UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FIRENZE
FIRST LEVEL MASTER DEGREE IN
IRRIGATION PROBLEMS
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Design Drip Irrigation System for Citrus
Production in Al-Raad Station , Abu
Ghraib, Baghdad, Iraq
Supervisor Student
Thesis Approval
Supervisor’s Signature : ……….……… Dott .Agr. Ivan Solinas
Date : ………
Student’s Signature : ……….……….. Atheer Abdul Ameer Alhabeeb
DEDICATION
To the spirit of my father ...
"Waiting for the following time "
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who in one way or another made possible this master program:
My supervisor, Dott. Agr. Ivan Solinas, for his technical support and his lofty sense of sharing.
The staff of IAO: Dr. Giovanni Totino the Director of Instituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare, Pr. Elena Bresci, Tiberio Chiari, Paolo Enrico Sertoli, Andrea Merli, Elisa Masi .
All the teachers who contributed and participated in this program for their precious time and knowledge they shared with us.
All the friends, colleagues and workmates for the family spirit maintained during the studying.
ABSTRACT
IRAQ is a country in the dynamic of development of its irrigated agriculture in order to reduce the dependence on the climate conditions. The results achieved so far with surface irrigation are not quite satisfactory and suggest an evolution towards more efficient systems.
It’s with this objective that this study proposes to design a drip irrigation system appropriate for Abu Gharib, one of the largest irrigated agricultural schemes of the country.
First of all, the Citrus water requirement has been determined with the software Cropwat based on the local climatic and field conditions.
Having identified and ranked the drip lines available in the study area with the software Ve.Pro.LG, the drip line Python proved to be one that provides the best uniformity (96.1%) at the plot level, according to the field feature.
Then a pipe line system has been designed with EPANET to convey water from the basin (water intake) to the plot. The pipe line system was fully designed with pipe of (96.8mm) of diameter that makes it possible to supply water with a discharge of (32.04 m3/hour) and a flow velocity ( > 1.5) at a pressure of (8.0 m.w.c.) These features ensure proper operation of Python .
TABLE OF CONTENTS Thesis Approval ... I Dedication ... II Acknowledgement ... III Abstract ………..………..………….. IV Table of Contents ... V List of Tables ... VI List of Figures ... VII
Introduction ... 1
Geography of Iraq ... 1
Water Resources of Iraq ... 3
Climate of Iraq ... 6
CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
I.1 DRIP IRRIGATION ... 8
I.1.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation ... 8
I.1.2. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation ………....…….. 9
I.1.3. Crop water requirements under drip irrigation ………... 9
I.1.4. Irrigation requirements ... 10
I.1.5. Percentage wetted area ... 11
I.1.6. Area wetted by an emitter ... 12
I.1.7. Number of emitters per plant and emitter spacing ... 12
I.1.8. Emitter selection ... 13
I.2. CITRUS CULTIVATION ... 14
I.2.1. Climate ... 15
I.2.2.Soils and Fertilizer dose... 16
I.2.3. Crop duration ... 18
I.2.4. Plant density ... 18
I.2.5. Water Requirements ... 18
CHAPTER II: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ... 19
Agro-climatic data of Baghdad... 20
Climatic data determination ... 21
SPAW and Soil Data Determination ... 23
Description of SPAW Soil Data Determination ... 23
VeProLGs (1.6.0) and Design Parameter Determination ... 25
Description of VeProLGs ... 25
Data for Irrigation Uniformity Distribution Determination ... 26
CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling… 28 Description of Cropwat 8.0... 28
EPANET 2.0 and Design of The Irrigation Scheme ... 31
Description of EPANET 2.0 ... 31
The Plan of Irrigation Scheme ... 31
Conclusion ... 39
References ... 40
LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Values of Kr suggestion by different authors ( FAO, 1984) …..… 10
Table 2: Crop coefficient (Kc) values of Citrus ... 19
Table 3: Data of the study soil from SPAW software to Cropwat ……... 24
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 : Map of Iraq Geography ... 2
Figure 1 Forms indicative face moistening produced by a dispenser drip point …. 12
Figure 2 Diameter wet, in three different types of terrain ……… 13
Figure 6: Over view of study area (by Google Earth ) ………... 20
Figure 7: Software design Models ………..………...……..…. 21
Figure 8: Climate Data, Baghdad station ………..……. 22
Figure 9: Rain Data, Baghdad Station ………..… 22
Figure 10 : Soil characteristics ………...… 24
Figure 11 : Best Drip Line Streamline SL80 d.16 q.0,98 s. o,4 (1998) ..… 25
Figure 12: Data for uniformity determination of one line ……….….. 26
Figure 13: Uniformity of irrigation determination of plot design ……...…. 26
Figure 14: Soil ………..……….……… 28
Figure 15: Crop ………..…………...…………. 29
Figure 16: Crop Water Requirements ……….……….. 29
Figure 17: Crop Irrigation Schedule ……… 30
Figure 18: Scheme Supply …...… 30
Figure 19: Pump Variety ………....……. 32
Figure 20: Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Diameter ……….. 33
Figure 21: Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Length ……..…………..….……... 34
Figure 22 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Roughness ……….… 35
Figure 23 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Pressure ……….……… 36
Figure 24 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Flow Rate ………….………. 37
Introduction
Geography of Iraq:
The geography of Iraq is diverse and falls into four main regions: the desert (west of the Euphrates), Upper Mesopotamia (between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers), the northern highlands of Iraqi Kurdistan, and Lower Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain extending from around Tikrit to the Persian Gulf. Iraq is a country in western Asia encompassing the Mesopotamian alluvial plain, the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert Iraq nutrients of the Tigris River. borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the west, Saudi Arabia to the south and southwest, and Kuwait to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city , Baghdad is in the center-east of the country (Figure 1: Map of Iraq Geography).
