such as Royal Ascot (1711), the Epsom Derby (1780) and the Aintree Grand National (1839, name adopted 1847), water-based events such as the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race (1829), Cowes Week (1826), Henley Royal

Regatta (established 1839, named Henley Royal Regatta from 1851) and the first Americas Cup race off the Solent, Isle of Wight (1851). Other major events from this period include The Open Championship (Golf) (1860), the FA Cup (1872), The Championship (Wimbledon) (1877) and Test cricket (England vs. Australia, 1882) (Bowdin et al, 2006).

Wood (1982) noted that due to the dual forces of industrialization and Christianity in the mid-nineteenth century, many of the traditional festivities that developed

alongside folklore were lost. With industrialization, working classes had little time for traditional celebrations, with the new National Police Force criminalizing many of the

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traditional festivities. The middle of the nineteenth century saw at least forty saint days per year, although not all were public holidays in all areas. However, the Victorians believed that it was uneconomical for workers to have so much free time and, as a result, they abolished a number of festivals and tidied up the public holidays to control this. Later, they introduced a week’s paid holiday to replace the lost Bank holidays (Harrowven, 1980). Palmer and Lloyd (1972) acknowledge that weakening community life and the increasing pace of progress lead to established folk festivities being changed or completely disappearing, though they highlight that with many being deep-rooted in communities, the complete extinction of these celebrations has been avoided.

2.2.1 Development of an events industry

Wood (1982) highlighted the birth of what is now becoming known as the events industry. She identified that commercializing popular celebrations required wealth for people to participate and therefore meant selecting suitable elements of the

traditional festivities and adapting them. The purpose of fairs has changed over time to what are seen today as events that mainly operate for enjoyment, with rides, sideshows and stalls (Toulmin, 1995).

With the increase in work through industrialization, the practicalities of celebration meant that people were too tired to celebrate as they had done previously. Thus, celebration, and commercial celebration, provided the opportunity to relax from working life and, from a government perspective, it provided the basis for ensuring that celebration and traditional pleasure culture did not interfere with work (Bowdin et al, 2006). In 1871 bank holidays were made lawful, with the days dictated by the government and the monarch. Since that time, the monarch has retained the power to proclaim additional holidays, with the approval of Parliament, as illustrated by the extra bank holidays given for the 1977 Silver Jubilee and the 2002 Golden Jubilee celebrations (Harrowven, 1980).

Rogers (2003) highlights that the origins of the UK conference industry lie in political and religious congresses, and trade and professional association conventions in America in the late nineteenth century, though recognition of an industry itself is more recent, dating from the middle to latter half of the twentieth century. Shone (1998) supports this and notes that although the emergence of the conference industry

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ignore the development that took place during the preceding thousands of years. He goes on to discuss the development of meeting places for trade, supported by the growth in appropriate facilities. These developments commenced with public halls (first century AD), churches (tenth and eleventh centuries), market towns (thirteenth century), and guildhalls (fourteenth century). In later times, inns and coffee houses (seventeenth century), assembly rooms, town halls and universities (eighteenth century) were developed. Finally, there was a growth in specialist banqueting and assembly facilities such as the Café Royal and Connaught Rooms in London, and meeting rooms within hotels (nineteenth century) (Bowdin et al., 2006).

Bowdin et al. (2006) note that some of the leading exhibitions originate from the early part of the twentieth century. For example, the Daily Mail Ideal Home Show,

launched in 1908, has adapted to reflect social and lifestyle trends.

The British government realized the value of exhibitions to the country in 1915 and held the first British Industries Fair at the Royal Agricultural Hall (now the Business Design Centre), London. The event was a great success and grew rapidly over the following years, to the stage where it ran in Earls Court, Olympia and Castle

Bromwich (Birmingham) simultaneously. However, due to the increasing demand for more specialized events from trade associations and exhibitors, the final British Industries Fair took place in 1957 (Cartwright, 1995).

Following the world wars, the promotion of popular celebration became a thriving sector of the new industrial economy (Bowdin et al., 2006). The Policy Studies Institute (PSI, 1992) notes that arts festivals have become a prominent feature in the UK since 1945, including Cheltenham (1945), the Edinburgh International Festival (1947) and the Bath Festival (1948). It adds that over 500 festivals now take place each year, plus hundreds of one-day community festivals and carnivals.

