FINAL PROJECT
FINAL PROJECT
A study on concepts, techniques, provisions and
A study on concepts, techniques, provisions and life
life
Submitted to: Dr. S.P.Singh
Submitted to: Dr. S.P.Singh
Submitted by: Inzmamul Haque
Submitted by: Inzmamul Haque
Student, 1
Student, 1
ststyear, 2
year, 2
ndndsemester, Roll-933
semester, Roll-933
Chanakya National Law University
Chanakya National Law University
Indian
Table Of Contents
Table Of Contents
Chapter
Chapter
Page
Page No
No
1.
1. Introduction---
Introduction---a)
a) Objective ---
Objective
--- b)
b) Research methodology---
Research
methodology---2.
2. Foreign policy---
Foreign
policy---3.
3. Factors of
Factors of Foreign Policy---
Foreign Policy---
---4.
4. Indian foreign policy ---
Indian foreign policy
---5.
5. Indian Foreign Policy from 1972
Indian Foreign Policy from 1972-1991---
-1991---
--6.
6.
Conclusion ---
Conclusion
---Bibliography
---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am feeling highly elated to work on the topic “
I am feeling highly elated to work on the topic “Indian Foreign Policy from 1972-Indian Foreign Policy from 1972-1991
1991” under the guidance of my” under the guidance of my political science teacher political science teacher Dr. S P SinghDr. S P Singh. I am very. I am very grateful
grateful to to her her for for his his exemplary exemplary guidance. guidance. I I would would like like to to enlighten enlighten my my readersreaders regarding this topic
regarding this topic and I hope and I hope I have I have tried my best tried my best to pave the to pave the way for bringingway for bringing more luminosity to this topic.
more luminosity to this topic.
I also want to thank all of my friends, without whose cooperation this project was I also want to thank all of my friends, without whose cooperation this project was not
not possible. Apart from possible. Apart from all these, all these, I want to I want to give special thanks give special thanks to the lto the librarian ofibrarian of my
my university who made every relevant university who made every relevant materials regarding to my topic available tomaterials regarding to my topic available to me at
me at the time of my busy reseathe time of my busy research work and gave me assirch work and gave me assistance. And at last stance. And at last I amI am very much obliged to the God who provided me the potential for the rigorous
very much obliged to the God who provided me the potential for the rigorous research work.
research work.
At finally yet importantly I would like to thank my parents for the financial support. At finally yet importantly I would like to thank my parents for the financial support.
---Thanking You ---Thanking You
Introduction
Introduction
Every sovereign country has its foreign policy. India too has one. Foreign policy refers to Every sovereign country has its foreign policy. India too has one. Foreign policy refers to the sum total of principles, interests and objectives which a country promotes while
the sum total of principles, interests and objectives which a country promotes while interacting with other countries. Even though there are certain basic features of a foreign interacting with other countries. Even though there are certain basic features of a foreign policy it is not a fixed concept. Th
policy it is not a fixed concept. The thrust of foreign policy keeps on changing e thrust of foreign policy keeps on changing accordingaccording to changing international conditions. India‟s foreign policy is shaped by several factors to changing international conditions. India‟s foreign policy is shaped by several factors including its history, culture, geography and economy. Our Prime Minister, Jawaharlal including its history, culture, geography and economy. Our Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, gave a definite shape to the co
Nehru, gave a definite shape to the country‟s foreign policy. Preservation of nationaluntry‟s foreign policy. Preservation of national interest, achievement of world peace, disarmament, i
interest, achievement of world peace, disarmament, independence for Afro-Asian nationsndependence for Afro-Asian nations has been important objectives of India‟s foreign policy. These objectives are sought to be has been important objectives of India‟s foreign policy. These objectives are sought to be achieved through some principles viz. Panchsheel; nonalignment; colonialism, achieved through some principles viz. Panchsheel; nonalignment; colonialism, anti-imperialism, anti-racism, and strengthening the UN. It would be befitting to expand these imperialism, anti-racism, and strengthening the UN. It would be befitting to expand these principles.
principles.““The end of cold war in 1989 has brought about significant changes in theThe end of cold war in 1989 has brought about significant changes in the
international scene and hence new policy problems for the various states
international scene and hence new policy problems for the various states in thein the
developing world including India. The new situation is made by greater uncertainty and developing world including India. The new situation is made by greater uncertainty and complexity. For India, disintegration of the Soviet Union has meant uncertainty on complexity. For India, disintegration of the Soviet Union has meant uncertainty on several aspects viz. supply of weapons system, supply of spare par
several aspects viz. supply of weapons system, supply of spare par ts, diplomatic supportts, diplomatic support on Kashmir and other politico-strategic issues in and outside the United Nations and as a on Kashmir and other politico-strategic issues in and outside the United Nations and as a counter weight to US in South Asia.
counter weight to US in South Asia.””11 During the last one decade and a half inter During the last one decade and a half internationalnational politics has undergone major changes. The co
politics has undergone major changes. The cold war has ended, the world has becomeld war has ended, the world has become unipolar, a number of states have disintegrated, and cold war mil
unipolar, a number of states have disintegrated, and cold war mil itary blocs have lost theiritary blocs have lost their significance, some such blocs have dissolved and new regional economic blocs are
significance, some such blocs have dissolved and new regional economic blocs are
shaping up. Globalisation has given rise to new set of problems such as terrorism, money shaping up. Globalisation has given rise to new set of problems such as terrorism, money laundering, proliferation of weapons, global warming etc. These problems are not
laundering, proliferation of weapons, global warming etc. These problems are not endemic to any region but affect all the countries to some extent or the other. This has endemic to any region but affect all the countries to some extent or the other. This has forced many nation states which were hitherto enemies to cooperate with each other to forced many nation states which were hitherto enemies to cooperate with each other to solve problems which are universal in nature. In this c
solve problems which are universal in nature. In this c hanged international scenario it hashanged international scenario it has become imperative for UN to restructure and reform itself if it is to effectively respond to become imperative for UN to restructure and reform itself if it is to effectively respond to
emerging challenges. Militancy in Kashmir has emerged as the
emerging challenges. Militancy in Kashmir has emerged as the foremost challenge to ourforemost challenge to our foreign policy. Pakistan and the Western countries blamed India for violating human foreign policy. Pakistan and the Western countries blamed India for violating human rights and denial of rights to self determinati
rights and denial of rights to self determination. Gradually, India brought the situationon. Gradually, India brought the situation
11
Foreign policy,
Foreign policy, http://download.nos.org/srsec317newE/317EL26.pdf http://download.nos.org/srsec317newE/317EL26.pdf ,, last accessed on 24-04-2014 at 01:41 last accessed on 24-04-2014 at 01:41 IST
under control.