-In Upper Mesopotamia:
The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Samarra and the Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazira (the island) and is part of a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey. Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain. Much of this zone may be classified as desert.
-In Lower Mesopotamia:
An Alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to
the Persian Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a river delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000 km2) just above the confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage.
Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence are heavily silt- laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area. Windborne silt contributes to the total deposit of sediments. It has been estimated that the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud. The Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr Al Milh (Sea of Salt). There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat Ath Tharthar and Buhayrat Al Habbaniyah.
Water Resources of Iraq
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia. Land Area total: 438,317 Km2 . The Tigris River, its tributaries and Euphrates River are the main sources for water in Iraq. Most of their feeding sources are located outside the country. The normal average inflow of the Euphrates River is 27.40 BCM . Nearly 97% of the flow in the Euphrates River comes from outside Iraq’s borders of which 88% is from Turkey and 9% is from Syria. The remaining flow (3%) is from inside Iraq but it is un-guaranteed .The renewed as inventories of water Groundwater (3.46) billion cubic meters while as inventories hard stainless Investment (2,965) billion cubic meters and investment as inventories (6,425) billion cubic meters (Central Bureau of Statistics, Agricultural Statistical Atlas 2010).Dams were constructed in the western desert to store the floods in case there are any. The normal average inflow of the Tigris River is 49.48 BCM . Nearly 68% is from outside Iraq (Turkey, Iran ) , The remaining flow ( 32% ) is from inside Iraq . Water scarcity has become of the constraints affecting agricultural operations in the world and in Iraq, the subject of this thesis. Despite the availability of fertile land and sedimentary plains added to it from the reclaimed land, there is relatively limited irrigation water. But decreasing annually despite the presence of the Tigris and Euphrates, which controls its source of Turkey, Syria and Iran to set up will dams them on the one hand and the other hand, Iraq was pursuing a policy of maximum utilization of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through dams and water retention through stored in the lakes, but the reality of the case is a waste of water and flow of goods to the Shatt al-Arab, and without the benefit of them. And thus get scarcity and water scarcity in Iraq. Hence the idea to find alternatives to traditional surface irrigation operations when accompanied by the loss of these water resources,
alternatives drip irrigation specially in the northern part of Iraq and that the nature of the soil and topography , terrain addition, the portion of these agricultural areas do not require irrigation canals tanker being watered from wells, which facilitates the use of drip irrigation system.
And that scientific studies indicate that this system provides up to. Citrus belonging to the family Rutaceae, off a special type of berries called Hesperidium, and includes family many genera, is the most important economic genus Citrus, sources indicate that the original home of the citrus fruit is warm areas ,which include areas under tropical Subtropical, and these areas have spread citrus to other areas of the world, stretching between latitudes (40) north and south of the equator (Almnasa, 1975) and (Khafaji, et al, 1990).