The 1951 Festival of Britain (South Bank Centre, London) celebrated the centenary of the Great Exhibition and provided a symbol for Britain’s emergence from the Second World War, yet although a success, it underlined the fact that Britain had lost its early lead in staging international exhibitions (Cartwright, 1995). As a result, in 1959 the Pollitzer Committee inquiry identified that the UK’s ability to compete in the global marketplace was being damaged by a shortage of quality exhibition space.

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Rogers (2003) notes that since the 1960s significant investment has taken place in the infrastructure to support conferences, meetings and related events.

The 1950s and 1960s were also notable for other factors that shaped events as they appear today. Firstly, the period witnessed the establishment of events to celebrate cultures of the new communities from the West Indies and South Asia, for example, the Notting Hill Carnival was established in 1964. Secondly, a festival culture

emerged - this period also saw the introduction of a number of popular music festivals, including the Bath Blues Festival (1969), the Pilton Festival (1970, now Glastonbury Festival), and the Isle of Wight Festival (1968, 1969, 1970) (Bowdin et al., 2006).

The 1970s and 1980s saw the construction of a range of multipurpose venues funded mainly by local authorities, including the National Exhibition Centre (NEC) in Birmingham (1976) and the Wembley Exhibition Centre (1977) (Exhibition Liaison Committee, 1995). Since then, the pace of development has continued, with event space developed within football stadia, multipurpose indoor arenas, additional exhibition space at the NEC and Earls Court (Greaves, 1999), plus the launch of Excel in London (2000). New developments, together with redevelopments, are continuing to take place, reflected in the BACD Investment Register (BACD, 2005).

Corporate entertainment and hospitality, or corporate events, is another area that has seen significant development, due in part to the concentrated summer social season. Peter Selby noted that corporate hospitality in the UK is believed to originate from the early 1970s, when Gus Payne erected a catering tent at the Open Golf

Championship. Other events saw this as a means of limiting their reliance on sponsors, generating revenue and keeping control of their events. Keith Prowse Hospitality, established in the mid to late 1970s, initially began selling incentive packages, however, clients asked to use the facilities for entertaining their customers as well. At this point a new industry is believed to have been born (Crofts, 2001). The 1980s saw a rapid increase in the use of spectator sports for corporate hospitality, with international sporting events such as the Open Golf Championship, Wimbledon, Royal Ascot, the British Grand Prix and rugby events at Twickenham still popular today. Roger de Pilkyngton, marketing director of Payne & Gunter, noted that the focus changed from entertaining for the sake of it, to a more strategic use of

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hospitality. The mid to late 1980s saw an expansion of teambuilding and multiactivity events (Greaves, 1996), the market growth continuing into the twenty-first century.

The Olympic Games in Los Angeles in 1984 demonstrated that large scale events could be viable, with the media mastery of Hollywood blended with sport and events and the production and marketing skills of the television industry bringing the

Olympics to a wider audience. The Games demonstrated the power of a major sporting event to bring increased profile and economic benefits (Bowdin et al., 2006). The UK enjoyed success throughout the twentieth century, hosting some of the world’s major international sporting events, including the UEFA European Football Championships (1996), the Rugby Union World Cup (1999), the Cricket World Cup (1999), the Rugby League World Cup (2000), Ryder Cup (2002), the Commonwealth Games (2002) and the World Indoor Athletics Championships (2003). Bowdin et al. (2006) note that these have become more than the actual sport – many have blurred the edges between sport, leisure, festivals and public events and become ‘festivals of sport’, encouraging community involvement and festive spirit and enhancing the image of the host community. The pursuit of major events such as these forms part of government strategy implemented through UK Sport and also pursued by regional agencies or local authorities, for example North West Development Agency and Sheffield City Council Major Events Unit and national event agencies such as Northern Ireland Events Company and EventScotland.

Festivals are attractive to local authorities as they provide visitors/tourists, encourage commercial sponsorship, present cultural experiences for residents by taking arts to a wider audience, give staff a focus and can motivate involvement from the local performing arts community (New Leisure Markets, 1995). The trend in local authority funding for arts festivals continues into the twenty-first century, with the British Arts Festivals Association discovering that, 82 per cent (of 137 festivals responding to their study) received funding in 1998/9 from local authorities, 51 per cent grants from arts councils and 42 per cent from English Regional Arts Boards (Allen and Shaw, 2001).