under control. Because of the Kashmir dispute, India‟s relations witBecause of the Kashmir dispute, India‟s relations with Pakistan sharplyh Pakistan sharply deteriorated. India accused Pakistan of fanning trouble through cross border terrorism in deteriorated. India accused Pakistan of fanning trouble through cross border terrorism in Kashmir and other parts of our country. India conducted nuclear weapon tests
Kashmir and other parts of our country. India conducted nuclear weapon tests in 1998,in 1998, followed by Pakistan‟s
followed by Pakistan‟s tests. Pakistan resorted to further mischief by secretly sending its tests. Pakistan resorted to further mischief by secretly sending its soldiers into Kargil in order to cut off the Kashmi
soldiers into Kargil in order to cut off the Kashmir valley from the rest of Ir valley from the rest of India. Indiandia. India handled the challenge firmly and effectively. Now engaging Pakistan in a constructive handled the challenge firmly and effectively. Now engaging Pakistan in a constructive and composite dialogue
and composite dialogue process remains a challenge to India‟s foreign policy, because process remains a challenge to India‟s foreign policy, because there is a great deal of push from the United States Spread of terrorism to corners beyond there is a great deal of push from the United States Spread of terrorism to corners beyond Kashmir is a challenge as well
Kashmir is a challenge as well as opportunity for our foreign policy now a day. India isas opportunity for our foreign policy now a day. India is interested in forging anti-terrorism coalition with as many countries as possible. Keeping interested in forging anti-terrorism coalition with as many countries as possible. Keeping old friendship and looking for new friendships is another challenge for our foreign policy old friendship and looking for new friendships is another challenge for our foreign policy after the cold war has ended. For example, India is
after the cold war has ended. For example, India is interested in strengthening its relationsinterested in strengthening its relations without damaging its relations with Arab countries. Similarly,
without damaging its relations with Arab countries. Similarly, India‟s foreign policy isIndia‟s foreign policy is tackling new tasks like deepening economic and security cooperation with the
tackling new tasks like deepening economic and security cooperation with the UnitedUnited States, while at the same
States, while at the same time opposing unilateral actions against Iraq and Yugoslavia.time opposing unilateral actions against Iraq and Yugoslavia. Finally, India is realizing the growing importance of economic aspects of f
Finally, India is realizing the growing importance of economic aspects of f oreign policy.oreign policy. Hence, it is trying to establish a new basis for its relations with neighbouring countries in Hence, it is trying to establish a new basis for its relations with neighbouring countries in South Asia, China and the South East Asian counties.
South Asia, China and the South East Asian counties. In the initial period of In the initial period of planningplanning India has adopted restrictive trade and import substit
India has adopted restrictive trade and import substit ution policy till 1970s during thisution policy till 1970s during this period public sector has assigned a major role to play in econom
period public sector has assigned a major role to play in economic development of theic development of the country, on the other hand private sector play its role with regulation However, at the end country, on the other hand private sector play its role with regulation However, at the end of 1970s and beginning of 1980s India has changed its foreign trade policy from
of 1970s and beginning of 1980s India has changed its foreign trade policy from restrictive trade to liberal
restrictive trade to liberal trade policy During 1980s and 1990s the drastic changes havetrade policy During 1980s and 1990s the drastic changes have been took place in the economies of the wo
been took place in the economies of the world. Economic power centres in the world haverld. Economic power centres in the world have shifted over the years and the Engine of growth has also altered, th
shifted over the years and the Engine of growth has also altered, th e late 1980s and earlye late 1980s and early 1990s have seen a new wave towards globalisation of finance and greate
1990s have seen a new wave towards globalisation of finance and greate r integration ofr integration of production throug
production through trade under different political conditions including trade policies inh trade under different political conditions including trade policies in order to share the benefits of
order to share the benefits of globalisation. Since planning period India‟s foreignglobalisation. Since planning period India‟s foreign trade trade has passed through the above mentioned foreign trade policies which has impacted on the has passed through the above mentioned foreign trade policies which has impacted on the volume of imports, exports, trade balance etc.
volume of imports, exports, trade balance etc. ““Sixty years ago, at the dawn ofSixty years ago, at the dawn of independence, modern India‟s first Prime Minister
independence, modern India‟s first Prime Minister and Foreign Minister and Foreign Minister acknowledgedacknowledged the importance of domestic forces in the shaping of a
the importance of domestic forces in the shaping of a country‟scountry‟s security environment andsecurity environment and foreign policy. This chapter confronts a paradox: India is raven with internal
challenge state legitimacy, and levels of routine vi
challenge state legitimacy, and levels of routine violence, often politically manipulated,olence, often politically manipulated, that astound foreign observers. These sources of insecurit
that astound foreign observers. These sources of insecurit y sometimes flow across itsy sometimes flow across its international borders, in both directions
international borders, in both directions.”.”22 And yet, India presents to the world, altogether And yet, India presents to the world, altogether credibly, the face of a rising economic and geostrat
credibly, the face of a rising economic and geostrategic power. It is today, well intoegic power. It is today, well into India‟s seventh decade, hard to que
India‟s seventh decade, hard to question its overall national cohesion as an internationalstion its overall national cohesion as an international actor.
actor. Indeed, its pluIndeed, its pluralism, diversity, demoralism, diversity, democratic practices (however chaotic at cratic practices (however chaotic at times),times), and multicultural make-up are all seen internationall
and multicultural make-up are all seen internationall y globally as elements of strengthy globally as elements of strength rather than weakness, as proof of resili
rather than weakness, as proof of resilience rather than fragility. But viewed through aence rather than fragility. But viewed through a regional lens, the permeability of India‟s borders with several
regional lens, the permeability of India‟s borders with several of its immediate neighboursof its immediate neighbours combined with India‟s constitutionally guaranteed freedoms and the free flow of potential combined with India‟s constitutionally guaranteed freedoms and the free flow of potential security threats of various sorts acr
security threats of various sorts across these boundaries continues to preoccupy Indianoss these boundaries continues to preoccupy Indian policy-makers. Regional insecurities are exacerbated to a great extent by the persistence policy-makers. Regional insecurities are exacerbated to a great extent by the persistence
of domestic challenges to India‟s national securit
of domestic challenges to India‟s national security and foreign policy.y and foreign policy. India‟s domeIndia‟s domesticstic challenges often manifest themselves in the political sphere; hence the focus of this challenges often manifest themselves in the political sphere; hence the focus of this chapter is on the Indian polity, especially the way it
chapter is on the Indian polity, especially the way it interacts withinteracts with India‟s society andIndia‟s society and economy. In addressing the incongruity between India‟s
economy. In addressing the incongruity between India‟s continuing domesticcontinuing domestic insecurityinsecurity and growing international stature, this chapter argues that there is
and growing international stature, this chapter argues that there is in fact no real in fact no real tensiontension between the two trends. The social and political factors that complicate India‟s security between the two trends. The social and political factors that complicate India‟s security
environment have also served to evolve its foreign policy and policymaking in a way that environment have also served to evolve its foreign policy and policymaking in a way that is consonant with its current great power ambitions. The Indian polity may not have been is consonant with its current great power ambitions. The Indian polity may not have been able to resolve its domestic problems with a
able to resolve its domestic problems with a great degree of success, but it great degree of success, but it has had lesshas had less difficulty in promoting Indian interests in international affairs.
difficulty in promoting Indian interests in international affairs.