Historically, Iraq was one of the most fertile countries in the region thanks to the Tigris and Euphrates, who were holding a south-easterly direction across the entire country. The green strip of fertile land stretching across the center of the country fueled by rivers. However, the water levels in the Tigris and Euphrates steadily declined in recent years due to lack of rainfall and the construction of dams on the rivers in Turkey, Syria, and decrease the amount of water processed from Iran, which alone account for12%of the In addition( Figure 2: Iraq Water Resources). The government, in response to this, the adoption of measures to regulate the amount of water used for irrigation in each province but faced difficulties in implementation due to control clans on distributing water, especially after the decline of the control of local governments on the distribution of the water after the demise of the previous political system in 2003, and in areas of this segment in Iraqi society which controls most of the agricultural production areas in Iraq . Agriculture currently provides about 8 % of Iraq’s GDP and 20 % of employment, and supports a rural population of 7 million people. The sector has declined since the 1980s and is underperforming. Over the last twenty years, agricultural production dropped by an average of 1.1% / year, and per capita agricultural production declined by about 3.9% / year.
Productivity of the main cereal crops—wheat, barley, and rice—has fallen dramatically. Over half of the country’s total food requirement is imported. Under the sanctions regime, a Public Food Distribution System (PFDS), which provided food rations to all Iraqis, attempted to support food security at the household level, but fell short of ensuring adequate nutrition to most of the population.
Climate of Iraq
Average temperatures in Iraq range from higher than 48°C in July and August to below freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages between 100 and 180 millimeters annually. The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region.
Roughly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March. The remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, are dry.
Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between 100 and 170 millimeters. Data available from stations in the foothills and steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall between 320 and 570 millimeters for that area. Rainfall in the mountains is more abundant and may reach 1000 millimeters a year in some places, but the terrain precludes extensive cultivation. Cultivation on non irrigated land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes, which have 300 millimeters or more of rainfall annually. Even in this zone, however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have often led to crop failures.
Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to 2 to 3°C and 4 to 5°C in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about 16 °C in the western desert and the northeast, and 17°C in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about 27 to 34°C and rise to maxima between roughly 42 and 47°C. Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as −14°C at (Ar Rutbah) in the western desert. They are more likely, however, to go over 49°C in the summer months, and several stations have records of over 53°C.
The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena. The southern and southeasterly (sharqi), a dry, dusty wind with occasional
gusts of 80 kilometers per hour, occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November. It may last for a day at the beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times. This wind is often accompanied by violent dust storms that may rise to heights of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods. From mid-June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the (shamali), is from the north and northwest. It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally during this period. The very dry air brought by this shamal permits intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling effect.
he combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation. Some areas, however, although arid, do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert. For example, in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south. Figure 3: Scheme of Iraq Climate.
CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW I.1 DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation is a controlled method of irrigation, consisting of tubes with emitters. It allows increasing water use efficiencies by providing precise amounts of water directly to the root zone of individual plants (Burt and Styles, 2007).
I.1.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation
Many claims as to the advantages of Drip irrigation have been and are still being made. Currently, the following advantages are recognized:
- The evaporative component of evapotranspiration is reduced, as only a limited area of the soil is wetted. This is more prevalent with young trees;
- The higher degree of inbuilt management that localized irrigation offers reduces substantially deep percolation and runoff losses, thus attaining higher irrigation efficiencies. Consequently, localized irrigation is considered as a water-saving technology;
- The limited wetted area results in reduced weed growth; - Applicable to all forms of plots;
- Unaffected by wind;
- Reduced operating costs and labor. Human intervention is reduced to the periodic inspection of equipment for filtering and control, and the proper operation of drippers;
- Reduced risk of fungal diseases;
-
Reduced sensitivity to the use of salt water. The salts are leached to each application and trained at the periphery of the bulbhumidifying outside the scope of the active root zone. No risk of damage to the aerial parts of plants by spraying of saline water.
I.1.2. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation
The major disadvantages of localized irrigation are:
- Localized systems are prone to clogging because of the very small aperture of the water emitting devices hence the need for proper filtration .
- The movement of salts to the fringes of the wetted area of the soil may cause salinity problems through the leaching of salts by rain to the main root volume. This can be avoided if the system is turned on when it rains, especially when the amount of rain is not enough to leach the salts beyond the root zone depth;
- Rodents, dogs and other animals in search of water can damage the lateral lines;
- For crops of very high population density, the system may be uneconomic because of the large number of laterals and emitters required;
- The relatively high investment cost of the system;
- The spatial development of the root zone is limited and concentrated in the vicinity of the dripper making plants more susceptible to wind throw.
I.1.3. Crop water requirements under drip irrigation
Evapotranspiration is composed of the evaporation from the soil and the transpiration of the plant. Since under localized irrigation only a portion of the soil is wetted, the evaporation component of evapotranspiration can be reduced accordingly, using the appropriate ground cover reduction factor
Kr.