Across the UK, the millennium brought an unprecedented level of funding for community projects, with £100 million from the National Lottery Millennium

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2000 events across the UK (Bowdin et al., 2006). One of the largest events was the Beacon Millennium Project, where 1400 beacons were lit across the UK on 31 December 1999, providing the focus for community celebrations. Further initiatives included investment of over £1.3 billion in around 200 new buildings, environmental projects, visitor attractions, and a total of £200 million provided as 40,000 grants, or ‘Millennium Awards’ for individuals to put their ideas into action for their communities (Millennium Commission, 2000).

Major events are continuing into the 21st century. There is increasing recognition of the role that events can play beyond entertainment, linking in to cultural, arts,

regeneration, education, tourism and other strategies (Bowdin et al., 2006). A series of festivals and events have taken place during the SeaBritain Festival 2005,

coordinated by the National Maritime Museum, to celebrate the role of the sea in UK history, with the Trafalgar Weekend in October as the centrepiece (National Maritime Museum, 2005). Liverpool were successful in securing the European Capital of Culture 2008. This has prompted a series of events before, during and after 2008 and significant investment in cultural infrastructure, revitalising the city (Liverpool Culture Company, 2005a). The unsuccessful bidding cities, including Newcastle Gateshead and Bradford have capitalised on their bids to take forward cultural programmes in their cities. For example, Newcastle Gateshead Initiative have begun an ambitious programme of events, festivals and initiatives under the culture10_project (Newcastle Gateshead Initiative, 2005).

Businesses have discovered the power of events in the marketing mix, either running their own events or working with existing events, perhaps through sponsorship, for example, Microsoft and Adecco’s involvement in the 2002 Manchester

Commonwealth Games. Other companies have developed events as vehicles for marketing purposes — for example, Ben & Jerry’s ice-cream developed Sundae on the Common (August 2005). Early this decade, corporate involvement in events has become the norm, with sponsorship integral to the staging of major events.

Companies have become aware of the role that events can play in increasing their market share and promoting their image, but also have became more focused on event outcomes and return on investment.

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UK. However, a similar pattern is repeated in most post-industrial societies. The balance between more traditional festivals and contemporary corporate events changes according to the nature of the society in a given geographic area. Events also now play a significant role in businesses and are beginning to provide a viable career with employment opportunities and career paths (Bowdin et al., 2006).

2.3 Defining Events

Many authors (for example, Allen, O’Toole, McDonnell and Harris, 2005; Bowdin et al., 2006; Getz, 2005; Goldblatt, 2005; Shone and Parry 2004) have discussed the definition of events and the various terms used to describe these, however, there is only limited agreement on standardised terms, definitions or categories to use. The Accepted Practices Exchange (APEX) Industry Glossary of terms (CIC, 2003) defines an event as, ‘An organized occasion such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala dinner, etc. An event is often composed of several different yet related functions.’

In the US and elsewhere, the term ‘special events’ is more prevalent than in the UK to describe the industry, however, it is still in common use within the literature. US based Dr Joe Goldblatt (2005, p. 6), acknowledged as one of the pioneers in events literature, focuses on special events as ‘a unique moment in time, celebrated with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific needs.’ Professor Donald Getz (2005, p. 16), based in Canada and a recognised expert in the field, suggests two definitions, from the event organizer and customer/guest perspectives:

1. A special event is a one-time or infrequently occurring event outside normal programmes or activities of the sponsoring or organizing body.

2. To the customer or guest, a special event is an opportunity for a leisure, social or cultural experience outside the normal range of choices or beyond everyday experience.

Getz notes that among the attributes creating ‘specialness’ are festive spirit, uniqueness, quality, authenticity, tradition, hospitality, theme and symbolism.

Bowdin et al. (2006), drawing together UK and Australian perspectives, note that the term has been used ‘to describe specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that are consciously planned and created to mark special occasions and/or to achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives’.

