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The Asian Shrimp
Industry Today
Pond Liners in China
Prebiotics in
Aquaculture
Better Postlarvae Market
in 2006
Victam Asia 2006
Show Peview
Focus on Disease
Management
VOLUME 2 NUMBER 1
JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
MICA(P) 094/10/2005 ISBN 1793-0561
Parasitic diseases in marine fish
Handling diseases in shrimp ponds
Review on shrimp diseases
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Issue Focus:
Disease Management
14
Important parasitic diseases
in cultured marine fish in the
Asia-Pacific region
A two-part article on parasitic infections and associated diseases common in mariculture systems in Asia. Part one introduces the types of infections. By Leong Tak Seng, Zilong Tan and William J. Enright
17
How to overcome disease
problems in shrimp culture
Based on his presentation at the recent NACA-ALLTECH shrimp school, Prof Chalor Limsuwan discusses how to handle the major diseases in shrimp ponds
20
Reviewing shrimp diseases
in Asia
The major shrimp diseases in order of economic impact are WSSV, YHV, HPV and MBV and recently, TSV and IHHNV have been added to this list. To help producers monitor these diseases, Tim W Flegel provides information on each disease and the current detection tools available for simple diagnoses
Industry Review
10
Marine shrimp farming in
Asia today
In 2004, 81% of the global production of farmed marine shrimp came from Asia. What has been happening in the industry in the last three years? By Zuridah Merican and Iffa Suraiya
13
Interview:
How to gain an edge
Iffa Suraiya talks to Freddy Numberi, Minister of Fisheries & Marine Affairs, Indonesia about turning marine shrimp production into a prime export commodity
Pond Management
24
Using pond liners for
intensive shrimp culture in
Southern China
Ng Chee Kiat explains the use of plastic liners in shrimp farming in China as a disease management tool
Hatchery
26
Better market for white
shrimp PL in 2006
Sarin Hatchery’s Attapol Suriyawonghae is looking forward to better times as the grow out industry in Thailand picks up again after a slow demand in mid 2005. Reports Zuridah Merican
28
Multispecies research
in Phuket
PCFRD is working on the production of annelid worms as feed for shrimp broodstock
29
Probiotics and premixes in
aquaculture
A solution for antibiotic free feeding in shrimp hatcheries in South East Asia. By Christian Lückstädt
Feed Technology
30
Managing gut flora naturally
with prebiotics in aquaculture
Nicolas Robert and Florence Rudeaux discuss work which draws on the prebiotics concept to improve growth in trout and marine shrimp
32
Full and partial replacement
of fishmeal with DDGS in red
tilapia diets
Preliminary work shows that DDGS can be a suitable ingredient in feeds for freshwater fish. By Hanan Mohd Yusof, H-P Chuah and S. Pathmasothy
NEWS
4
The next step for Thai and
Indian shrimp
Responses from industry after the US ITC maintains the respective antidumping duties on frozen shrimp from India and Thailand
8
The challenge for tilapia in
Vietnam
How to bring tilapia culture forward as the next major export commodity
Show Reports
34
At China Aquaculture 2005
Some of South China’s top integrators at the China Fisheries and Seafood and China Aquaculture exhibition held in Guangzhou from November 10-12
40
Show preview VICTAM ASIA
2006
More updates on exhibitors at this show to be held from 8-10 March in Bangkok
Company news
37
Indonesian producers tap
Chinese live fish market
A group of producers from Bali and Sumatra combines forces to market live marine fish in China
REGULAR FEATURES
2
From the Editor
4
News
37
Company news
38
Product news
42
Letters to the Editor
44
Forthcoming events
Editor/Publisher Zuridah Merican, PhD Tel: +603 2096 2275 Fax: +603 2096 2276 Email: [email protected] Editorial CoordinationCorporate Media Services P L
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NEWS
Contents
Volume 2, Number 1 January/February 2006 MICA (P) 094/10/200517
From the editor
The Year Ahead
As we enter a new year, it will be fitting to reflect on the challenges and issues ahead for the industry. The message from the industry is that trade issues and market forces will continue to determine the direction of the marine shrimp industry, as it did in 2005. Increases in production will be from the culture of P. vannamei. For all species, Asian aquaculture will continue to face non tariff barriers unless there are more efforts for a responsible and sustainable aquaculture (RSA).
Generally, all high value products will one day face price erosion due to competition and market forces. This is a reality check for farmers that low prices for the marine shrimp are here to stay. Dr. M. Sakthivel from India’s Aquaculture Foundation has put this aptly as “who will stay as sustainable producers at a production cost of USD 2.0/kg and sell shrimp at prevailing market prices?” The solution may lie in value adding and branding.