For the design of localized irrigation systems:
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration using the Penman-Monteith method;
FAO (1984) provides the reduction factors suggested by various researchers in order to account for the reduction in evapotranspiration (Table 1 Values of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984)).
Table 1 Values of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984) Crop factor kr according to
Ground Cover (%) Decroix
CTG
REF Freeman & Garzoli Keller & Karmeli
0.2 0.1 0.12 10 0.3 0.2 0.24 20 0.4 0.3 0.35 30 0.5 0.4 0.47 40 0.6 0.75 0.59 50 0.7 0.8 0.7 60 0.8 0.85 0.82 70 0.9 0.9 0.94 80 1 0.95 1 90 1 1 1 100
I.1.4. Irrigation requirements
FAO (1984) defines the net irrigation requirements (IRn) as the depth or volume of water required for normal crop production over the whole cropped area, excluding contribution from other sources. The following equation is used:
By incorporating the irrigation efficiency in the calculations, we obtain the gross irrigation requirements (IRg)
Where:
IRn = net irrigation requirement ETo crop = crop evapotranspiration Kr = ground cover reduction factor
R= water received by plant from sources other than irrigation (for example rainfall)
LR = amount of water required for the leaching of salts Ea = field application efficiency
According to Rain bird International (1980), the following efficiencies should be used when the surface area wetted by one emitter does not exceed 60 cm in diameter:
Hot dry climate: Ea = 0.85 Moderate climate: Ea = 0.90 Humid climate: Ea = 0.95 I.1.5. Percentage wetted area
The percentage wetted area (Pw) is the average horizontal area wetted within the top 30 cm of the crop root zone depth in relation to the total cropped area. This number depends on the desirable percentage wetted area and the area wetted by one emitter.
Keller and Bliesner (1990) present a relationship that may exist between the potential production and Pw. They suggest that Pw often approaches 100% for closely spaced crops with rows and drip laterals spaced less than 1.8 m apart
Taking this, and experience from elsewhere, into consideration, a Pw of 50-60% for low rainfall areas and 40% for high rainfall areas is proposed for widely spaced crops (F.A.O; 2007)
I.1.6. Area wetted by an emitter
The area wetted by an emitter, along a horizontal plane (30 cm below the soil surface), depends on the soil and topography, on the flow rate of the emitter and on the volume of irrigation water. It is therefore advisable to carry out simple field tests in order to establish the area wetted by an emitter.
Figure 7 Diameter wet, in three different types of terrain, in function of the flow of the point drop (from Karmeli et al., 1985)
I.1.7. Number of emitters per plant and emitter spacing
The number of the emitters required per plant is established as follows
Where:
Area per plant (m2)
Pw = Percentage wetted area/100 (%100) Aw = Area wetted by one emitter (m2) I.1.8. Emitter selection
The following are some of the major emitter characteristics that affect the system efficiency and should all be taken into consideration during the emitter selection process :
- Emitter discharge exponent
- Discharge-pressure relationship to design specification Sand y loam Clay We tte d d iame te r (m) Emitter flow-rate (l/h)
q=Kd.Hx
Where: q = emitter discharge (lph), Kd = discharge coefficient that characterizes each emitter, H = emitter operating pressure (m), x = emitter discharge exponent
Stability of discharge-pressure relationship over a long time Manufacturer coefficient of variation
Range of operating pressure Susceptibility to clogging
Type of emitter connection to lateral and head losses I.2. CITRUS CULTIVATION
It is rich in vitamin B. and Flavoadnat vital anti-oxidant .Works with vitamin C to reduce the risk of cancer or heart attacks and strengthens bones and teeth and promote healing and make the skin succulent .The original home of citrus is India, Indochina, the Philippines and southern China. Spread cultivated in China before the year 1500 and then moved to other parts of the world. And citrus cultivation spread generally between latitudes 40-45 north and 34-40 in the south on the Earth's surface. The citrus fruit trees task using fruit for domestic consumption in Iraq, and occupies orange ranked first in, and reached the productivity of Iraq, for example, orange (92 481) thousand tons for the 2012 season, and the average production of the tree (12.6) kg by (PCBS, 2003) The productivity of the tree is low compared to production world, which amounted to 110 kg / tree orange Valencia in America and Syria 107.7 kg / tree orange municipal as well as the lack of cultivated area which reduced domestic production, and the reason for this is the high proportion of fall fruits all the normal limit and the output from agriculture under the palm trees (Shabana et al, 1985) and extremism temperatures and high salinity as well as the high cost of fertilizer, thus reducing caring for trees and led to the degradation and decline in average
production, as well as other factors such as pollution and environmental spread of diseases and insects. This thesis is part of the Master "Irrigation Problems in Developing Countries" and aims to propose a design of a drip irrigation system for the production of Citrus on the Al raad Station in Abu Ghraib . It consists of (2) chapters: a literature review on drip irrigation, the presentation of the study environment and the methodology, and finally presenting the results.