“India‟s foreign affairs are closely integrated with the country's fundamental security and “India‟s foreign affairs are closely integrated with the country's fundamental security and developmental priorities. This section highlights India‟s foreign policy, its relat
developmental priorities. This section highlights India‟s foreign policy, its relat ion with theion with the other countries etc. Users can find procedures related to passport and visa services. Details of other countries etc. Users can find procedures related to passport and visa services. Details of Embassy and Consulates are given in this section. Indian sta
Embassy and Consulates are given in this section. Indian sta ying abroad can get informationying abroad can get information about various schemes, acts, visa services
about various schemes, acts, visa services and other facilities offered by the Union and stateand other facilities offered by the Union and state governments.
governments.””33
22
Foreign policy in contemporary India, Foreign policy in contemporary India,
http://www.cerium.ca/IMG/pdf/POLITY_SECURITY_AND_FOREIGN_POLICY_IN_CONTEMPORARY
http://www.cerium.ca/IMG/pdf/POLITY_SECURITY_AND_FOREIGN_POLICY_IN_CONTEMPORARY
_INDIA.pdf
_INDIA.pdf ,, last accessed on 24-04-2014 at 01:45 IST last accessed on 24-04-2014 at 01:45 IST
33
Foreign affairs,
Re
Res
se
ear
arch
ch me
meth
thodology:
odology: -
-
For the purpose of research the researcher
For the purpose of research the researcher has relied on primary sources to lhas relied on primary sources to look forook for information relating to laws and statutes relating to „
information relating to laws and statutes relating to „Indian foreign policy from 1972-Indian foreign policy from 1972-1991
1991‟. The researcher has aimed at doctrinal research and tries to critically analyse‟. The researcher has aimed at doctrinal research and tries to critically analyse and provide an unbiased account. Researcher has used various books, journals and and provide an unbiased account. Researcher has used various books, journals and online websites for gathering required information used in research.
online websites for gathering required information used in research.
Objectives:-
To know about the Indian foreign policyTo know about the Indian foreign policy
To know about the institutions in the foreign policy makingTo know about the institutions in the foreign policy making
To know about the foreign policyTo know about the foreign policy
F
F ore
oreign policy
ign policy:-
:-Development of Nation-States and increasing interactions among them has
Development of Nation-States and increasing interactions among them has resulted intoresulted into formation of foreign policy in the modern times. Establishment of United Nations and formation of foreign policy in the modern times. Establishment of United Nations and process of decolonization that has liberated many states into sovereign entities have further process of decolonization that has liberated many states into sovereign entities have further provided impetus to interrelationships among states. There is certain unanimity among provided impetus to interrelationships among states. There is certain unanimity among
scholars and statesmen on necessity of a foreign policy for each state, since no state will like scholars and statesmen on necessity of a foreign policy for each state, since no state will like to function in complete isolation from rest of the world.
to function in complete isolation from rest of the world. ““Feliks Gross said that even aFeliks Gross said that even a decision to have no relations with a particular s
decision to have no relations with a particular state is also a tate is also a foreign policy or, in other words,foreign policy or, in other words, not to have a definite
not to have a definite foreign policy is also a foreign policy. For example, India‟s decisionforeign policy is also a foreign policy. For example, India‟s decision to to have no diplomatic relations with Israel up to 1992 was inte
have no diplomatic relations with Israel up to 1992 was inte gral part of its foreign policy.gral part of its foreign policy. India wanted to continue good diplomatic and trade rela
India wanted to continue good diplomatic and trade relations with Israel‟s adversaries, i.e. thetions with Israel‟s adversaries, i.e. the Arab states, whose support on Kashmir was crucial
Arab states, whose support on Kashmir was crucial for India, along with access to crude oilfor India, along with access to crude oil..””44 A state without foreign policy will look like a team playing foot ball without any strategy to A state without foreign policy will look like a team playing foot ball without any strategy to post the goals, hence all eleven players being clueless about their role and functions on the post the goals, hence all eleven players being clueless about their role and functions on the playground. Thus,
playground. Thus, in a modern state that lacks foreign policy; the external Affairs Ministryin a modern state that lacks foreign policy; the external Affairs Ministry will have no priorities in developing bilateral relat
will have no priorities in developing bilateral relat ions or participating in multilateral ions or participating in multilateral forums.forums. The Defence Ministry will have no clear cut ideas about armed
The Defence Ministry will have no clear cut ideas about armed preparations of country‟s preparations of country‟s military, since no criteria have been s
military, since no criteria have been set up before it to define friends et up before it to define friends and to recognizeand to recognize
4 4
Introduction,
Introduction, http://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/M.A.%20(Part%20-%20I)%20(Group%20E)%20%20-
http://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/M.A.%20(Part%20-%20I)%20(Group%20E)%20%20-
%20Political%20Science%20Paper%20-%20I%20-%20Foreign%20Policy%20&%20Diplomacy%20with%20Special%20Referance%20to%20india%20(Eng).
%20Foreign%20Policy%20&%20Diplomacy%20with%20Special%20Referance%20to%20india%20(Eng).
enemies in the international sphere. The Finance as
enemies in the international sphere. The Finance as well as Commerce Ministrwell as Commerce Ministry will struggley will struggle to take stand on issues of import-export during bilateral or multilateral trade negotiations. A to take stand on issues of import-export during bilateral or multilateral trade negotiations. A state without a foreign policy can be compared to a
state without a foreign policy can be compared to a ship in the deep sea without knowledge ofship in the deep sea without knowledge of directions. As the radar on the ship navigates it towards land destination, foreign policy leads directions. As the radar on the ship navigates it towards land destination, foreign policy leads the state in fulfilling its national interest and acquiring rightful place among comity of the state in fulfilling its national interest and acquiring rightful place among comity of nation-states.
states.
Therefore, it can be said that foreign policy will exist as long as sovereign states operate in Therefore, it can be said that foreign policy will exist as long as sovereign states operate in international sphere. One comes across variet
international sphere. One comes across variet y of definitions of foreign policy offered byy of definitions of foreign policy offered by different scholars. Scholars differ on definition of forei
different scholars. Scholars differ on definition of forei gn policy; however, they are certaingn policy; however, they are certain that it is concerned with behaviour of a state towards other states. According to George that it is concerned with behaviour of a state towards other states. According to George Modelski,
Modelski, “Foreign policy is the system of activities evolved by communities“Foreign policy is the system of activities evolved by communities for changing for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international
the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment….. Foreign Policy must
environment….. Foreign Policy must throw light on the ways in which states attempt to throw light on the ways in which states attempt to change, and succeed in c
change, and succeed in changing, the behaviourhanging, the behaviour of other states.” (Georgeof other states.” (George Modelski, A Theory Modelski, A Theory of Foreign Policy, (London, 1962
of Foreign Policy, (London, 1962) pp.6-7) Behaviour of each state affects ) pp.6-7) Behaviour of each state affects behaviour of everybehaviour of every other state in one form or the other, directly or indirectly, with greater or lesser intensity, other state in one form or the other, directly or indirectly, with greater or lesser intensity, favourably or adversely.