The processing trend is value-added finished products as consumers seek new levels of convenience. The industry is pressing ahead with this as it would allow them to capture larger shares of the gains from trade along the value chain. As this incurs substantial marketing expenses to develop the necessary brand name involved in value-added products, it has been slower in some countries as compared to others.
There are the trade and non tariff barriers facing the shrimp and catfish segments. At the last 2005 Global Shrimp Outlook Meeting in Vietnam, panelists said that the aquaculture industry's best approach to antidumping is to maintain a coordinated response to ongoing antidumping issues. The first administrative review on the shrimp antidumping will begin in February, 2006. This uncertainty and volatility of the US shrimp market (as well as the Japanese market), is pushing shrimp exporters towards market diversification. The antidumping experience in the US market forced the Vietnamese tra and basa industry to revise its export market strategy. In 2004, the value of the EU market for catfish increased to 30% as compared to 19% for the US market. In the article on the shrimp industry (see page 10), Glen Iling mentioned the possibility of China becoming an import market for shrimp. Perhaps in the near distant future, China may become the market to the world rather than the factory to the world.
In an editorial in 2003, I mentioned the impact of the culture of P. vannamei in Asia on the global market for marine shrimp. Asia now produces 81% of world supply of shrimp and based on estimates of production, this will increase in 2006. P. vannamei culture has also turned the farming of shrimp in Asia into a volume business. However, will the market continue to be segmented into medium size vannamei shrimp and large size black tiger shrimp? Through partial harvesting, larger vannamei shrimp are being produced when densities are reduced. Now US researchers have shown that 34g shrimp can be harvested in intensive systems at 118 pcs/m2. Unless more positive results emanate from work on the domestication of the black tiger shrimp, the species will continue to lose its lure. What will be the final equilibrium?
Today, it is not only innovative products that consumers are seeking. Products must be wholesome and safe. Unfortunately, aquaculture has had its share of bad publicity as a means of food production. In the new global agenda, RSA will be part of the market forces and there should not be any apprehension on the part of Asian producers to meet this demand. What does this mean for producers? This is aquaculture developed in a comprehensive and balanced manner to ensure its long-term sustainability and in harmony with the environment (FAO, 2005). This, together with new technologies to improve production, makes them more marketable. RSA is already embodied in the various codes of conduct for aquaculture and good aquaculture practices. Systems such as cage culture without considerations of carrying capacity and the environment will be at risk. In the future, there is the possibility that markets will favour countries where this is well planned and implemented.
and finally…
There have been several letters to the editor recently with regard to the article “Improving pond water quality with clinoptilolites” published in issue 6, pp 22 (see page 43). On this, it is important to state that the magazine’s role is not to decide what is right or wrong for aquaculture. Our role is to serve as a platform where technologies can be debated upon scientifically to ensure all views are heard for the industry to reach the correct conclusion.
The team at Aquaculture Asia Pacific wishes all readers a Happy and Prosperous New Year.
Zuridah Merican
WRITE TO THE EDITOR
We want to hear from you. Write your comments on the industry to the editor. Send by fax to Zuridah Merican at +603 2096 2276 or email:
[email protected] Letters may be edited prior to publication
George Chamberlain, GAA president said, “While many producers have argued that zero-tolerance policies for trace levels of chemicals in shrimp are unrealistic, they recognize that such regulations in Europe and elsewhere may not change. As buyers reiterate, the market demands "clean" shrimp, so farmers have adjusted their practices to continue supplying the popular seafood”.
In the session on antidumping, Matthew Nicely of Willkie Farr and Gallagher said that the aquaculture industry's best approach to antidumping, is to maintain a coordinated response to ongoing antidumping issues. Projections on production were discussed. Chen Dan of the Evergreen Group projected a rise in China's shrimp production to 450,000 tonnes in 2006, with more value adding and an emphasis on regional marketing to help absorb the additional product. Thailand's projections were not far behind. On the contrary, Werner Jost of Camanor said Brazil's fledgling industry is still adjusting its farm practices to deal with new diseases. Ecuador is steadily recovering volume after the country’s devastating decline caused by White Spot Syndrome Virus.
Sustaining growth of farmed shrimp
Top international shrimp buyers, producers and suppliers at the Global Shrimp Outlook (GSOL) meeting,
held in Ho Chi Minh City in October 2005 recognized the need for both significant market expansion
and continued vigilance against chemical residues to sustain the growth of shrimp aquaculture. The
organiser, Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) said 300 participants from Asia, Europe, North America
and South America attended the meeting.