I.2.1. Climate
1. Effect of temperature:
A. low temperature: necessary citrus atmosphere free of frost where it can be considered as zero degrees Centennial and under grades harmful to citrus trees if exposed to these grades for a long time is the length of which is exposed through the trees to a lower temperature is an important factor in determining the degree of damage that hit by degrees - 2-2°C harmless for most varieties of citrus, especially if continued for several hours, leading to the freezing of fruits and branches of modern amounting If the temperature has dropped to -5°C in the month of February was preceded by high temperatures during the month of January, which helps the growth of vegetation and bloom early will damage large, and vice versa may happen that sometimes occur cooler in the month of November until January and even though the temperature was -7°C, but the damage was a few have attributed the reason to the fact that the trees during this period at the stage of sleep, and considers degree -2.2°C or below grades prohibitive for the cultivation of citrus and can be arranged degree of likelihood races and types of citrus to low temperature in descending order as follows: three leaves, Kumquat, mandarin, bitter orange, orange, grapefruit, dahlia. And be manifestations of the damage caused by low temperatures: 1. severe damage to the modern flowers and fruit newly knitter and
cause its downfall.
2. cause dry branches of modern growth and cracking in the bark of trees
3. cause damage to the large branches of trees die even the earth's surface.
B. high temperature: citrus growth begins to 13-18°C The maximum growth occurs citrus is 32-35°C and at least gradually higher growth even heat eliminates the growth temperature 48°C and above, rarely reach areas citrus cultivation of such high degrees of heat and citrus cultivation succeed at an altitude of 750 m above sea level and can be successful in the territory of the jungle where the temperature drops below zero.
2. Effect of Humidity:
The low relative humidity, which is an amount of water vapor in the space of the air relative to the amount of water vapor which saturates this space at the same temperature, and helps to increase the damage caused by the rise in temperature, leading to increased transpiration and the inability of the roots to absorb water, resulting about the imbalance of water and triggering plant dispose of some members to keep his life which leads to loss of flowers and fruits small and dry branches apical leaves and shoots of modern combustion-prone areas of the crust fruit and result in a decrease in economic value and significant loss of yield and can reduce the damage caused by low humidity means used resistance to high temperature in addition to a method of sprinkler irrigation and cropping environmental help to raise the relative humidity increased humidity leads to the spread of various fungal diseases and insect and lead to lower acidity and sugars in fruits and poor taste.
3. Effect of Light:
Citrus is one of the short-day plants, but it can become a long-day plants if provided her with the necessary care, fertilization and irrigation is less light from weather factors impact on the success of citrus cultivation. In general, you need a tree citrus intensity lighting moderate and not less than 70% and the temperature average daily of 15-16°C in a period of strong growth for parcels and fruits, as affected by growth and fruiting the greater the intensity of illumination and that the lack of light produced by condensing the trees and lack of pruning and the lack of access light into the heart of the tree prevents the flowering tree inside. If you must secure the light to the heart of the tree pruning and removal of interlocking branches and crowded to configure flowers on all branches of the tree.
4. Effect of Wind:
Wind is one of the important factors in the success of citrus cultivation, especially in areas that are exposed to the sirocco wind as a medium and with high relative humidity is less harmful than hot, dry winds harm is reflected in several images:
- Mechanical damage: leading to the fall of leaves, flowers, fruits and cracking branches may lead to the uprooting of trees in areas with light soils and increase harm if the wind blew immediately after irrigation.
- Damage physiological: back imbalance water balance of trees causes an increase transpiration resulting from the speed of the passage of the wind on the surfaces of the burner / leaves - fruits - market tender / and on the ability of roots to absorb water and increases the damage when the winds are dry and hot, leading to absorption of trees for water from fruits thereby forming a layer separation in the fruit on the tree shows signs of thirst and wilting peripheral and vegetative branches, flowers and fruits, which ends up Fallen or distort their appearance.
- Other damages: hinder pollination by insects and so least fruits contract as sometimes incompatible with the spraying operations and service.