favourably or adversely. ““Function of foreign policy is to try to minimize the adverse Function of foreign policy is to try to minimize the adverse effectseffects and maximize the favourable effects of
and maximize the favourable effects of actions of other states. The objective of foreiactions of other states. The objective of foreign policygn policy is not only to change but also to regulate behaviour of other stat
is not only to change but also to regulate behaviour of other stat es by ensuring continuity ofes by ensuring continuity of their favourable actions.
their favourable actions.””55 For example, Great Britain‟s stand on Kashmir was vague during For example, Great Britain‟s stand on Kashmir was vague during cold war period. Here,
cold war period. Here, Indian foreign policy attempted to change Great Britain‟s pIndian foreign policy attempted to change Great Britain‟s position inosition in India‟s favour. On the other hand, the erstwhile USSR supported
India‟s favour. On the other hand, the erstwhile USSR supported India on the Kashmir India on the Kashmir question for many years. In this case, Indian
question for many years. In this case, Indian foreign policy‟s objective was to ensureforeign policy‟s objective was to ensure continuity of USSR‟s
continuity of USSR‟s favourable position. Foreign policy is a complex and dynamic political favourable position. Foreign policy is a complex and dynamic political interaction that a state gets involved in pursuing relations with other states and entities
interaction that a state gets involved in pursuing relations with other states and entities outside the purview of its own jurisdiction. As Joseph
outside the purview of its own jurisdiction. As Joseph Frankel puts it, “Foreign PolicyFrankel puts it, “Foreign Policy consists of decisions and actions, which involves to some appreciable extent relations consists of decisions and actions, which involves to some appreciable extent relations between one stat
between one state and others.” (Joseph Frankel,e and others.” (Joseph Frankel, The Making of Foreign Policy, p.1) It impliesThe Making of Foreign Policy, p.1) It implies that foreign policy involves set of actions by the
that foreign policy involves set of actions by the forces working within state‟s borders andforces working within state‟s borders and intended towards forces existing outsid
intended towards forces existing outside the country‟s borders. It is a set oe the country‟s borders. It is a set of tools employedf tools employed by the state to influence exercise of law making power by
by the state to influence exercise of law making power by other states as well as actions ofother states as well as actions of
55
Indian foreign policy examined, Indian foreign policy examined,
http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/ni/vol17/no05/v17n05-w150-sep-oct-1951-new-int.pdf
http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/ni/vol17/no05/v17n05-w150-sep-oct-1951-new-int.pdf ,,
last accessed on 25-04-2014 at 01:29 IST last accessed on 25-04-2014 at 01:29 IST
non-state actors outside the purview of its juris
non-state actors outside the purview of its jurisdiction. It comprises of formulation anddiction. It comprises of formulation and implementation of a set of ideas that govern the behaviour of state actors while interacting implementation of a set of ideas that govern the behaviour of state actors while interacting with other states to defend and enhance its interests.
with other states to defend and enhance its interests. Huge Gibson says, “Foreign policy is aHuge Gibson says, “Foreign policy is a well-rounded comprehensive plan based on knowledge and experience
well-rounded comprehensive plan based on knowledge and experience for conducting thefor conducting the business of government with rest of the world. It is aimed at promoting
business of government with rest of the world. It is aimed at promoting and protecting theand protecting the interests of the nations. This calls for a clear understanding of what those interests are and interests of the nations. This calls for a clear understanding of what those interests are and how far we hope to go with the means at our disposal. Anything less t
how far we hope to go with the means at our disposal. Anything less t han this falls short ofhan this falls short of being a foreign policy.” (Huge Gib
being a foreign policy.” (Huge Gibson, Theson, The Road to Foreign Policy, p.9) A doctrine of Road to Foreign Policy, p.9) A doctrine of foreign policy can be simple and succinct; or it
foreign policy can be simple and succinct; or it may be complicated and vague. One thing ismay be complicated and vague. One thing is sure that foreign policy is much more than meetings of diplomats, formal statements
sure that foreign policy is much more than meetings of diplomats, formal statements
proclaimed by statesmen, and public statements of state leaders. On the other hand, foreign proclaimed by statesmen, and public statements of state leaders. On the other hand, foreign policy definitely includes current nature
policy definitely includes current nature of state‟s objectives and interests and principles ofof state‟s objectives and interests and principles of self-perceived right conduct in dealing with other st
self-perceived right conduct in dealing with other st ates. Padelford and Lincoln defines it as,ates. Padelford and Lincoln defines it as, “A State‟s Foreign Policy is totality of its de
“A State‟s Foreign Policy is totality of its dealings withalings with the external environment…..Foreignthe external environment…..Foreign Policy is the overall result of the process by which a state translates its broadly conceived Policy is the overall result of the process by which a state translates its broadly conceived goals and interests into specific courses of action in order to achieve its objective and goals and interests into specific courses of action in order to achieve its objective and preserve its interest.” (Norman J Padelford and
preserve its interest.” (Norman J Padelford and George A Lincoln, The Dynamics of George A Lincoln, The Dynamics of International Politics, p.195)In view of such variety of definitions, we can c
International Politics, p.195)In view of such variety of definitions, we can c onclude that coreonclude that core of foreign policy consists of achieving the national objectives through the available national of foreign policy consists of achieving the national objectives through the available national means by interacting with other states. Foreign policy cannot exist in a vacuum. Foreign means by interacting with other states. Foreign policy cannot exist in a vacuum. Foreign policy of a particular state evolves from historical events responsible for
policy of a particular state evolves from historical events responsible for
creation/strengthening of the statehood, principles and ideological foundations of creation/strengthening of the statehood, principles and ideological foundations of nation- building, and purp
building, and purpose and interests of the State. Foreign policy can be comprehended oose and interests of the State. Foreign policy can be comprehended only innly in the greater milieu of form of the government, economic situation, political conditions,
the greater milieu of form of the government, economic situation, political conditions, geographical situation and general culture of the country. All the forei
geographical situation and general culture of the country. All the forei gn policy decisions aimgn policy decisions aim at achieving either co
at achieving either co operation/co-existence or conflict or neutrality towards a particularoperation/co-existence or conflict or neutrality towards a particular state or group of states or rest of the world.
state or group of states or rest of the world.
