Urban Places
Context
“cities are the abyss of the human species”
Urbanisation is the most important geographical process shaping the earths cultural geography. The shift from rural-based lifestyles to those based in towns and cities is the most signifcant terrestrial event in human history. More than half the world’s population now lives in urban places. The shift will continue for the foreseeable future. As a result, the world’s economic, social, cultural and political processes are increasingly played out within and between the worlds system of towns and cities. This trend now appears irreversible due to the global shift to technological, industrial and serviced based economies. Urban geography is concerned with the development of towns and cities, with particular reference to the similarities and differences both among and within places.
World Cities
the nature, character and spatial distribution of world cities
A ‘world city’ is defned as a large city that has outstripped its national urban network and become a part of an international global system; a center of world trade and communications; a leader in banking and fnance; a host of entertainment and sporting spectacles; a headquarters of nongovernmental agencies and a major tourist destination. World cities are the command and control centers in the borderless domain of the global economy. New York, London, Tokyo and Paris are examples of world cities.
Painted Favelas, Brazil for the 2016 Rio Olympics
- Not necessarily the world’s biggest cities but the most economically cultural and infuential in the increasingly integrated global economy
- Control the fow of information, cultural products and fnance. - Sustain economic and cultural integration of the world.
- Transnational corporations = large corporations that can operate in as many as 50-60 counties. These fund the global economy and are one of the main causes for globalistion.
- Rich in human capital (skills, knowledge and experience held by individuals)
- High art, culture, fne restaurants and nightlife help attract and retain workers
- Attract tourists and migrants, increasing diversity
- Trade used to be the principal for world cities, but now is largely infuenced by factors of globalistion.
- The age of colonialism and imperialism combined with the industrial revolution, ushered in a new era of ‘world city’ authority.
- Business activity: This relates the strength of the economy and the amount of wealth a city has
- Human Capital: This refers to the knowledge and skills that the population of the city/economy. For example, London has high human capital as they have top universities such as Oxford. - Information exchange: This is the amount of information that is
shared between world cities. This can also be expressed through online presence and access to world news.
- Cultural experience: This is the ways cities engage in art and culture.
- Political engagement
World cities are located in more economically developed countries. They are mostly found in the northern hemisphere.
the role of world cities as powerful centres of economic and cultural authority
Economic authority: World Cities are able to control and command the global economy. They are the preferred location for corporate businesses and serve as headquarters for transnational corporations. Cultural Authority: World Cities are also able to provide, control and lead their nation and the world through cultural dominance. They host global sporting and political events.
the operation of global networks
Global networks operate through the infrastructure of world cities, and the connections between them and other parts of the world.
- These networks facilitate the fow of; capital, information, goods, services, culture
the relationships of dominance and dependence between world cities and other urban centres and the changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.
Urban centre: An Urban centre is defned as a largely populated high-density area. These areas are usually made up of several suburbs. An example of this is Canberra which is a city, but not a world city. World cities and other urban centres are both dominant forces that are dependent on one another. We can see these relationships operating at global, regional and national scales.
World Cities Urban Centres Dominant
in; - Business activity - innovation - strategic decision making - technological advancement - human capital - information exchange - political engagement - transport - production and distribution
- small scale decision making - national or political control - transmitting and receiving cultural infuence
- accumulating local and national resources - production and distribution of goods and services Dependan t on other cities for;
- goods and services - regional links via the
global network - fow of capital - capital support - information - connection to global network
EG; Canberra is dominant over the world cities of Sydney and Melbourne as a controls national decision making in Australia. However, Sydney is dominant over other urban centres in New South Wales as it provides more access to tertiary education through high number of University in TAFE campuses in the area.
Regional centres and small towns: The changing world of regional centres and the demise of small towns are inherently linked. As regional centres get larger small towns of demising. Regional centres playing important role as they; release the pressures of overpopulation in big cities, have the capacity to grow faster, have potential in terms of exporting goods and services. Some examples of regional centres in New South Wales include wagga wagga, Dubbo, Orange and Grafton. These regional centres are becoming larger due to their pull factors. (healthcare, education)
- push factors which cause people to relocate for education, work or healthcare
- More people moving away from the area leading to remain businesses making less proft as there is reduced demand for goods and services
- business is becoming less economically viable and moving to regional centres where there is more demand
- an increasing lack of access to goods and services for towns adding to existing push factors and leading to a gradual population decline.
Mega Cities
the nature, character and spatial distribution of mega cities in the developing world
Nature: Mega cities are cities with over 10 million inhabitants. They are a result of high urbanisation.