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Further, drawing on a review of research and the literature, Jago and Shaw (1998, p. 28), based in Australia, express another view from a tourism context, suggesting six core attributes of special events. These were: special events should attract tourists or tourism development; be of limited duration; be one-off or infrequent occurrence; raise the awareness, image, or profile of a region; offer a social experience; and, be out of the ordinary. Summarising the definition of a special event, they note it as: ‘A one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that provides the

consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profile, image or awareness of a region’ (Jago and Shaw, 1998, p. 29).

2.3.1 Defining the Events Industry

If the above discussion outlines how an event or special event could be defined, then what activity and sectors could be included in an events industry? The draft sector workforce development plan (Questions Answered Ltd, 2001, p. 5) noted:

This sub sector (of Tourism, Travel Services and Events), is made up of Event Organisers, including companies that organise conferences, outdoor events, and those that organise incentive travel and motivational events. Venue Providers ranging from specialist exhibition and conference facilities to

agricultural sites. Exhibitors, including professional exhibition companies, and the members of staff in organisations who organise and attend events on behalf of their company. Event Suppliers, ranging from provision of sound and lights, to conference registration, and Temporary structures, such as the hire of marquees, and temporary stages.

This provides a useful starting point as it highlights some of the aspects of the

industry, however, the following section expands on this to explore the wider scope of the events industry. A picture is beginning to emerge from the literature, with the events industry slowly beginning to take shape. Public events, festivals and other forms of entertainment have gained increasing prominence over recent years due to increases in leisure time and discretionary spending. The local, city and national governments in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales have recognised their role in regeneration, economic development and the achievement of tourism, community development and other strategies (for example, Belfast City Council, 2000a, 2000b; Scottish Executive. 2002; UK Sport, 1999). Companies and businesses are increasingly using events in their marketing strategies alongside other promotional and marketing tools. Further, community groups and individuals

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are actively participating in events in order to bring entertainment to their areas or to celebrate their community. Finally, there has been a significant increase in media coverage of events through newspapers, television and radio. It is within this context that an event industry has begun to emerge in its own right (Bowdin et al., 2006).

This emergence has been supported by an expanding body of knowledge, including Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris and McDonnell (2006), Davidson and Cope (2003), Getz (2005), Goldblatt (2005) Rogers (2003), Shone and Parry (2004), Van Der Wagen and Carlos (2005) and Watt (1998). Of note in the UK context, Bowdin et al. (2006) and Shone and Parry (2004) explore the events industry, while Davidson and Cope (2003) and Rogers (2003) focus specifically on the business tourism/business events. Collectively, these books provide a useful insight of the growth, development and structure of the events industry and the trends and issues for the future.

Bowdin, et al. (2006) provide a useful breakdown of where events originate from, dividing the market into the government, corporate and community sectors:

Government sector - Governments create events for a range of reasons, including the social, cultural, tourism and economic benefits generated by events. Some government departments have an events brief as part of their delivery of services, for example, the Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Others, including ‘arms-length’ government organisations which generate events as a means to achieve other objectives – for example, VisitBritain aim to increase and extend tourist visits, the arts councils to preserve cultures and encourage tolerance and diversity, and Department for Trade and Industry (DTI) to assist industry and generate jobs. Government sector events aimed at the general public are often characterized by free entry and wide accessibility, and form part of the public culture.

Corporate sector - The corporate sector is involved in events at a number of levels. Companies and corporations may sponsor events in order to promote their goods and services in the marketplace. They may partner government departments in the presentation of events. On other occasions, companies may create their own events in order to launch new products, increase sales or enhance their corporate image. These events, although they may still be characterised by free entry, may be targeted at specific market segments rather than at the general public. Within the corporate sector there are also entrepreneurs whose business is the staging or selling of

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events. These include sports or concert promoters who present ticketed events for profit, and conference organisers/event management companies or industry associations mounting conferences or exhibitions for the trade or public. Media organizations often become partners in other people’s events, but also stage events for their own promotional purposes or to create programme content. Examples are radio stations promoting their identity through concerts, newspapers promoting fun runs, or television networks presenting New Year celebrations live to air.

Community sector - Other events emanate from the community sector, serving a wide variety of needs and interests. These may include local sporting events, fundraisers, car club meets, local arts and craft shows, the list is only limited by space.

From a US perspective, Silvers (2004) divides the events industry into what she identifies as ten genres, as illustrated in Table 1. These definitions are quite succinct and could form the basis for a definitional framework.