At the GSOL 2005, international aquaculture experts considered such topics as market expansion, antidumping, facility certification and antibiotic residues in shrimp.
04 |
NEWS
Following this decision, Thai shrimp farmers are seeking action from the government. In the Nation, Ekapoj Yodpinit from the Suratthani shrimp club said that this was important as the US market accounts for half of Thailand’s shrimp exports. For the first 10 months of 2005, Thailand exported 231,769 tonnes of shrimp worth Baht 58 billion or USD 1.45 billion, according to figures released by the Thai Frozen Foods Association. Of this, 130,764 tonnes was to the US market.
A decision on whether Thailand will bring the case of double taxing its shrimp exports to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) is still pending. According to MCOT.net, the Thai Ambassador to the WTO suggested that the government should file a complaint to the world trade body over what it saw as the US government's unfair practice on imposing both antidumping duties and continuous bonds on Thai shrimp exporters. During the first 10 months 2005, Thai shrimp exporters have posted continuous bonds worth Baht 2 billion or USD 50 million as required by the US government, according to the Thai Frozen Foods Association. The figure will double to Baht 4 billion or USD100 million over the next two years to guarantee Thai shrimp exports to the US market.
In India, the Business Standard said that the decision was a cold shower for Indian’s shrimp industry. Nevertheless, they are confident that the issue will be brought to the disputes settlement body of the WTO. It said that if handled well, the Indian case certainly stood a chance of getting a favourable verdict. In the case of India, exports of shrimps to the US had dropped by nearly half since the imposition of the antidumping duty.
The report added that regardless of the final outcome of this dispute, one thing that is clear is that Indian seafood exporters cannot and should not depend too much on the US market. Though shrimp is the most sought after seafood among US consumers and the country depends largely on imports for meeting its demand, the fact is that shrimp prices are on the decline there and Indian exporters may find their profit margins shrinking with time. Indian processors also noted that while the Indian seafood exporters find the going tough, their counterparts in Thailand, faced with a similar situation, have moved into high value-added products.
The next step for Thai and Indian shrimp
In November, the US International Trade Commission announced that it will maintain the respective
antidumping duties on frozen shrimp from India and Thailand. Thailand and India had applied for a Change
Circumstances Review, citing the damage inflicted on the industry from the December 26 tsunami.
Too fast too furious in Ca Mau
Shrimp farming in the southern province of Ca Mau, Mekong Delta, Vietnam has taken off at
such a phenomenal phase that the majority of rice fields in the Dam Doi District have been
completely rebuilt as shrimp culture ponds. Thanks to shrimp farming, the district’s gross domestic
product has increased from 12 to 24% a year, according to the Vietnam News Service.
The report quoted Hai Hong Nhanh, owner of a large shrimp farm in Thanh Tung Commune, “Previously, the entire area was rice fields and we had to work very hard for very little profit. In 2001, we decided to culture shrimp and our situation improved. Now, we have three hectares of shrimp ponds, and we earn VND500 million or USD 31,600 a year.”
However, it is the unplanned development that is worrying authorities and they wonder whether this is sustainable. In order to access the water needed, farmers have destroyed dams to allow seawater to enter ponds. As a result, the waters are too saline. The local authorities are trying to find a solution to the problem. But what is clear, they said is that a balance must be sought by developing both shrimp and rice. The report concluded that Ca Mau is learning the hard way that sustainable development plans are the only ones that can last.
Highs in import alerts in 2005
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said that the import alerts for shrimp, basa fish and
crabmeat were at record highs throughout most of 2005. In a report in Intrafish, a Malaysian company
was the latest to be added to the alert list for allegedly shipping frozen raw shrimp contaminated
with chloramphenicol. The agency said that as there has been an extensive commercialisation and
an increased consumption rate of aquaculture seafood products, the use of unapproved animal
drugs will have an impact on the safety of aquaculture products for consumers.
There are 17 crab exporters from China, Vietnam and Indonesia listed due to shipments containing residues of chloramphenicol, 12 shrimp exporters from five countries on FDA warning lists, four basa catfish exporters from Vietnam, one eel exporter from China, and a “walking clarias” exporter from Thailand. These companies are listed for shipping products containing either chloramphenicol, malachite green or the banned antibiotic ciprofloxacin. Two Indonesian shrimp exporters are listed for shipments containing residues of another banned chemical called nitrofuran. The FDA requires five clean shipments testing negative for chloramphenicol, verified by an independent laboratory, before shipments can resume.