Character: Often have lack of governance and poor infrastructure. This may result in
- lack of housing
- lack of power and water supply - poor trafc and infrastructure - employment issues
- social health issues
Spatial distribution: Most megacities are located in the developing world, meaning less economically developed. They are located in areas with high population grow, low income, and low education (Asia). This males these cities dependant on more economically developed countries.
the challenges of living in mega cities such as housing, traffic infrastructure, water and power supplies, sanitation services, employment, and other social and health issues
Housing:
- poor/unsafe materials - illegally developed
- low to no goods and services as slums are not recognised as residential areas. Contributed to problems with water and power supply.
- In Mumbai , 41% of houses are slums - No sanitation in slums
- Water borne diseases are worse where there is a lack of sanitation.
- 500 children in India die each day from diarrhea from water borne diseases.
- Slum conditions are signifcantly worse than other parts of the cities with exposed and broken pipes.
- Lack of fnance and infrastructure. Water and Power supply:
- No legal right to land in slums make access to clean water and power difcult
- Water is often polluted by sewerage
- Inhabitants pay 4x the price for power supply’s and spend up to 20% of their income on clean water
Trafc infrastructure:
- High population = more people need transport - Congestion is a result of poor infrastructure
- In Sao Paulo, poor infrastructure has led to the point that it takes 2 hours to drive 17 km
- High trafc causes pollution. According to a study commissioned by the Institute of Health and Sustainability, 4,655 people died as a result of air pollution in São Paulo in 2011.
Sanitation services:
- Waste often piles up on streets, and clogs up gutters. - Sewerage is pumped into waterways
- In Lagos, less than half the daily waste is collected by the government
Employment:
- Inability to fnd regular work leads to high poverty rates
- People may work for the informal economy that do not pay taxes to contribute to the economy, leading to limited government revenue.
- In 2010 a labour force survey in Dhaka revealed that 87% of employed people were working for the informal economy.
the responses to these challenges such as self-help projects, community self-government, cooperation from NGOs, urban protest and the operations of informal economies.
- Self-help projects: These solutions involve the empowerment of communities to fx their problems which affect them and improve their living standards. These are usually government sponsored.
- Community self government: involves citizens taking control of their own affairs, in creating solutions that are free from external government control and authority.
- Cooperation from NGOs: NGO means nongovernment organisation. They help solve the challenges of a megacity by providing assistance, money and resources. These are generally based in wealthier countries.
- Urban protest: this is simply people in urban areas protesting for change
- Operation of informal economies: this refers to the creation of employment opportunities that are outside government control, regulation, taxation and observation.
- Government intervention: government providing solutions through aid.
Specifc responses:
Challeng
e Location Solution ResponseType Employ
ment Lagos People sell goods and services to stationary trafc Informal economy
Sanitati
on Lagos We Cyclers use bicycles to collect recyclables and use a point system to reward households for recyclable materials.
Self-Help
Transpor
t Mumbai Frequency and capacity of trains were increased Government Intervention
Sanitati
on Manila The UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) water, sanitation and hygiene program works to increase number of households with toilets and to eliminate the practice of open defecation.
Cooperation from NGO
Water Mexico
City Some residents harvest and flter rainwater, which is then recycled in their own homes
Self-help
Water Mexico
City Trucks deliver water, but this isn’t effective as it can take a month to get to city edges
Governmen t
Intervention
Traffic
pollution PauloSao People protesting about the way the Government is spending the money
however the problems remain and/or create new problems. This led to the government implementing the use of ethanol for cleaner burning which is more convenient for the environment. Urban Protest/ Governmen t Intervention . Water /
Housing PauloSao Mananciais Program supported by the World Bank restores water sources, parks and banks, works to upgrade housing. This is achieved by removing favelas and restoring vegetation to the banks of the reservoirs. The overall water quality improves and this allows for a greater access to potable water for city wide residents. This in conjunction with water fltration will improve health in the city and lower rates of disease. (removing sources of pollution helps housing a water) Governmen t Intervention / NGO (world bank)
Urban Dynamics
the urban dynamics of change: suburbanisation, exurbanisation, counterurbanisation, decentralisation, consolidation, urban decay, urban renewal, urban village, spatial exclusion
- Suburbanisation: The movement of people, employment and facilities away from the inner city towards outer urban areas.
- Exurbanisation: A process whereby people, usually those who are quite afuent, move away from the city to rural areas but continue to maintain an urban way of life either through long distance commuting or technology.
- Counterurbanisation: The process of moving from the city to rural remote areas. This is due to a one of a complete lifestyles change also known as sea change (moving close to beaches) or tree change (moving to bushy forest areas). this results in a decline in urbanisation rates and growth in rural areas and regional centres.