Table 1: Silvers’ Event Management Genre

Genre Description

Business & Corporate Events

Any event that supports business objectives, including management functions, corporate communications, training, marketing, incentives, employee relations, and customer relations, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

Cause-Related & Fundraising Events

An event created by or for a charitable or cause-related group for the purpose of attracting revenue, support, and/or awareness, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

Exhibitions,

Expositions & Fairs

An event bringing buyers and sellers and interested persons together to view and/or sell products, services, and other resources to a specific industry or the general public, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. Entertainment &

Leisure Events

A one-time or periodic, free or ticketed performance or exhibition event created for entertainment purposes, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

Festivals A cultural celebration, either secular or religious, created by and/or for the _{public, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. (Many festivals} include bringing buyer and seller together in a festive atmosphere.) Government & Civic

Events

An event comprised of or created by or for political parties, communities, or municipal or national government entities, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

Marketing Events A commerce-oriented event to facilitate bringing buyer and seller together or _{to create awareness of a commercial product or service, scheduled alone or} in conjunction with other events.

Meeting &

Convention Events

The assembly of people for the purpose of exchanging information, debate or discussion, consensus or decisions, education, and relationship building, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

Social/Life-Cycle Events

A private event, by invitation only, celebrating or commemorating a cultural, religious, communal, societal, or life-cycle occasion, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.

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However, there are other means of classifying the events industry, with some areas clearly defined sectors (such as conference industry, exhibitions industry, festivals, corporate hospitality) or categories of events. These are discussed further below.

The events industry has a range of stakeholders, including the community where the event takes place. Figure 1 illustrates some of these relationships:

Figure 1: Stakeholder Relationship in Events

Source: Bowdin (2005) adapted from Bowdin et al. (2001).

Bowdin et al. (2006) note that there has been a rapid development of an events industry, particularly over the past ten years or so, with clearly identifiable

practitioners, suppliers and professional associations. The events industry includes a number of key components, including:

1. Event organisations – Events may be hosted or staged by organisations set up for that specific purpose or by a team within an organisation.

2. Event management companies – professional groups or individuals who organise events on behalf of clients on a contract basis.

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3. Event industry suppliers or contractors – There are a wide range of specialist suppliers to the events industry, including those providing staging, light and production, through transport and security, to catering and parking.

4. Venues – Indoor and outdoor venues are required for organising many events, including hotels, conference centres, exhibition centres, show grounds.

5. Industry associations – The events industry is served by a wide range of trade and professional associations, based on organisation or individual membership. Associations have played a key role in the development of professionalism, standards and best practice within the events industry individually and

collectively, through for example Business Tourism Partnership. Examples of these associations are indicated when discussing sectors and classifications. It should be noted that although these may be indicated against a particular sector, for example, conference and meetings, in reality many associations span different industries/sectors and serve the needs of the wider industry.

The industry also draws on a wide range of employees, including a large temporary/ casual/part-time workforce particularly during the period around the events, with a number also drawing on volunteers (particularly festivals and sport events).

2.3.2 Business Events/Business Tourism

Business events include conferences, exhibitions, incentive travel and corporate events. These industries are sometimes grouped as discretionary business tourism (generally referred to as business tourism), MICE (meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions/events) or a variety of other terms. The Business Tourism

Partnership (BTP) suggests that conferences, exhibitions, incentive travel, corporate hospitality and business travel combined account for 28 per cent of overseas visitors in the UK and 29 per cent of all inbound tourism earnings. This equates to an

estimated tourism income worth £20 billion, not including business transacted at the events estimated to be worth £100 billion (BTP, 2005).

BTP (2005, p. 2) note that the principal characteristics of business tourism are that:

• it is at the high quality, high yield end of the tourism spectrum

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• it creates quality, year-round employment opportunities, accounting for some 530,000 jobs directly and indirectly

• investments in business tourism facilities lead to the regeneration of urban and inner city areas

• business tourism stimulates future inward investment as business people see the attractions of a destination while travelling on business or to attend a conference, exhibition or incentive, and then return to establish business operations there

• research suggests that approximately 40% of business travellers will return with their families or colleagues as leisure visitors to destinations they have enjoyed visiting on business.