In modern times, for consistency and continuity of a foreign policy, it has t
In modern times, for consistency and continuity of a foreign policy, it has t o gain legitimacyo gain legitimacy with domestic audience, i.e. citizens
with domestic audience, i.e. citizens of a country. This is achieved by relentless pursuit ofof a country. This is achieved by relentless pursuit of perceived
perceived national interest through country‟s foreign policy. Nationnational interest through country‟s foreign policy. National interests are needs,al interests are needs, aims or desires conveyed to policymakers by the citizens of a country. Such aims, needs and aims or desires conveyed to policymakers by the citizens of a country. Such aims, needs and desires vary enormously from State to State and ti
desires vary enormously from State to State and time to time. State conducts its me to time. State conducts its internationalinternational relations for attainment of national interests, which are general and continuing ends. State relations for attainment of national interests, which are general and continuing ends. State
seeks to achieve or protect national interest in relations with other states. National interest is seeks to achieve or protect national interest in relations with other states. National interest is defined in various terms such as defence against aggression, developing higher standard of defined in various terms such as defence against aggression, developing higher standard of living or seeking rightful place at international organizati
living or seeking rightful place at international organizati ons such as United Nations. Charlesons such as United Nations. Charles Lerche
Lerche and Abdul Said define national interest as, “The general long termand Abdul Said define national interest as, “The general long term and continuing and continuing purpose which the state, the nation, and the
purpose which the state, the nation, and the government all see themselves as serving.”government all see themselves as serving.”
6 6
National Interests are divided into two categories; vital or core interests and less than vital or National Interests are divided into two categories; vital or core interests and less than vital or secondary interests. Vital
secondary interests. Vital interests are most important from the point of view of county‟sinterests are most important from the point of view of county‟s foreign policy. The state is most unwilling to make an
foreign policy. The state is most unwilling to make an y compromise with vital interests and isy compromise with vital interests and is sure to wage war in its defence.
sure to wage war in its defence. India says Kashmir is an issue of vitaIndia says Kashmir is an issue of vital interest for it. Chinal interest for it. China proclaims Taiwan and Tibet are of vital interests to it. United States considered tolling of proclaims Taiwan and Tibet are of vital interests to it. United States considered tolling of
Taliban regime in Afghanistan as an issue of vital interest to it. Vital interests of a state are so Taliban regime in Afghanistan as an issue of vital interest to it. Vital interests of a state are so basic that they acquire near-permanent place on its foreign policy agenda and often create basic that they acquire near-permanent place on its foreign policy agenda and often create
emotional appeal among the masses. On the other hand, less than vital or secondary interests emotional appeal among the masses. On the other hand, less than vital or secondary interests are those aims of a sta
are those aims of a state that they make efforts to te that they make efforts to fulfil, but refrain from going to war orfulfil, but refrain from going to war or creating animosity with other states. For India, per
creating animosity with other states. For India, permanent seats at U.N. Security Council ormanent seats at U.N. Security Council or extradition of main accused of Bhopal Gas Tragedy are iss
extradition of main accused of Bhopal Gas Tragedy are iss ues of national interests. But, Indiaues of national interests. But, India will not go to war to achieve these goals nor will
will not go to war to achieve these goals nor will it use any other kind of coercion to theit use any other kind of coercion to the extent of creating animosity with other states. Vital interests are termed as goals of foreign extent of creating animosity with other states. Vital interests are termed as goals of foreign policy, while the secondary interests are termed as objectives of foreign policy. Further, policy, while the secondary interests are termed as objectives of foreign policy. Further,
objectives can be divided into specific and general objectives. The specific objectives are objectives can be divided into specific and general objectives. The specific objectives are concerned with each individual state and hence differ from state to state and time to time. The concerned with each individual state and hence differ from state to state and time to time. The above stated objectives of permanent seat at U.N.S.C. and extradition of culprits of industrial above stated objectives of permanent seat at U.N.S.C. and extradition of culprits of industrial accident are India‟s specific
accident are India‟s specific objectives rather than of every statobjectives rather than of every state‟s concerns. On the othere‟s concerns. On the other hand, general objectives of foreign policy make sense with almost every state.
hand, general objectives of foreign policy make sense with almost every state.
Objectives of foreign
Objectives of foreign
policy:-Following are some of the key general objectives that we can
Following are some of the key general objectives that we can locate in foreign policy oflocate in foreign policy of almost every country:
almost every country:
1. A foreign policy protects unity and integrity of a country. For example, a major focus of 1. A foreign policy protects unity and integrity of a country. For example, a major focus of India‟s relations with China is to
India‟s relations with China is to ensure country‟s territorial integrity by rejectiensure country‟s territorial integrity by rejecting Chineseng Chinese
6 6
(Charles O. Lerche Jr. a
(Charles O. Lerche Jr. and Abdul A Said, Concepts nd Abdul A Said, Concepts of International Politics, (Engelwood Cliffs, 1963),of International Politics, (Engelwood Cliffs, 1963), p.6)
claims on Indian terrains. It takes note of
claims on Indian terrains. It takes note of incorrect map of India issuedby foreign countriesincorrect map of India issuedby foreign countries and agencies, and asks to make appropriate amends in it.
and agencies, and asks to make appropriate amends in it. 2. A foreign policy defends interests of its
2. A foreign policy defends interests of its citizens. For example, successive Indiancitizens. For example, successive Indian
governments keep in mind interests of farmers while negotiating bi-lateral and multi-lateral governments keep in mind interests of farmers while negotiating bi-lateral and multi-lateral trade agreements. A primary interest of
trade agreements. A primary interest of any country is in selfpreservation and well-being ofany country is in selfpreservation and well-being of its citizens. In international arena, interests of various countries often clash with each other its citizens. In international arena, interests of various countries often clash with each other and the states have to protect t
and the states have to protect their own interests vehemently. A foreign policy aims atheir own interests vehemently. A foreign policy aims at promotion of economic progress of th
promotion of economic progress of the country. In modern times, economic developmene country. In modern times, economic development ist is one of the k
one of the k ey factors in determining state‟s international status. Thus, theey factors in determining state‟s international status. Thus, the treaties and treaties and agreements concluded with other states are dra
agreements concluded with other states are drafted in a way to protect and promote economicfted in a way to protect and promote economic interests of its own.
interests of its own.
3. A foreign policy also protects interests of its citizens beyond the borders. For example, the 3. A foreign policy also protects interests of its citizens beyond the borders. For example, the External Affairs Ministry takes up iss
External Affairs Ministry takes up issue of racial discrimination and harassment ue of racial discrimination and harassment of Indianof Indian students in Australia with the Australian
students in Australia with the Australian government in order to protect its citizens government in order to protect its citizens in thatin that country.
country.
4. A foreign policy also protects dignity and sentiments of the people of
4. A foreign policy also protects dignity and sentiments of the people of Indian originIndian origin throughout the world. For example, Indian government had asked its French counterpart to throughout the world. For example, Indian government had asked its French counterpart to reconsider ban on Sikh‟s turbans in that country even though
reconsider ban on Sikh‟s turbans in that country even though the Sikhs there may not be the Sikhs there may not be Indian citizens anymore and had accepted French citiz
Indian citizens anymore and had accepted French citizenship.enship.