- Decentralisation: This is the process of goods and services being distributed from large up incentives to smaller ones. Infrastructure and services move away from the CBD as the land outside the city is larger and cheaper.
- Consolidation: This is the process of increasing population density within a city. As populations increase the need for consolidation to house more people within the city also increases, reducing urban sprawl. This includes large infrastructures being built such as apartment complexes.
- Urban Decay: this is the deterioration of built-up environments as buildings become abandoned and are left with little to no maintenance for long periods of time. This is usually a result of businesses moving out of areas or the original land use becoming redundant.
- Urban Renewal: This process entails redeveloping areas of urban decay and re purposing the existing land and infrastructure, resulting in a better use of space.
- Urban village: This is the creation of distinct communities surrounding a particular culture. they form as result of multiculturalism and migration, causing clusters of people that share similar culture.
- Spatial exclusion: This involves the protection of luxury lifestyles and a class divide between rich and poor. This dynamic operates through the mechanisms of gated communities, old Estates and high security suburbs. They generally result of an unrealistic fear of crime.
(Sydney) a case study of the results of the urban dynamics in a large city selected from the developed world including its;
- social structure and spatial patterns of advantage and disadvantage, wealth and poverty, ethnicity – changing economic character, nature and location of
residential land, commercial and industrial development
Social structure, wealth, poverty, disadvantage and advantage:
- These components are inherently linked together. The more
advantaged you are, the more wealth you have and the higher your socio-economic status.
- In Sydney, the eastern and northern suburbs are generally
more advantaged and have greater access to education and occupation.
- According to the ABS, the most educated and wealthy
suburbs are Lane Cove, North Sydney and Mossman.
- Meanwhile, the least advantaged include Mount Druitt and
Auburn.
- The main reasons for their spatial patterns are
suburbanisation, urban decay and urban renewal. Ethnicity:
- Australia has pursued an active migration system over the
last 50 years since post World War 2
- Most clusters of migrants are around train lines as they do
not have their own cars when they arrive in Australia
- Spatial clustering of migrants provides a number of
advantages, such as; sheltering with family and friends, security and transport, a common language and customs, and assistance in fnding employment.
Changing economic character:
- During the 1980s, there were many signifcant changes
(advancements) to transport, development of advanced information technology, deregulation of fnancial systems, greater encouragement for international trade.
- 17% of employed people in Sydney work in Finance and
business
Nature and location of residential land:
- The nature, location and character of residential land has
changed over the years due to several urban dynamics;
1. Suburbanisation and decentralisation: Cheaper land and housing in the suburbs leads people to move away from the city.
2. Exurbanisation: People continue to move away from the city
3. Urban renewal and consolidation: Old buildings are transformed and renovated into new spaces that increase the population density in the city. This causes people to
move back to the city to be closer to work and the physical geography of the harbour and beaches.
4. Gentrifcation
Commercial and industrial development:
- Industrial = production and transport of goods
- Commercial = selling or providing goods and services
- There has been a suburbanisation of commercial activities
such as shopping, which cater for the suburban population. This has led to the CBD that is more related to; global and national businesses, tourism, high quality shopping.
- Post WW2, Sydney grew as an industrial city.
- culture of place as expressed in the architecture, streetscape, heritage architecture, noise, colour, street life, energy, vitality and lifestyles (CLASS HEN) Culture of Place: Culture phase refers to the overall vibe that an area gives off, making it a subjective element to place that can be described through a variety of factors. It is not just based off sight, but all the senses such as smell and noise. These factors consist of both static and dynamic elements, with static ones often being the result of urban planning, while dynamic ones frequently changed and stimulate the senses.
- Architecture: this can either be heritage or contemporary.
the materials used in buildings can either complement or contrast the surrounding area. For example, Sydney sandstone is used in circular Quay and surrounding areas to incorporate the history in the geography of the area into the identity of Sydney. Meanwhile call more contemporary buildings are also present as seen in the Sydney Opera House.
- Streetscape: The streetscape of an area is the general layout
of the place. This takes into account the architecture and how it works with other infrastructure in the area, such as transport infrastructure. For example, circular Quay has wide open walkways along the water's edge allowing for large volumes of foot trafc. There are also lots of transport modes for connexion to ferries, buses, trains, ships and the light rail allowing for easy access to and from the area. there are also lots of high rise buildings that facilitate the area's usage for tourists, recreational activities and businesses.
Dynamic elements:
- Noise: the noises in an area can fuctuate throughout the day
and is infuenced by the activities that take place in the area. Circular Quay during the day can be quite loud with the
sound of people walking and talking along with transport and music performances by buskers.