In the UK, as discussed earlier, there is some debate as to whether business tourism should be used as the umbrella term. It is notable that within the Business Tourism Partnership’s latest document (BTP, 2005), business events is being used. The Business Tourism Partnership have developed an effective approach to lobbying, have generated a great deal of information about the industry (see, for example, Davidson, 2002; Rogers, 2003; BTP, 2005) and raised the profile of business tourism and events industry in general. One thing to note, though, as discussed earlier, is that the focus on business tourism perhaps does not fully do justice to other events industry activities, particularly on the leisure side, though it is acknowledged that the business side generates a high proportion of tourism spend. It would duplicate efforts if an ‘event tourism’ or other group was also formed, as a result, the future may see other sectors included within the BTP umbrella (as outdoor events are currently), pushed forward by their respective industry associations.

Internationally, in April 2005 the Joint Meetings Industry Council recommended adopting the term ‘The Meetings Industry’ as a unifying term at the launch of its “Profile and Power” campaign, which seeks to distinguish the activities from tourism and other industries (JMIC, 2005). However, although a number of associations operating in the UK are members, this term has not been adopted yet within the UK, with business tourism, business events or, in general, the industry names

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2.3.2.1 Conferences/Meetings

Conferences can be very diverse, as revealed by the definition of the Convention Industry Committee in the APEX Industry Glossary (CIC, 2003):

1. Participatory meeting designed for discussion, fact-finding, problem solving and consultation.

2. An event used by any organisation to meet and exchange views, convey a message, open a debate or give publicity to some area of opinion on a specific issue. No tradition, continuity or periodicity is required to convene a

conference. Although not generally limited in time, conferences are usually of short duration with specific objectives. Conferences are usually on a smaller scale than congresses.

For the British Conference Venues Survey, a more succinct definition is used, ‘an out-of-office meeting of at least four hours’ duration involving a minimum of eight people’ (Rogers, 2003b, p. 19). Conferences can be categorised according to their primary market focus, generally as corporate or national/international association. The definitions for these three sectors are presented in Table 2.

Table: 2 Conference Segments

Segment Description

Corporate or for-profit segment (Rogers, 2003b, p. 9)

encompasses all the varied purposes for which meetings, conferences and events are held by companies or corporate organisations, including the following: sales, conferences, product launches, management meetings, training courses, business presentations, Annual General meetings.

National association conference segment (Rogers, 2003b, p. 9)

includes a wide range of not-for-profit organisations whose memberships and affiliations are primarily national rather than international. Such organisations include:

professional associations and institutions, trade associations, trade unions, societies and educational bodies, as well as a plethora of voluntary bodies of which membership is more related to a hobby or interest rather than a person’s employment e.g. political parties, charities, voluntary associations, religious groups. International association congress

market (Rogers, 2003b, p. 11)

brings together members with common professional, scientific or social interests. The associations vary in size and membership, can be regional or international in scope and use meetings as one of the most important

communication methods amongst members. The associations also use their meetings as a key revenue generator to support the headquarters and fund outreach activities such as specialized research and public health campaigns as well as programmes in developing countries.

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This sector of the events industry is served by a range of trade and professional associations, including the Association of British Professional Conference Organisers (ABPCO), Association for Conferences and Events (ACE), British Association of Conference Destinations (BACD), Eventia, International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA), Meeting Industry Association (MIA), Meeting Professionals International (MPI).

2.3.2.2 Exhibitions

The exhibitions industry, or exhibitions sector of the events industry, is clearly defined and generally well understood. The Exhibition Liaison Council (1995) defined

exhibitions as:

‘…a presentation of products or services to an invited audience with the object of inducing a sale or informing the visitor. It is a form of three dimensional advertising where, in many instances, the product can be seen, handled, assessed by demonstration and in some cases even smelt and tasted.’

Exhibition Audience Audits Ltd (2005), who undertake the exhibition facts research project for the exhibitions industry, succinctly define it as ‘an event that enables buyers and sellers to meet together in a market situation’ (Exhibition Audience Audits Ltd,, 2005).Further, Rogers (2003, p. 16), on behalf of the Business Tourism

Partnership, highlights, ‘An exhibition is ‘a professionally organised event that facilitates the meeting of buyers and sellers in a cost-effective manner.’ He goes on to note that exhibitions can be further discussed according to the market that they are focusing on:

• Trade exhibitions are those exhibitions aimed primarily at those working within a particular trade sector. Visitors are usually required to establish their bona fides

• Public (or Consumer) exhibitions are primarily organised to attract the consumer and generally a charge is made for admission. These may attract a wide general public, or tightly focused small groups

• Trade/Public exhibitions are a combination of trade and public exhibitions, which are organised to attract both types of visitors, such as motor and boat shows (Rogers, 2003, p. 16).