5. A foreign policy tries to maintain contacts and develop good relations with all other states 5. A foreign policy tries to maintain contacts and develop good relations with all other states in order to enhance economic and technological co-operation with them with a view to
in order to enhance economic and technological co-operation with them with a view to promote its own interests. Indian government lost no time in recog
promote its own interests. Indian government lost no time in recognizing newly independentnizing newly independent African and Asian countries and immediately esta
African and Asian countries and immediately established diplomatic relations with them toblished diplomatic relations with them to create its sphere of inf
create its sphere of influence and good will in those countries. On the contrary, diplomaticluence and good will in those countries. On the contrary, diplomatic cut-off with a particular country on issues of ideology or national interest can also be part of cut-off with a particular country on issues of ideology or national interest can also be part of state‟s foreign policy.
state‟s foreign policy. India had not only boycotted the racist South African re India had not only boycotted the racist South African re gime in thegime in the past, but also led the international imbroglio against it as a matter of its principled stand past, but also led the international imbroglio against it as a matter of its principled stand
against racism in the world. against racism in the world.
Factors of Foreign
Factors of Foreign
Policy:-Like the general objectives of foreign policy, there are
Like the general objectives of foreign policy, there are common determinants that can becommon determinants that can be applied to any state to assess
applied to any state to assess its foreign policy. These determinants are of its foreign policy. These determinants are of two types: internaltwo types: internal and external.
and external. Internal Factors Internal Factors
:-
:-1.
1. Size:
Size:
Territorial size of a state influences its foreign policy in a sense that bigger theTerritorial size of a state influences its foreign policy in a sense that bigger the size greater role the state can play in international politics. India‟s ambitions tosize greater role the state can play in international politics. India‟s ambitions to achieve great power status in world politics
achieve great power status in world politics can be attributed to its scan be attributed to its size, which is 7ize, which is 7thth largest sovereign state in the world. Similarl
largest sovereign state in the world. Similarly, one of the major factors of importancey, one of the major factors of importance of United States, Russia and China is their gigantic size. On the other hand, smaller of United States, Russia and China is their gigantic size. On the other hand, smaller countries generally do not get opportunities to perform larger than life
countries generally do not get opportunities to perform larger than life roles inroles in international arena. Smaller island countries in the
international arena. Smaller island countries in the Asia-Pacific region and in AfricaAsia-Pacific region and in Africa continent do not play significant roles in world politics. Big size makes the
continent do not play significant roles in world politics. Big size makes the
geographical location of a state crucial in international sphere. India is geo-politically geographical location of a state crucial in international sphere. India is geo-politically important in world politics because its vast size places it at the inter-junction of
important in world politics because its vast size places it at the inter-junction of
South-South-East Asia, Central Asia, West East Asia, Central Asia, West Asia, South Asian countries and China. India‟sAsia, South Asian countries and China. India‟s huge population, if seen in terms of human resources, also provides strength to its huge population, if seen in terms of human resources, also provides strength to its foreign policy. No important country in the world can ignore such a vast size of foreign policy. No important country in the world can ignore such a vast size of people, and on the oth
people, and on the other hand, India needs cooperation from other states to fulfiler hand, India needs cooperation from other states to fulfil growing needs of its population. Thus, territorial size, geographical location and growing needs of its population. Thus, territorial size, geographical location and population play important role in d
population play important role in determining a state‟s foreign policy.etermining a state‟s foreign policy.
However, there are examples of smaller countries However, there are examples of smaller countries acquiring importance in international domain, either due to its substantial population, acquiring importance in international domain, either due to its substantial population, or geographical location, or superior economy.
or geographical location, or superior economy. ““A case of Bangladesh fits in the firstA case of Bangladesh fits in the first scenario, while a land-locked country like Nepal becomes important due to i
scenario, while a land-locked country like Nepal becomes important due to i tsts
location between two emerging powers, i.e. India and China. Japan and South Korea location between two emerging powers, i.e. India and China. Japan and South Korea have gained much superior status in world politics, in comparison to other countries have gained much superior status in world politics, in comparison to other countries of their size, due to their rich economic structures.
of their size, due to their rich economic structures.””77 Their substantial population Their substantial population
77
Factors of foreign policy, Factors of foreign policy,
http://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/media/humanities/schoolofartshistoriesandcultures/migration/artsh
http://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/media/humanities/schoolofartshistoriesandcultures/migration/artsh
istoriesandcultures/ecmsas/panels/ecmsaspanel1to8/Fileuploadmax10Mb,134299,en.pdf
istoriesandcultures/ecmsas/panels/ecmsaspanel1to8/Fileuploadmax10Mb,134299,en.pdf ,, last accessed last accessed
on 25-04-2014 at 03:11 IST on 25-04-2014 at 03:11 IST
within a small territory and geographical location in t
within a small territory and geographical location in t he Pacific Ocean adjacent the Pacific Ocean adjacent too Russia and China are also the factors in t
Russia and China are also the factors in their emergence at world staheir emergence at world stage. In the recentge. In the recent past, a small-size Britain dominated world politics for about two centuries due to its past, a small-size Britain dominated world politics for about two centuries due to its
advance maritime, industrial and management skills. In
advance maritime, industrial and management skills. In today‟today‟s world, comparativelys world, comparatively smaller countries in the West
smaller countries in the West Asian region have acquired importance due to rich oilAsian region have acquired importance due to rich oil and gas resources. On the other hand, big size countries li
and gas resources. On the other hand, big size countries li ke Australia and Canada areke Australia and Canada are not significant actors in international politics because of their isolated location and not significant actors in international politics because of their isolated location and smaller population.
smaller population.]]
2. Geography:
2. Geography: A state‟s climate, fertility of soil, access to waterways, deposits ofA state‟s climate, fertility of soil, access to waterways, deposits of mineral resources, diversity of crops, availabilit
mineral resources, diversity of crops, availability of drinking water etc. affect andy of drinking water etc. affect and influence its foreign policy. Sufficiency of these factors makes the state influence its foreign policy. Sufficiency of these factors makes the state
self-sufficient, and thus, it can assert in relations with other states. It is observed that sufficient, and thus, it can assert in relations with other states. It is observed that land-locked countries, countries in the tropic region and those bordering superpowers are locked countries, countries in the tropic region and those bordering superpowers are more dependent on other states than the countries with acces
more dependent on other states than the countries with acces s to warm ports, in thes to warm ports, in the temperate region and at a considerable distance
temperate region and at a considerable distance from superpowers. Afterfrom superpowers. After
independence, India could not be compelled to join either of superpower blocks and it independence, India could not be compelled to join either of superpower blocks and it could formulate its own policy of non-alignment because it had more than one wa could formulate its own policy of non-alignment because it had more than one wa ysys of doing trade with other countries, it was confident of developing capacitie
of doing trade with other countries, it was confident of developing capacitie s to utilizes to utilize natural resources and development of agriculture, and it was
natural resources and development of agriculture, and it was at a geographicalat a geographical distance from the then superpowers, i.e. U.S. and U.S.S.R.