- Colour: the colours used in an area can change throughout
the days, months and years. They can compliment the environment, be based on dominant cultural backgrounds, or use the space and architectural trends. Codes can also change throughout the year due to events and Holidays. Speech areas tend to use colours such as blue and yellow surf clubs are an example of this. Circular Quay is an area where the colours change throughout the year during events one example of this is late May to early June during the vivid light festival.
- Street life: this is the types of activity that take place in an
area and can also change over the course of days, months and years. this is also impacted by special events. Most areas will experience human increased activity in the morning lunchtime and evening. This can be seen in circular Quay where there's many recreational activities such as eating out at restaurants and attending performances. this also includes commercial activities such as people going to work or visiting shops.
- Energy and vitality: this is how lively the atmosphere is, and
is generally the result of all the elements working together to create a consistent and attractive culture of place. Circular Quay has a high level of energy there many people using the space to commute to various recreational and commercial activities.
- Lifestyles: places can alter for different lifestyles through the
combination of the other elements. there are many types of lifestyles at place could create such as recreational, commercial, relaxed, busy, wealthy or quiet.
- growth, development, future trends and ecological sustainability
Growth:
- Sydney's population is growing at a rapid rate, With most
growth expected to happen in western Sydney. The increasing population has led housing demand to exceed supply, raising the median house price and increasing consolidation projects across the city. Economic growth is also expected to increase over the coming years as new jobs are created to sustain the growing population. Due to the population growth Sydney is experiencing the 2014 A Plan
for Growing Sydney outlines the actions that the government plans to take in order to handle this growth.
Development:
- Much of the solution to the growing population is to build
new infrastructure and develop areas of the city to house more people and support more jobs. Through consolidation, suburbanisation, and renewal, more residential and commercial land can be developed. in A Plan for Growing Sydney all four goals work towards the development of the area and consists of different urban dynamics. There are 4 goals;
1. A competitive economy with world class services and transport: this includes decentralisation, renewal and consolidation. this includes initiatives such as developing paramatta as a second CBD, creating more urban centres in the suburbs and growing existing ones such as Penrith and Liverpool.
2. City with housing choice that meet needs and lifestyles: this includes suburbanisation, renewal and consolidation. This includes increasing housing supplied by developing suburbs and extending areas on the urban periphery. jobs will also be created to give people easy access to employment
3. a great place to live with communities that are strong , healthy and well connected: this includes urban village, renewal and consolidation. This involves creating communal spaces that foster connexion within communities and growing arts and cultural opportunities 4. a sustainable and resilient city that protects a natural
environment and has a balanced approach to the use of land and resources: this goal aims to protect the natural environment, create resilience to natural hazards, and manage human impacts on the environment. This will be done through the establishment of green corridors and providing communities with the tools needed to respond to natural disasters.
Future trends:
- the main future trend of Sydney is one of population and
economic growth, with a focus on Parramatta in western Sydney. Sydney is also working on becoming a more cultural and sustainable city.
- ensuring ecological sustainability involves reducing the cities
ecological footprint through the minimisation of energy and water use, and more efcient pollution management. Sydney also has many national parks including eight World Heritage sites and it is important to protect these areas. To work towards ecological sustainability, governments conduct environmental impact assessments and environmental action plans.
(Barangaroo, Piermont, Millers Point) a case study showing one of the urban dynamics listed above, operating in a country town or suburb.
Introduction: The urban dynamics in Sydney have been changing rapidly throughout the past few years. These changes have been prevalent in the north of Sydney, in areas such as Barangaroo and Millers Point. These areas have gone through processes of; urban renewal, urban village, urban consolidation, and gentrifcation. These urban dynamics have occurred to renew these areas of Sydney to cater for the growing population and economy.
Location: Barangaroo and Millers Point are historic harborside suburbs in Sydney, NSW. Barangaroo is one of the major business districts located inner city Sydney, just 1km north-west from Sydney’s CBD. This 22-hectare area includes multiple international towers, which house some of the most infuential businesses in Australia. Just a 5-minute walk from Barangaroo, Millers Point is Sydney’s most historic suburbs, full of many of Sydney’s original hotels and pubs.