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Morrow (2002) identifies a further category of show - one which combines trade and consumer markets, known as a combined or mixed show, for example, the British International Motor Show or the London Boat Show (Rogers, 2003). Finally, a new term to emerge over recent years is the confex – an exhibition and conference combined. These take one of two forms, either professional, scientific and medical conferences that offset their overheads from income generated by an associated trade show, or an exhibition that enhances visitor numbers by featuring linked conferences in their show (Exhibition Audience Audits Ltd, 2005).

Exhibitions include a range of stakeholders, including the organisers, venues, exhibitors, contractors and visitors, together with other related services. Figure 2 provides a useful illustration of this relationship.

Figure 2: Exhibition Stakeholders

Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers (2001), p. 22 The exhibition industry has invested significant sums of money in Exhibitions Work, a campaign promoting the benefits, and value, of exhibitions compared to other

marketing media, under the guidance of the Association of Exhibition Organisers (AEO). Research published by the Exhibition Venues Association (EVA) suggests that spend on exhibitions had reached an estimated £1.7 billion by 2003 (Exhibition Audience Audits Ltd 2004), while a recent exhibition industry economic impact study

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by KPMG, commissioned by the Association of Exhibition Organisers (AEO) and supported by the Association of Event Venues (AEV), indicated a contribution of £9.3 billion to the UK economy (Pitchfork, 2005).

This sector is served by a range of industry associations, including Association of Exhibition Contractors (AEC), Association of Exhibition Organizers (AEO),

Association of Shows and Agricultural Organisations (ASAO), British Exhibition Contractors Association (BECA), Exhibition Venues Association (EVA), National Exhibitors Association (NEA).

2.3.2.3 Incentive Travel

Another lucrative sector within the events industry is incentive travel. This is defined by the Society of Incentive Travel Executives (1998, cited in Rogers, 2003a, p. 52) as ‘a global management tool that uses an exceptional travel experience to motivate and/or recognise participants for increased levels of performance in support of organisational goals’. In a similar vein, Rogers (2003b, 20) identifies it as ‘a tool used by organisations to motivate their staff and/or external sales agents, with the objective of improving performance at both individual and corporate levels. This tool offers individuals or teams the chance to qualify for an exceptional travel experience, subject to their attaining preset goals.’ Research on the size of the incentive travel market is limited, with data quoted from 1996 (Rogers, 2003a, 2003b; BTP, 2003) indicating that the inbound incentive travel market was worth around £165 million.

This sector is served by a number of associations, including Eventia, the UK chapter of the Society of Incentive Travel Executives (SITE) together with many of the associations covered in 2.3.2.1.

2.3.2.4 Corporate Events/Corporate Hospitality

Corporate events may include incentive travel, client entertainment, staff entertainment, meetings and conferences (Rogers, 2003), which would lead to crossover with other categories. However, generally it has also been a term used interchangeably with corporate hospitality. The Corporate Event Association (CEA) (now Eventia) define corporate hospitality as ‘an event for the benefit of an

organisation entertaining clients or staff, or prospective clients at the organisation’s expense’. Corporate hospitality events include spectator sports, participating sports, arts and culture and a range of other events. Research indicates that that the sector

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was worth over £700 million in 2003 (Tambe, 2004) and could be as much as £1 billion (BTP, 2005).

This sector is served by a number of associations, including Eventia, Hotel, Catering and International Management Association (HCIMA), International Special Events Society (ISES), together with many of the associations covered in 2.3.2.1.