distance from the then superpowers, i.e. U.S. and U.S.S.R. 3. History and Culture:
3. History and Culture: Historical experiences and cultural traditions of a state exert Historical experiences and cultural traditions of a state exert influence on its foreign policy. Generally, state with
influence on its foreign policy. Generally, state with unified culture and commonunified culture and common history finds it easier to formulate
history finds it easier to formulate effective and consistent foreign policy. In effective and consistent foreign policy. In such asuch a case, overwhelming majority of people, who share similar experiences and common case, overwhelming majority of people, who share similar experiences and common perceptions of historical
perceptions of historical events, support the state‟s foreign policy. On the other hand,events, support the state‟s foreign policy. On the other hand, country with divergent cultures and various historical experiences in it
country with divergent cultures and various historical experiences in it s differents different parts, finds it difficult to formulate foreign policy in unison. Without a co
parts, finds it difficult to formulate foreign policy in unison. Without a common anti-mmon anti-colonial legacy and deep-rooted culture of peace and co-operation in
colonial legacy and deep-rooted culture of peace and co-operation in Indian society, itIndian society, it was not possible for the government to formulate
was not possible for the government to formulate country‟s for country‟s for eign policy in post-eign policy in post-independence era. Yet, of late, Indian government has been increasingly faci
independence era. Yet, of late, Indian government has been increasingly faci ngng
dilemma in its foreign policy on such issues as nuclearisation, strengthening relations dilemma in its foreign policy on such issues as nuclearisation, strengthening relations with Israel, engaging Pakistan, atrocities on Tamils in
with Israel, engaging Pakistan, atrocities on Tamils in Sri Lanka etc.Sri Lanka etc. 4. Economic Development:
4. Economic Development: Level of economic development Level of economic development influences state‟sinfluences state‟s
foreign policy in more than one ways. Advanced industrialist countries play dominant foreign policy in more than one ways. Advanced industrialist countries play dominant
role in world politics, and formulate their foreign policies to maintain such role in world politics, and formulate their foreign policies to maintain such
superiority. These countries have large resources at their disposal to build military superiority. These countries have large resources at their disposal to build military capabilities on one hand, and disperse monetary benefits on other states
capabilities on one hand, and disperse monetary benefits on other states in the form ofin the form of aid and loan. They remain in constant search of new markets for t
aid and loan. They remain in constant search of new markets for t heir products, accessheir products, access to raw and natural resources as wel
to raw and natural resources as well as skilled and unskilled lal as skilled and unskilled labour. It makes pertinentbour. It makes pertinent on them to develop close diplomatic ties with other states and encourage people to on them to develop close diplomatic ties with other states and encourage people to people contacts among them. Develop
people contacts among them. Developing countries, too, follow their suit to receiveing countries, too, follow their suit to receive benefits of trade and technological breakthroughs. Howev
benefits of trade and technological breakthroughs. However, developing countrieser, developing countries remain dependent on advanced industrialist countries to a large extent to get
remain dependent on advanced industrialist countries to a large extent to get
developmental loans, import of technologies and even food-grains to meet their ends. developmental loans, import of technologies and even food-grains to meet their ends. Accordingly, it has to adjust its foreign policy.
Accordingly, it has to adjust its foreign policy. 5. Technological
5. Technological Progress:Progress: Economic development and technological progress are Economic development and technological progress are closely inter-wined with each other. As a r
closely inter-wined with each other. As a result, economically developed countriesesult, economically developed countries have technological advantage too. The advance industrialized countries provide have technological advantage too. The advance industrialized countries provide technological equipment and know-how to developing and poor countries,
technological equipment and know-how to developing and poor countries, but canbut can exert such leverage to mould their foreign policy. Technological breakthroughs in exert such leverage to mould their foreign policy. Technological breakthroughs in military sphere have further increased developing world‟s
military sphere have further increased developing world‟s dependency on advance dependency on advance countries. Rosenau rightly says,
countries. Rosenau rightly says, “Technological changes can alter militar“Technological changes can alter military andy and economic capabilities of a society and thus its status and role in the international economic capabilities of a society and thus its status and role in the international system.”
system.”88 However, developing countries can counterbalance advance countries However, developing countries can counterbalance advance countries technological dominance by producing semi-skilled, skilled and trained human technological dominance by producing semi-skilled, skilled and trained human resources. Today, Germany, South Korea and Japan are in a position to play crucial resources. Today, Germany, South Korea and Japan are in a position to play crucial roles in international politics due to their technological excellence.
roles in international politics due to their technological excellence. 6. Military Preparedness:
6. Military Preparedness: Capabilities of a state to defend its borders against armed Capabilities of a state to defend its borders against armed aggression plays important role in its foreign policy. Militarily capable states exercise aggression plays important role in its foreign policy. Militarily capable states exercise greater independence from external forces in formulating their for
greater independence from external forces in formulating their for eign policy.eign policy. Increased military preparedness of a
Increased military preparedness of a country might result in change in its foreigncountry might result in change in its foreign policy. Indian foreign po
policy. Indian foreign policy has acquired new dimensions after nuclearisation, as itlicy has acquired new dimensions after nuclearisation, as it attempts to gain the status equivalent to
P-attempts to gain the status equivalent to P-5 countries. Since country‟s pride is5 countries. Since country‟s pride is associated with military victories; in the case of defeat, state suffers international associated with military victories; in the case of defeat, state suffers international humiliation that negatively affects its forei
humiliation that negatively affects its foreign policy. India has undergone thisgn policy. India has undergone this
experience after the 1962 boundary war with China, when its prestige declined among experience after the 1962 boundary war with China, when its prestige declined among
8 8
(James N Rosenau, in Thompson and Boyd, (eds), World Politics: An Introduction, pp.21-22) (James N Rosenau, in Thompson and Boyd, (eds), World Politics: An Introduction, pp.21-22)
third world countries. India had regained the lost pride and presti
third world countries. India had regained the lost pride and presti ge in 1971 when itge in 1971 when it decisively defeated Pakistan that
decisively defeated Pakistan that resulted into latter‟s presulted into latter‟s partition and creation ofartition and creation of Bangladesh.
Bangladesh.
7. National Capacity:
7. National Capacity: National capacity of a state is comprised of its economic National capacity of a state is comprised of its economic development, technological progress and military capability. It exercises
development, technological progress and military capability. It exercises profoundprofound influence on state‟s foreign
influence on state‟s foreign policy. In early 20 policy. In early 20thth century, the United States changed its century, the United States changed its foreign policy from that of isolation to engagement, as its
foreign policy from that of isolation to engagement, as its national capacity had seennational capacity had seen tremendous increments during that period. Similarly, today, China is exerting its tremendous increments during that period. Similarly, today, China is exerting its influence in international politics as it has become confident of its national capacity. influence in international politics as it has become confident of its national capacity. 8. Social Structure:
8. Social Structure: Social structure influences, albeit indirectly, foreign policy of Social structure influences, albeit indirectly, foreign policy of any country. It is true that it is
any country. It is true that it is difficult to measure divisions or homogeneity of adifficult to measure divisions or homogeneity of a particular society, and more difficult is to judge its impact on foreign policy. particular society, and more difficult is to judge its impact on foreign policy.