Shrimp ponds amongst rice fields in the Mekong Delta
Acquisition of Sygen International
by Genus
In December, it was announced that Genus plc has completed the acquisition of Sygen International
plc. With this, Genus will be the largest animal genetics company in the world and leading bovine,
swine and shrimp genetics. In the press release, it was stated that the prime objective was to combine
the research and development activities of the two companies to meet the ever increasing demands
of customers which are being driven by increasing economic, welfare and environmental pressures.
The company said that the name Sygen will no longer be used but Sygen trading brands, PIC and SyAqua will continue unchanged. SyAqua, established in 2002, is the shrimp aquaculture division of Sygen International plc, the world leader in applying genetics and biotechnology to animal breeding. SyAqua has operations in four countries, Thailand, Mexico, Brazil and the US. In Thailand, SyAqua Siam has a nucleus breeding centre and has a breeding program for selection under Thai conditions with 200 families.06 |
NEWS
Brief news
Clean process for catfish
in Vietnam
An Giang Seafood Import Export Joint Stock Company (Agifish) will establish a model to raise the quality of tra catfish for export. This is in line with efforts to prevent the abuse of antibiotics in aquaculture, according to Vietnam News. This will involve seafood processing companies and fish farms. Farms will work in groups, with a total output of 5,000–12,000 tonnes for each group and each member must reach an output of at least 500 tonnes and upwards. Members will operate under the guidance and supervision of quality controllers to create a close process from breeding, production to fish processing. In this model, clients will have the right to check all stages of production before signing contracts.
US seafood consumption up
For the third straight year in 2004, US seafood consumption rose. The National Marine fisheries Service reported that the 2004 figure is up from 16.3 lbs/person or 7.4 kg/person in 2003, an increase of 2%. In 2001 the rate was 14.8 lbs/person or 6.72 kg/person and in 2002 it was 15.6 lbs/ person or 7.1 kg/person. Shrimp continues to be a favorite among American seafood eaters. A record 4.2 lbs or 1.9 kg of shrimp were consumed per person in 2004 up 0.2 lbs or 90g from 2003. More details are available from http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/ stories2005/pdf/seafood-consumption 11-09-2005.pdf
Indonesia extends ban
on shrimp imports
The government has extended the ban on shrimp imports into the country. This was to prevent the entry of contaminated shrimp and shrimp disease. The extension of the ban for another six months was the second of its kind since the import of shrimp was banned through joint ministerial decrees dated December 28, 2004. The ban was later renewed on January 26, 2005 and limited to three species of shrimp, namely frozen and non-frozen shrimp of the vannamei, monodon and stylirostris species.
In a separate report, Antara News reported that the US government has denied reports that it planned to slap an antidumping duty on shrimp from Indonesia. It was previously reported that the US government would impose a 112% on Indonesian shrimps for alleged trans shipment of Chinese shrimp using Indonesian certificate of origin.
Sustainable fish feeds
Dragon feeds based in Wales, UK has pioneered a new technology in the production of sustainable fish feeds using polychaetes worms, according to icWales. The worms are farmed in Holland and processed at the company's Port Talbot mill. The company said that sustainable feed was the way forward to satisfy growing global demand for fish feeds. It added that unlike other foods which use fish meal and oils, their product is a sustainable solution developed in Wales. The company will launch their shrimp feed at Aquaculture Americas in Las Vegas which runs from February 13–16.
Award for GIFT tilapia
development
The WorldFish Centre has been named a 2005 Tech Museum Awards Laureate for its development of GIFT tilapia (Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia). “We are delighted to have been chosen for this prestigious award in recognition of more than ten years of research carried out by WorldFish and its partners in the Philippines, Malaysia and Norway”, said Dr Stephen J. Hall, Director General of the WorldFish Center in the New Straits Times. “The GIFT tilapia strain is especially suited to the needs of poor farmers and consumers, and is aimed at reducing poverty and hunger in developing countries,” he added. GIFT was developed in the Philippines by the ICLARM, now the WorldFish Center, with the Institute for Aquaculture Research, Norway. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) supported the R&D and dissemination of GIFT by providing technical assistance from 1988 to 1997.
Increasing competitiveness
of Taiwan fish
The Council of Agriculture Taiwan has outlined some strategies to regain its market share and confidence in its eel exports. The output value of eels declined 40% when fish exports were contaminated with antibiotics. It also wants to improve the quality of the Wuguo tilapia. Taiwan was the leading exporter of this tilapia until 2004 when China took the lead. Tilapia production is 89,000 tonnes and exports total 50,000 tonnes. Taiwan needs to produce quality fish by focussing on breeding technology as it cannot compete with Vietnam on price. The council also plans to look at new markets such as in the Middle East.