Historical context: In the 1800s this area was used as a port for ships, maritime and industrial activities became a key characteristic of this area. The allowed the city’s economy to fourish, attracting high levels of employment, economic growth and merchants. Barangaroo and Millers Point grew extensively, becoming the heart of Sydney. The wealthy developed their homes and businesses associated with leisure, one of these being the Palisade hotel. The growth of Barangaroo and Millers Point became stagnant throughout the worlds wars the early 1980s recession. The once booming area became unused, thus resulting in the urban decay of the Barangaroo and Millers Point area, with the port Sydney was once dependent of ofcially closing in 2003. With this, began an 8-billion-dollar project to restore the area to a ‘vast parkland, new entertainment and cultural precinct and an extension of the city’s fnancial district’. Plans were announced in 2014 to relocated approximately 465 public housing occupants across Barangaroo, Millers Point and The Rocks. These
residents fought to protect their homes but were unsuccessful. The urban consolidation project has been described as ‘Sydney’s most ambition project’, with plans to redevelop these 22 hectares of land to accommodate 2,000 residents in elite level housing, and 23,000 in the 3 new major ITS buildings. This redevelopment project will include urban dynamics of Urban Renewal, Urban Consolidation and Urban Villages.
Urban Decay: The term ‘urban decay’ refers to the sociological process by which a previously functioning area falls into disrepair, becomes invaluable or is no longer livable. This process occurred throughout Barangaroo and Millers Point as the previous use of this area as a port. Became unnecessary and the developments of Newcastle and Port Kembla decreased the usage and economic expansion of the worn-out Barangaroo. This had a signifcant impact on the economic health of Sydney as this large area was no longer producing economic growth, as many buildings were no longer practical for what 21st century businesses demanded. The empty
buildings and decayed housing motivated plans to ensure this area of the city returns to the thriving center of trade and business that it once was. There were many houses left to decay after the extensive economic decline of Barangaroo. Along with the economic impacts of this urban decay, there have been many social implications. One of these social implications includes the forced removal of previous public housing tenants across Barangaroo, The Rocks and Millers Point. This had a negative impact of the social dynamics of this area as a whole community was forced to move to new suburbs, thus interrupting the way of everyday life in these suburbs and turning them into shells of empty housing.
Urban Renewal: Urban renewal refers to the process by which old and decayed buildings are renewed and rehabilitated. This can take form in the processes of demolishing buildings, renovating, or construction of new housing or entertainment venues. Since the early 2000s, all of the above have begun or have been achieved in the Barangaroo – Millers Point area. Public housing was sold to private buyers to renew the decayed buildings, specifcally housing, ensuring aesthetic appeal and economic growth in Barangaroo. Along with the developments of private investors, the area that was once a port for shipping underwent new construction of high-class apartment complexes. This will ensure that Barangaroo’s process of gentrifcation will be a success, meaning a large amount of people will be able to purchase real estate in Barangaroo, thus achieving the goal of 2,000 occupants living in this area. To purchase this new real estate in Barangaroo,
one will not be paying under 1 million dollars for an averagely sized apartment. This reveals that the process of urban renewal in Barangaroo is not to improve the area for previous occupants, but to develop and business and leisure precinct for the afuent. This means that people of middle-class income will be excluded from living in Barangaroo, thus narrowing the suburbs margins of what social classes can occupy this area. Although the high socio-economic nature of the economy will ensure positive economic growth, the scope of diversity will be lowered, negatively impacting the social structure of this area.
Urban Consolidation: Urban consolidation is the process by which there is diverse planning utilised to improve the use of existing areas by encouraging development within pre-existing urban areas, thus limiting urban sprawl. This form of development is being used in Barangaroo to ensure the amount of new infrastructure is limited, and the area can undergo the process of consolidation to allow for high density living. Higher density living can have positive economic, environment and social impacts as people are encouraged to live in close proximity, thus lowering the community’s environmental impacts. Urban consolidation will allow for new developments to occur in Barangaroo where buildings previously stood, lowering the economic impacts of this infrastructure. The use of the old port for housing and leisure activities is a primary example of Barangaroo is using previous infrastructure to improve and develop the area and surrounding suburbs. There is construction new; hotels, housing, businesses and parkland, highlighting the process of urban consolidation in Barangaroo. This combination of parklands, ofces, leisure, and housing can be defned as an ‘urban village’. Urban villages are already a common characteristic of Sydney, with areas such as The Rocks ftting these criteria. The Rocks is a suburb just outside of Millers Point, made up of historic laneways. Much like Barangaroo, this suburb has undergone a range of urban dynamics in the past years in order to restore its culture and beauty. The Rocks includes a diverse range of famous buildings such as; The Museum of Contemporary Art, The Fortune of War pub, Playfair Street, which is comprised of cafés and retailers, and a wide range of housing, including the historic Cadmans Cottage. This shows that urban villages are essential when aiming to achieve urban consolidation as they allow for many activities to occur in a small amount of space.