I.2.2. Soils and Fertilizer dose
Grown citrus in multiple types of land, ranging from land sand passing through the land light, medium and even land heavy clay and each type of these types advantages and disadvantages, should not exceed the high level of ground water in the soil of 120 cm from the surface because the high water level ground where this reduce and collect rainwater on the surface for a long time lead to full fill the pores of the soil in the water and thus the lack of oxygen inside in this case, the roots of the trees need of oxygen needed to breathe in order to do its job core which is the absorption of water and food, as well as wilting shoots tender modern.PH soil suitable for citrus cultivation is that the pH value ranging from 5.5 to 5.8 .
Fermented compost uses a rate of 3-5 m3 / acre every two years once the late autumn (November) prose on the surface of the soil. Nitrogen:
linked to nitrogen nutrition to the borders of 400 kg nitrogen / ha nitrogen incites and encourages the growth of flowering and fruiting. Phosphorus: an important element for plant he enters in the composition of nucleic acids This is an essential element of the blossoms and fruits contract and the quality of the fruit also helps to early maturity and gives a smooth and desirable fruit size naturally. 1 kg of nitrogen net tree where there would be 3.3 kg of ammonium nitrate fertilizer 33.5 This type of fertilizer is the best kinds of nitrogenous fertilizers for citrus tree, for ease of melting and quickly absorbed by the roots of trees, a type that recommend its use in fertilizing citrus.
Minor elements: zinc: When the symptoms of deficiency added to the known sq. m amount of 1.7 kg or 4.5 kg zinc sulfate, zinc concentration of 36%. Iron: When deficiency symptoms are common occurrence, especially in the limestone land added to the tree 50-200 g of soil around the tree. Magnesium: The symptoms of deficiency when increasing potassium fertilization and the large leaves first treated by spraying leaves nitrate magnesium Mg (NO3) 2, which we get from dissolving the amount of 120 g of magnesium sulfate with 120 g of calcium nitrate Ca (NO3) 2 in 20 liters of water leads . Manganese: The symptoms of deficiency significantly in the land of high-PH or containing a high percentage of lime and sometimes added to soil or spraying on the leaves fell 0.5% manganese sulfate +0.25% calcium hydroxide . Electrical conductivity (Ece) as representing the total dissolved salts in the soil and measured in (mmho) This value must be less than about +2.4 mmho / cm, because the increase of salinity in the soil lead to increased concentration of soil solution is greater than the concentration of juices, vegetable and under these circumstances, the roots of the trees are unable to the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil and thus the survival of trees dwarf and weak growth .
I.2.3. Crop duration
The reproduction of seeds for the production of assets or new hybrid varieties or citrus seedlings are produced on the origin of bitter orange vaccination, where the seeds are extracted from the fruits of bitter orange completed maturing seeds are saved in plastic bags refrigerator at 4-5°C until the date of Agriculture, from vaccination to agriculture seedlings ranging from 6-21 months, or reproduction reason: tracking the propagation of species easy rooting like dahlia lemon and lemon and citron. The sweet orange, bitter orange and orange tri securities and hybridity are classified among medium-sized species the mind's ability to rooting. Citrus trees begin fruiting in the third or fourth year of planting in the ground development. And increasing crop gradually increased the age of the trees and attention to different service operations. That the production of citrus seedlings grafted in the traditional manner of needs (2.5 - 3) years, which is a very large, so modern research has tended to use a modern way of propagation of citrus seedlings in plastic bags under greenhouses.
I.2.4. Plant density
Planting distances vary according to variety, climate, soil and management and are between (2 x4) m or (4 x 4) m or (4 x6) m .
I.2.5. Water Requirements
Being a long duration crop, the total water requirements of citrus are high. Water requirements\ year (2003.8 ) mm. For rain fed production, average rainfall (149.1 ) mm\ year, well-distributed, is desirable, but citrus often grows under less rainfall. The crop coefficients for citrus water requirement calculation are given in the (Table 2 Crop coefficient (Kc) values of Citrus).
Table 2 Crop coefficient (Kc) values of Citrus
Crop
Crop Development Stages Total
Growing Period Initial Crop Development Middle Season Late Season Citrus 0.7 0.675 0.65 0.7 365 days
CHAPTER II: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
PRESENTATION OF THE HYDRO-AGRICULTURAL OF ABU Ghraib
Total area of Abu Ghraib is 693km2 (General Directorate of Survey2009 ). The 80% of the area of Abu Ghraib used for agricultural purpose, it is within the administrative borders of the capital Baghdad and it has a distance of 31 km from the capital of Iraq and 34 m above sea level. Figure 8 Over view of study area (by Google Earth )
Figure 8 Over view of study area (by Google Earth )
Area: 400m × 150m= 60000 m²
150m
Agro-climatic data of Baghdad
The climate is hot and dry in summer, cool and damp in winter. Spring and fall are brief but pleasant. Between May and September the average daily maximum temperature more than 40°C. In July and August Intense daytime heat is mitigated by low relative humidity (10 to 50 percent) and a
400m
temperature decline of 17°C or more at night. In winter the average daytime temperature is in the low 10°C, and the temperature occasionally drops below freezing. Precipitation is sparse (6 inches [150 mm] annually) and occurs mainly between December and April. There is no precipitation in summer. In spring and early summer the prevailing northwesterly winds (shamali) bring sandstorms that frequently bathe the city in a dusty mist.