Euro 18 million for Europe’s
largest tilapia farm
This will be an indoor, recirculating tilapia farm and processing plant near Mouscron, Belgium with an annual production target of 3,000 tonnes of fresh product for major European retail markets. Funding is from European and Belgian subsidies and private investors. In Intrafish.com, skeptics say that Indoor European aquaculture producers have struggled with high costs and other challenges, with the notable exception of turbot. Mouscron is also far cry from the low-cost, high production countries in South America and Southeast Asia, which produce the overwhelming majority of the world’s tilapia. Proponents believe that the tilapia has all the right credentials for Europe’s big retailers, especially with its eco-credentials. Tilapia is probably the biggest seafood success story since farmed salmon. They quoted that Chilean salmon farmer AquaChile was buying a majority stake in Rain Forest Tilapia.
Successful tuna IPO in Australia
South Australian aquaculture producer Clean Seas Tuna had closed its AUD 18 million initial public offer (IPO) earlier than planned. Chairman Hagen Stehr said the company had been overwhelmed by the support of institutional and retail investors and its own employees. The company will use the funds from this IPO to expand the business of breeding and breeding and growing kingfish and mulloway and upgrade the hatchery to start the breeding of the southern bluefin tuna and grow tuna from its own stock.
The aim of the conference in Ho Chi Minh City was to introduce new technology to the industry and help Vietnamese farmers improve the performance of their farms. Farmers were mainly from the South East provinces. Presentations included an overview of world tilapia production and factors affecting the tilapia culture industry. Dr Kidchankan Supamattaya, Head of Aquatic Animal Health Research Center, Department of Aquatic Science, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand gave a presentation on the impact of mycotoxins on the growth performance of tilapia.
A growing
US market
Scott Ainslie, General Manager of Cargill Vietnam gave some statistics on the US tilapia market. Global tilapia exports to this market in 2004 were 249 million pounds (113,000 tonnes), which represents an increase of 23% compared to that in 2003 and 68% compared to 2002. According to the US Department of Commerce, tilapia imports into the US market in the first 6 months of 2005 totalled 129.9 million pounds or 58,636 tonnes. This represents an increase of 11% compared to the same period of 2004.
Tilapia products are frozen, fresh and fillet. China is still the leading exporter to the US market with a 52% market share, followed by Taiwan at 23%, and Ecuador at 12%. Other major exporters are Indonesia and Costa Rica.
Scott said, “The US market is growing and represents a big opportunity for Vietnam if the industry can meet the requirements of US consumers. Vietnam already exports nearly USD 2.3 billion of fish and seafood, but this comprise mainly of shrimp, tra and basa fillet, squid and tuna. Tilapia is not on the list today”.
Added to this, industry experts agree that demand for tilapia imports will grow in 2005 and 2006, particularly in the food service and restaurant segments.
Vietnam tilapia
Participants agreed that Vietnam has the potential to be a major producer of tilapia. Le Minh Man, Aqua Sales Manager of Cargill Vietnam said that suitable growing areas are located in the Mekong Delta in South Vietnam and also in the provinces around the red river in the North. Vietnam has the right environmental conditions for rearing tilapia. But why is it that the tilapia is still being touted as a “potential species” only? The annual consumption of tilapia is still low and is limited to the domestic market only”.
Man said that there are two reasons for this situation. One is the poor quality of fingerlings. The broodstock used to produce fingerlings were imported from Malaysia, Thailand and Taiwan some 10 years ago. Since these have been used for several generations they are showing the negative traits associated with inbreeding. These traits include reduced survival rates, poor growth and high susceptibility to diseases. Vietnam has not been able to build a “brand name” for tilapia breeding. Secondly, the plan to export tilapia will require more support. Man said that more needs to be done to improve the standard, knowledge and the technical skill of Vietnamese tilapia farmers.
“We also need to improve the culture methods. For example, in Taiwan and China, farmers stock at a density of 30-50 pcs/ m2 while Vietnamese farmers maintain the density at 80-120 pcs/m2. This is almost 3 times higher than other countries with very developed industries. He added that the high density will slow down growth and increase food conversion (FCR). The FCR in Taiwan and China is around 1.5-1.7 while in Vietnam, it is higher than 2.
He also stressed on the importance of record keeping such as on feed usage for each stage, feeding schedule and the treatments used at the farms. Vietnam is not competitive as the cost of production for tilapia is USD 1.1/kg while in other countries, it is just USD 0.86/kg. In summary, Man said, “Vietnam tilapia surely will be able to export to the US market if we can improve the above issues. The good news for Vietnamese tilapia farmers is that Cargill VN is working with a partner to set up a hatchery to help Vietnam farmers access a consistent supply of quality fingerlings”.