2.3.3 Festivals/Fairs/Cultural Events

The area of festivals, sometimes referred to within the context of cultural events or cultural tourism, is a major sector of the events industry, providing enjoyment to local communities celebrating their area through to high profile events celebrating the arts and culture. Getz (1997, p. 8) defines a festival as ‘a public themed celebration.’ Goldblatt (2005) notes that festivals provide the opportunity to celebrate culture, also while providing meaning to those attending or participating. Arts festivals share a number of characteristics, including intense artistic output, and a clear time-specific programme delivered with a clear purpose and direction (Rolfe, 1992). South East Arts (1998, p. 2) developed seven categories for festivals within their region based on the overall purpose and size. This can usefully be applied to classify festivals in other regions. These are:

1. High-profile general celebrations of the arts: these address an ambitious agenda and a multitude of aims – to reach the highest standards, to achieve a high media profile, to reach a broad audience, to generate high levels of income.

2. Festivals that celebrate a particular location: from small villages to large towns, these festivals aim to bring people together to celebrate their local area, often featuring a large number of local groups. These festivals subdivide into those run by voluntary groups and those run by local authorities. Festivals run by voluntary groups tend to be smaller.

3. Art-form festivals: focused on a specific art form, offering unique opportunities for audiences to see particular kinds of work, and may address the development of that art form by providing a focus for critical debate, master classes, commissions of new work etc.

4. Celebration of work by a community of interest: these festivals highlight work by specific groups of people, e.g. disabled people, young people or women and often

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5. Calendar: cultural or religious festivals. Indigenous traditions of large-scale assembly have largely died away in England, but the Asian and Caribbean communities have brought carnival and melas to enhance the cultural mix of festivals in the UK.

6. Amateur arts festivals: a large but low-profile sector that involves thousands of people. Many of these festivals are competitive.

7. Commercial music festivals: a hugely popular phenomenon, some local authorities also run outdoor pop music festivals that adopt a similar model. AFO (2004) noted 350 folk festivals taking place in the UK, while other studies have indicated figures from 350 to over 550 arts-related festivals. Carnivals, melas and other cultural or multicultural events would also be included within this category.

This sector is served by a number of associations, including British Art Festivals Association (BAFA), Association of Festival Organizers (AFO), British Federation of Festivals for Music, Dance and Speech (BFF), International Festival and Events Association (IFEA) Europe and National Outdoor Events Association (NOEA).

2.3.4 Community Events

Most communities produce a range of festivals and events targeted mainly at local audiences and staged primarily for their social, fun and entertainment value (Bowdin et al., 2006). These events often produce a range of benefits, including creating a sense of place, engendering pride in the community and strengthening a feeling of belonging. They can also help to expose people to new ideas and experiences, encourage participation in sports and arts activities and encourage tolerance and diversity. For these reasons, local authorities often support such events as part of their community and cultural development strategies (Bowdin et al., 2006).

Depending on the type of event, there is potential for cross-over from this category with festivals and outdoor events. In addition, as many local events are organised by community or not-for-profit groups and volunteers, or local authorities, then data is not always readily available.

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This category of events, rather than sector, is likely to be served by a number of associations, including those mentioned under festivals and outdoor events.

2.3.5 Outdoor Events

Rogers (2003, p. 25) notes that the outdoor events industry includes local authorities, show organisers, event management companies, promoters, venue owners,

suppliers of equipment and services, entertainment agencies, consultants and practitioners in general. He notes that outdoor events range from major music festivals, agricultural shows, sporting and charity events through to small village and craft events. As a result, there is some crossover with other segments identified above, for example, local community events, sports and festivals. Within the context of the Guide to industry best practice for organizing outdoor events (BSI, 2004), event is defined as an, ‘organized gathering of persons outdoors and/or within a temporary structure, not including purpose designed event venues.’

This sector is served by a number of associations, including the National Outdoor Events Association (NOEA), Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management (ILAM), The Event Services Association (TESA) and other associations discussed elsewhere.

2.3.6 Entertainment/Live Music Events/Concerts/Theatre/Shows

This category comprises theatre visits, attendance at concerts (particularly pop and rock concerts), admissions to annual pantomimes and school shows. Research suggests that this market could be worth in the region of £1.25 billion in 2003,

including concerts and live shows worth around £500 million and approximately £400 million (Fenn, 2004).

This sector is served by a number of associations, including Concert Promoters Association (CPA), Production Services Association (PSA), Professional Light and Sound Association (PLASA), United Kingdom Crowd Management Association (UKCMA).

Identifying and analysing existing research undertaken in the events industry: a literature review for People1st