Software Design Models:
For the design of our system network, we will use some software like (Figure: 5) Google Earth, CLAMWAT for the area's climatic conditions (ET0, Rain), Soil Water Characteristics (SPAW), CROPWAT ,VeProLGs , and EPANET.
Figure9 Software design Models Climatic Data Determination
The precipitation and the Potential Evapotranspiration (ETo) coming from CLIMWAT (and the metrological station of Baghdad) are shown in the
Figure 10 Climate Data, Baghdad station .
SPAW and Soil Data Determination
Description of SPAW
The SPAW (Soil-Plant-Air-Water) computer model simulates the daily hydrologic water budgets of agricultural landscapes by two connected routines, one for farm fields and a second for impoundments such as wetland ponds, lagoons or reservoirs. Climate, soil and vegetation data files for field and pond projects are selected from those prepared and stored with a system of interactive screens. Various combinations of the data files readily represent multiple landscape and pounding variations.
The objective of the SPAW model was to understand and predict agricultural hydrology and its interactions with soils and crop production without undue burden of computation time or input details. This required continual vigilance of the many choices required for the representation of each physical, chemical and biological process to achieve a "reasonable" and "balanced" approximation of the real world with numerical solutions. In our case we used the software to determine soil data for Crop water Requirements estimation in Cropwat.
Soil Data Determination
Data used in the software for soil characteristics determination are: Sand 35% , Clay 18% , Gravel 10% , Organic 0.6% , Salinity 0.7% . The figure and the characteristics are shown as follows.
Figure 12 Soil characteristics
The data below coming from the software are used in Cropwat for Crop Water Requirements estimation.
Table 3 Data of the study soil from SPAW software to CROPWAT.
From SPAW. To CROPWAT
Available water 0.13cm/cm 130mm/m
Sat. Hydraulic
Conductivity/Infiltration rate.
8.31mm/hr 200mm/day
VeProLGs (1.6.0) and Design Parameter Determination
Description of VeProLGs
VeProLGs is a computer program for the verification and design of drip line and areas of planting to save water and energy. VeProLGs is a software application that performs operational tests on equipment design and dimensioning of drip irrigation, with the aim of increasing the uniformity of distribution of irrigation to save water and reduce energy consumption .Through the use of VeProLGs is possible to evaluate the functioning of entire sectors of irrigation on field crops, trees, flowers and plants, although grown on slopes and strongly with changes in elevation along the line.
*To verify the operation of equipment already installed, identifying any changes to improve performance
*Guide the design choices in the construction of new facilities according to criteria of high efficiency;
*Provide useful parameters for site management;
*Involve the evaluation of functional performance of the plants the costs of amortization of the purchase of drip lines and energy costs for water delivery.
Figure 13 Best Drip Line Streamline SL80 d.16 q.0,98 s. o,4 (1998) Data for Irrigation Uniformity Distribution Determination
Data useful and chosen in the software for the uniformity of irrigation distribution determination :
Figure 14 Data for uniformity determination of one line.
Using these data in the software, one obtains the following results.
The uniformity of irrigation distribution on the plot of ( 6 ) ha determined is( 96.1%) the area flow rate is (32.04.9) l/s and the irrigation intensity is (0.54mm/hour). This uniformity is finally used in Cropwat to estimate Crop water Requirements and the pressure is 8.0 m.
CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling
Description of CROPWAT 8.0
CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land and Water
Development Division of FAO
(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_cropwat.html).
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop data. In addition, the program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used to evaluate farmers’ irrigation practices and to estimate crop performance under both rain fed and irrigated conditions.
All calculation procedures used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the two FAO publications of the Irrigation and Drainage Series, namely, No. 56 "Crop Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements” and No. 33 titled "Yield response to water".
CROPWAT 8.0 includes standard crop and soil data. When local data are available, these data files can be easily modified or new ones can be created. Likewise, if local climatic data are not available, these can be obtained for over 5,000 stations worldwide from CLIMWAT, the associated climatic database. The development of irrigation schedules in CROPWAT 8.0 is based on a daily soil-water balance using various user-defined options for water supply and irrigation management conditions. Scheme water supply is calculated according to the cropping pattern defined by the user, which can include up to 20 crops.