The challenge for tilapia in Vietnam
At the second Professional Aqua Farmers conference organized by Cargill Vietnam in December, around
200 tilapia farmers discussed how to bring the industry forward for tilapia to be the country's next
major export commodity.
New feed line and new plants
At the conference, Cargill also launched it new fingerling feed line, Aquaxcel. The company said that Aquaxcel will help fingerlings grow fast, will increase survival rate, enhance the immune system and reduce water pollution. Daniel Barziza, Cargill, USA, said, “Aquaxel, with particle sizes of less than 1mm, was designed with a balanced amino acid and energy profile.
It is produced through extrusion technology. It reduces water pollution in fish ponds by sharply reducing the amount of feed that dissolves in water. Not only is this beneficial for the environment but it improves growth rate and survival of fish. Aquaxcel will meet the nutritional requirements of fish up to 20g”.
Cargill has two plants under construction in the Mekong Delta. Scott said that the extruder in Cantho will open in early 2006 with the capacity of 70,000 tonnes/year. Another mill will be ready for production in early 2007 with the capacity of 150,000 tonnes/year in Long An. The investments for all the project was around USD 15 million.
“The Vietnam feed industry is still relatively young and Cargill Vietnam will continue to look for opportunities to build more plants in Vietnam to meet increasing demands for Cargill's industry leading technology”.
08 |
NEWS
Scott Ainslie (right), presenting a souvenir to a participant.
NEWS
Indian farmers shift to organic aquaculture
Farmers in coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh (AP) are being guided to shift to organic aquaculture with
the assistance of the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), NaturLand, the West
German international certifying agency for organic farming and INFOFISH, Malaysia.
G Rathina Raj, deputy director of MPEDA said, “Following a serious setback to exports in the fiscal year of 2004–05 due to the presence of excess antibiotic residue in shrimp, 98% of the farmers culturing the freshwater prawn and tiger shrimp in about 100,000 ha in the coastal areas of AP have stopped using antibiotics”.
Through workshops and training sessions, the group has succeeded in educating farmers on the harmful effects of antibiotics in overcoming diseases in shrimp. The farmers have been taught preventive measures such as the checking of virus affected postlarvae and adult shrimp through PCR-polymerase chain reaction tests. They have also been
provided with lists of 20 banned and harmful antibiotics, prawn culture parameters, required fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and trace elements.
However, Raj was of the view that the adoption of organic aquaculture methods in toto is difficult as cost of production would escalate by 30% without any guarantee of remunerative price and purchase in world markets.
“It would be a great achievement if 5,000-10,000 ha are brought under organic aquaculture.”
(Information courtesy of Andreas Stamer, Naturland).
China targets 70% of fish from farms
At least 70% of fish supply for the Chinese market will be from farms rather than the sea within five years,
according to Chinadaily.com. The Vice-Minister of Agriculture Niu Dun said that this strategy is to meet
increasing demands. However, this must come with improve quality and safety levels of aquatic products.
It was estimated that the size of the country's aquatic production will expand from 51 million tonnes in 2005 to 60 million tonnes by 2010. The current contribution from aquaculture is 67%. To push aquaculture, the country will continue to impose seasonal bans on fisheries in the seas off China and in the Yangtze River.
While drawing lessons from contamination of aquatic products by the antibiotic chloramphenicol and malachite green in recent years, the country also needs to tackle fish diseases. An initial survey in fish
farms nationwide last year found 126 varieties of fish diseases, which incurred losses of 15 billion RMB (USD 1.85 billion), according to Li Jianhua, director of the Fisheries Bureau under the ministry. Outbreaks of the disease in fish have to some extent, led to the overuse of certain chemicals, which have consequently added to the decline in the quality of aquatic products, according to Li. The bureau will examine aquatic product export centres to ensure they have kept daily logs on aquaculture production and drug use.
Marine shrimp farming in Asia today
By Zuridah Merican and Iffa Suraiya
What has been happening in the marine shrimp industry in the last three years? Are we better off than
before? Here are some views from the industry.
10 |
INDUSTRY REVIEW
In 2004, 81% of the global production of farmed marine shrimp came from Asia. Production was estimated at 1.16 million tonnes for the top six producers in Asia, namely Thailand, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, India and Bangladesh. Additionally, some 63,000 tonnes are produced in Malaysia and Philippines. In comparison, some 13 countries in South and Central America produced 286,486 tonnes in 2004 (Chen,pers. comm., 2005; World Shrimp Farming, 2005).