However, it is certain that changes in social structure cause a change in the foreign However, it is certain that changes in social structure cause a change in the foreign policy in long term. A state divided on
policy in long term. A state divided on racial or religious or regional lines struggle toracial or religious or regional lines struggle to put forward its best possible foreign policy, as it becomes difficult for it to receive put forward its best possible foreign policy, as it becomes difficult for it to receive
co-operation from all quarters of society. On the other side, a homogenous society operation from all quarters of society. On the other side, a homogenous society produces more coherent, and even aggressive, foreign p
produces more coherent, and even aggressive, foreign policy. In post-World War IIolicy. In post-World War II era, nationalism and other ideologies were used to bridge the social differences to era, nationalism and other ideologies were used to bridge the social differences to strengthen country‟s
strengthen country‟s foreign policy. foreign policy. 9. Ideology of State:
9. Ideology of State: A proclaimed ideology of the state comprehensively influences A proclaimed ideology of the state comprehensively influences its foreign policy. In 1930s, Nazi
its foreign policy. In 1930s, Nazi Germany‟s emphasis upon superiority of Aryan raceGermany‟s emphasis upon superiority of Aryan race played important role in its foreign policy.
played important role in its foreign policy. Similarly, United States andSimilarly, United States and U.S.S.R.‟s stated objectives of promotion of democratic system
U.S.S.R.‟s stated objectives of promotion of democratic system and socialist system and socialist system respectively dominated much of their respective foreign policies
respectively dominated much of their respective foreign policies during cold warduring cold war period. Ideological preferences of the state reflect upon process of policy formulation period. Ideological preferences of the state reflect upon process of policy formulation
as well. State with democratic values of open debate and dissent tend to listen to the as well. State with democratic values of open debate and dissent tend to listen to the public opinion seriously. Under d
public opinion seriously. Under democratic set up, pressure groups, political partiesemocratic set up, pressure groups, political parties with different shades of ideologies and press indulges in public opinion making that with different shades of ideologies and press indulges in public opinion making that deeply influences foreign policy of a country. In 1970s, the United States government deeply influences foreign policy of a country. In 1970s, the United States government bowed to tremendous domestic pressure to withdraw from
bowed to tremendous domestic pressure to withdraw from the Vietnam War. It is saidthe Vietnam War. It is said that the United States actually lost that war within its borders than in Vietnam.
that the United States actually lost that war within its borders than in Vietnam. 10. Spread of Internet:
10. Spread of Internet: Internet, particularly social media websites, circulation of Internet, particularly social media websites, circulation of bulk e- mails, news portals and blogosph
Dissemination of internet services in any society, even if for commercial of scientific Dissemination of internet services in any society, even if for commercial of scientific purposes, leads towards its emergence as a tool of public debate and op
purposes, leads towards its emergence as a tool of public debate and opinion making. Ininion making. In China, even after governmental restrictions and vigilance,
China, even after governmental restrictions and vigilance, Internet has become a medium forInternet has become a medium for people to express their opinions. During d
people to express their opinions. During diplomatic crisis of bombing of Chinese embassy iniplomatic crisis of bombing of Chinese embassy in erstwhile Yugoslavia
erstwhile Yugoslavia and Japanese premier‟s controversial visits toand Japanese premier‟s controversial visits to war shrines, public war shrines, public opinion generated on internet sites created immense pressure on Chinese government to act opinion generated on internet sites created immense pressure on Chinese government to act decisively to defend
decisively to defend country‟s sovereignty and honour respectively. In coming dacountry‟s sovereignty and honour respectively. In coming da ys,ys, Internet Internet is bound to play an increasing role in the state‟s f
is bound to play an increasing role in the state‟s f oreign policyoreign policy 11. Form of Government:
11. Form of Government: Form of government established in a state pla Form of government established in a state pla ys its role in ays its role in a country‟s foreign policy. Totalitarian or
country‟s foreign policy. Totalitarian or authoritative forms of government, such as authoritative forms of government, such as governments in one party system or under complete control of military junta, are
governments in one party system or under complete control of military junta, are capable ofcapable of quick foreign policy decisions. In such systems, decision-making is restr
quick foreign policy decisions. In such systems, decision-making is restr icted to elite coreicted to elite core within the government, making it easier to formulate foreign policy. However, it is observed within the government, making it easier to formulate foreign policy. However, it is observed that decision-making under closed system has often, if not always, leaded
that decision-making under closed system has often, if not always, leaded to country‟sto country‟s
isolation in international politics as happened with the regimes in North Korea and Myanmar. isolation in international politics as happened with the regimes in North Korea and Myanmar. Dissenting voices are suppressed by oppressive methods like detention, censorship and
Dissenting voices are suppressed by oppressive methods like detention, censorship and promulgation of strict regulations. On the other hand, w
promulgation of strict regulations. On the other hand, within democratic systems, differentithin democratic systems, different forms of government act differently in formulating the foreign polic
forms of government act differently in formulating the foreign polic y. In West-ministerialy. In West-ministerial system, executives lead the decision-making process of
system, executives lead the decision-making process of foreign policy formulation. Theforeign policy formulation. The legislature does debate
legislature does debate government‟s foreign policy in parliamentarygovernment‟s foreign policy in parliamentary system, however, it is system, however, it is not necessary for the latter to ask for legislative consent for foreign treaties and agreements. not necessary for the latter to ask for legislative consent for foreign treaties and agreements. 12. Leadership:
12. Leadership: Leadership plays influential role in the country‟sLeadership plays influential role in the country‟s foreign policy. Rosenau foreign policy. Rosenau says, “A leader‟s belief a
says, “A leader‟s belief about the naturebout the nature of international arena and the goals of international arena and the goals that ought to bethat ought to be pursued therein, his or her peculiar intellectual strengths and weakness for analyzing
pursued therein, his or her peculiar intellectual strengths and weakness for analyzing information and making decisions, his or her past background and the extent of its
information and making decisions, his or her past background and the extent of its relevancerelevance to the requirements of the role, his or her emotional needs and most of other personality traits to the requirements of the role, his or her emotional needs and most of other personality traits these are but a few of the idiosyncratic factors that can influence the planning and execution these are but a few of the idiosyncratic factors that can influence the planning and execution of foreign policy.”
of foreign policy.” 99 Even though, government structure and societal realities constrain t Even though, government structure and societal realities constrain t hehe qualities of a leader, during crisis time the leader shows the path to the government and qualities of a leader, during crisis time the leader shows the path to the government and society. Winston Churchil‟s astute leadership had steered
society. Winston Churchil‟s astute leadership had steered the England to victory in Second the England to victory in Second
9 9
Leadership,
Leadership, (James N Rosenau in Rosenau, Thompson and Boyd, (Eds), (James N Rosenau in Rosenau, Thompson and Boyd, (Eds), World Politics: An Introduction,World Politics: An Introduction, p.28)