Figure 17 Crop
Figure 18 Crop Water Requirements
*
Calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for paddy & upland rice, using a newly developed procedure to calculate waterFigure 19 Crop Irrigation Schedule
*
Interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules. *Daily soil water balance output tables.*
Easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user-defined irrigation schedules. *Graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation schedules.*Easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files; *Extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers.
*Context-sensitive help system.
*Multilingual interface and help system: English, Spanish, French and Russian.
EPANET 2.0 and Design of The Irrigation Scheme
Description of EPANET 2.0
Software That Models the Hydraulic and Water Quality Behavior of Water Distribution Piping Systems.
Developed by EPA's Water Supply and Water Resources Division (www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/dw/epanet.html) EPANET is software that models water distribution piping systems. It is a Windows 95/98/NT/XP program that performs extended-period simulation of the hydraulic and water quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks.
Pipe networks consist of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions), pumps, valves, and storage tanks or reservoirs. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of the water in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical species throughout the network during a simulation period. Chemical species, water age, source, and tracing can be simulated. EPANET provides an integrated computer environment for editing network input data, running hydraulic and water quality simulations, and viewing the results in a variety of formats. These include color-coded network maps, data tables, time series graphs, and contour plots.
The Plan of Irrigation Scheme
The whole plan of the irrigation scheme is composed of (6) ha . The source of water used for irrigation is located at (70) m from the perimeter.
We choose the pump 32-125, 115 ( Figure 17) this pump can provide the pressure and the flow rate we need it to our design ( we have chosen the pump on the web site www.grundfos.com )
Figure 21 Pump Variety
And the scheme is as follows:
By choosing Poly Ethylene kind of pipes to my design and the diameter is (96.8) mm :
The diameter is pipe nᵒ 1( 96.8) mm and pipe nᵒ2(96.8) mm also in the valve.
Figure 22 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Diameter
The distance length between basin and the perimeter of field
is (70)m and the distance length of main field is (200)m:
The roughness of pipes is (140) because it plastic :
The pressure I get is (8) m in the enter point of field :
Figure 25 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Pressure
The flow rate of design is (32.04)m
3/h
Figure 26 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Flow Rate
The velocity of water in pipes is (1.21)m/s it mean optimum
for design if depends it less than <1.5m/s :
Figure 27 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Velocity
The velocity of design is less than 1.5 m/s that mean our pump is work with low energy.
CONCLUSION
The using of tools such as Cropwat, VeProLGs and EPANET helped to design a complete drip irrigation system adaptable to Alraad Station.
The final system has an efficiency of 96.1% and works with a very low request of energy by pumping, only 8 m.w.c of operating pressure. This performance increases substantially water saving in irrigation, therefore, allows extension of irrigated areas with the same resource and also its sustainable use.
The system also has the advantage of being designed entirely with irrigation facilities available in the study area, which makes its eventual implementation feasible and quite easy.
This design was made for the cultivation of Citrus on Baghdad but the same approach might be applied to other crops on different agricultural fields. This methodological approach and especially the final result provide a guide to Iraq for the future of irrigated agriculture to develop.
References
-
Burt, C.M. and S. W. Styles. 2007. Drip and Micro Irrigation Design and Management for Trees, Vines, and Field Crops. 3rd Edition. Irrigation Training and Research Center, 2007;- F.A.O Irrigation Manual Module 9. 2007. Localized Irrigation Systems: Planning, Design, Operation and Maintenance;
- Rainbird International. 1980. Design manual drip irrigation systems.
- Keller, J. & Bliesner, R.D. 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation. Chapman & Hall, New York.
- Iraqi Academic Scientific Journals .
- D. Mohammed Saleh Hamad al-Dulaimi .The role of the electricity sector in solving the problem of water scarcity in the agricultural sector of
government.
- Hunter Catalog \ Desert Development Center \ AUC \ Cairo \ 2009.
- Diyala Journal of Agricultural Sciences \ 2011.
- Agricultural Statistical Atlas \ Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation \ PCBS \ Directorate of Agricultural Statistics \ 2012.Iraq. - Directorate of the Office of citrus \ Syrian Ministry of Agriculture \ 2011.
- FAO, 1984.Values of Kc suggestion. by different authors .
- Rainbird International, 1980. Area wetted by one emitter depending on soil type .
- Google Earth. - Google Map.