In Asia, shrimp production has increased substantially by 27% since 2000 (FAO, 2005, Table 1). It has been difficult to ascertain the production from China. Various industry sources have estimated 350,000-450,000 tonnes in 2004. Official estimates are 650,000 tonnes in 2003 (Wang and Wang, 2005). Thailand and China lead in production. But it is the former that is leading Asian producers in the quality and technical aspects of production.
The general trend has been an increase in the supply of shrimp. Demand is also increasing as shrimp is an acceptable food matching consumer’s demands for healthy meat with high omega 3 levels. Dr. Chen Ming Dang from Charoen Pokphand Public Foods said that the industry has also benefited as consumers moved away from meat because of fears from the Avian flu, BSE and foot and mouth diseases. Additionally, wild caught sources are declining and aquaculture is expanding due to the increasing demand for seafood.
The situation today
Certainly the industry is of the opinion that it has come a long way in the control of diseases, improvements in production techniques and a much better understanding of the global industry. Most producers understand market demands and work towards this. It is, however, far from reaching the industrial level of the poultry industry and a level playing field for all countries and for all producers. Perhaps with the exception of Thailand, the level of industrialisation in the industry elsewhere remains very divergent.
The marine shrimp industry is now globalised with one major species that is Penaeus (or Litopenaeus) vannamei. Out of a total of 21 producer countries in 2006, 17 countries culture this species. In Asia, the jump in production in Thailand, China and Indonesia since the catastrophic years for the industry (1990-1997), has been correlated with the shift to this species. In 2004, 43% of the total production was attributed to this species. P. vannamei may have comprised up to 95% of the national production of Thailand in 2005. In Indonesia, it was 40% (SPB, 2005) and it is expected to form 2/3 of the national production in the future (Trobos, 2005). About 63% of China’s production in 2003 was P. vannamei.
The industry still remains fragmented as indicated by the various levels of yields between countries and within regions in a particular country. The Thai model of succession from extensive to semi intensive (years 1987-1990) to intensive at 60 PL/m2 (1990 to 1993) and currently the close system with stocking rates of 30-40 PL/m2 have been adopted for the culture of the black tiger shrimp, P. monodon (Paneetatayasai,
2004). In P. vannamei culture, such as in Indonesia, the diversity is extreme. This is not only in stocking densities but also in yields per hectare of 60-80 pcs/kg which range from 0.5-2.0 tonnes/ha to 7-12 tonnes/ha at stocking rates of 20-35 PL/m2 (SPB, 2005).
The industry in Asia is vulnerable to some common threats. Leading are threats from diseases such as the impact of the white spot virus on the P. monodon culture systems and from TSV on P. vannamei and other species. These are followed by fluctuating prices on world markets. Between countries, there are the competitive advantages of countries such as China over that of Thailand and Indonesia in P. vannamei culture and Vietnam and India over that of Malaysia and the Philippines for the black tiger shrimp. China remains the lowest cost producer. The cost advantage in Indonesia may be eroded with the recent hike in diesel prices. Nefo Ng, a farmer in Bali said that production costs per kg have increased 16%.
Some recent developments
A better understanding of pond and water management to control diseases has been a crucial factor in the success of many farms. This has been strongly advocated in many countries but less in others. Briefly some of these are given below.
Dr Chen said, “Prevention of disease is uppermost. Most producers undertake a thorough screening process for the post larvae to prevent the entry of diseases into the farming system. However, there are still problems where in the past, we would use antibiotics quickly to eradicate. Today, we use biological means such as probiotics. We know that if we reduce water treatment, we will be inviting diseases.”
“In biosecure systems, growth targets are 1.2 to 1.3 g/week and most customers know the importance of this to increase survival. This practice has been instilled into culture practices for our customers in India, China and partially in Vietnam too. Our recommendations include 1:1 (pond: reservoir) for the black tiger shrimp and 4:1 for the white shrimp”.
The awareness on being able to control the spread of diseases by controlling water quality means that water
exchange is being minimized. Dr Pornlerd Chanratchakool said, “Whatever the system, farmers are now managing to control pH and dissolved oxygen at the optimum range, to minimize the risk of toxic substances such as ammonia, nitrite or hydrogen sulfide. They understand risk management and closed or semi closed systems are common.”
The spread of the Taura Virus Syndrome (TSV) in farms in Indonesia has not only been attributed to poor quality postlarvae but also to the declining quality of incoming water. There is a similar problem in South China. Farms in Shunde County use ground water rather than that from the Pearl River and water exchange is limited to twice during the grow out cycle of 100-120 days. Probiotics are also used in improving water quality in ponds. Their use add to costs of production but as farm technician, Fadjril Kirom, of Lombok, Indonesia said, it has Dr. Chen Ming Dang is
Vice President, Charoen Pokphand Public Foods. He is based in Bangkok.
Dr Pornlerd Chanratchakool is Technical Manager for Novozymes.
Fadjril Kirom manages 90 ponds in two locations in Bali.
helped them improve survival rates and provided some insurance against crop failures.
It is through partial harvesting and increasing stocking density that producers have managed to increase yields of P. vannamei shrimp. In Thailand, where this was initially practised, farmers could harvest 12-13 tonnes/ha from a 90 to 110 day culture period through two partial harvests. Similarly In Southern China, a farmer from the Shunde county markets three size ranges of shrimp by harvesting size 50-60 after 70 days, size 40-50 after 80 days and size 30-40 in 120 days. Survival rates are around 80% and three crops per year are possible when ponds are covered during the colder months.
Dan Fegan has pointed to another development. He said,” Previously, the bottlenecks in the industry were due to the
lack of cooperation in the industry. Now we see farmers working together or within farmer groups, to exchange information and work together to overcome recurrent issues such as those relating to water quality and market issues. In the hatchery segment, after the development of standards for postlarval quality and health, the industry is increasingly adopting these as prerequisites for postlarvae to be stocked.”
Markets and prices
During the last three years, market issues have dominated events. Industry has categorized these are low international prices, trade barriers in the EU and US markets, non tariff barriers and traceability issues, particularly in the EU and Japanese markets and changing tastes according to demographics in Japan and intense global competition. Common to all countries is the low international prices for the shrimp commodity, arising from over production. Farmers also have to contend with fluctuating prices. In early December, ex farm prices for shrimp from Indonesia were Rp 40,000/kg or USD 4/kg for size 50 and Rp 37-38,000/kg or USD 3.7/kg for size 70, down 7% from the respective prices in October. In November, prices in China were around 16-20 RMB/kg or USD 2-2.2/kg for 60-80 size shrimp. Indian producers said that lower shrimp prices were because processors were not happy with the quality of shrimp produced in some states.
“It was the usual trend for farmers to refuse to stock ponds when prices decline and then to restock when prices were up. This was the reason for the decline in production in Thailand in 2005”, said Dr Chen. The recent low prices have pushed countries to encourage domestic consumption of shrimp products. In Thailand, the domestic consumption increased from 72,500 tonnes in 2003 to 85,000 tonnes in 2005. This is small but volumes are expected to increase to 10.5 tonnes by 2007, especially when prices decline. Whereas in China, the domestic consumption of the total shrimp production (both farmed and capture) was 66% in 2002 (Kaelin, 2002) and remained at 70% since 2003. Some 340,000 tonnes in 2004 was consumed locally in 2004 (Patton, 2005).
A major issue plaguing the industry was the US antidumping duty which affects four main producers in Asia, (in addition to Ecuador and Brazil). An industry member said that countries have completed round one with the US International Trade Commission (ITC) ruling. In next round it will be on country basis and this will be where medium size companies will be investigated and this may evoke more issues. However, despite the imposition of antidumping duties and US customs bonds (imposed in March 2005), the US still remains the major market for most countries. Shrimp imports to the US in 2005 were dominated by Asian suppliers at 72%. A new record was set as imports increased 4% in the first three quarters of 2005. Despite antidumping tariffs, Thailand, China and Vietnam increase volumes of exports, Indonesia was the second largest exporter to the US after Thailand (Globefish, 2005).
There are also changes to the market structure. Countries are now looking at large markets in the EU and Asia. The reduction of the GSP for Thailand from August 2005 and the removal of the 100% inspection on antibiotic residues for seafood from China in July 2005 now mean that these countries will focus on exports to the EU. For Vietnam, the EU and Japan offer a potential market but these countries have warned Vietnam of the quality of her shrimp products. South Korea has also added 25 exporters from Vietnam to its list of approved importers. In 2003, Indonesia was the leading exporter of shrimp to Japan. But in 2004, it lost this position to China and Thailand. Now exporters are revitalizing exports into Japan again (Rabobank, 2005).
Food safety and traceability
Thailand, the leading exporter of farmed shrimp is far ahead of the other countries in the implementation of traceability programs. This was initiated in 2002 with the issue of raw product movement documentation (Tookwinas, 2004). This means that any product to be marketed or processed requires this document and the origin of products for exports can be easily traced. Thai quality shrimp means that it has to have standard and environmentally friendly production protocols, according to Paneetatayasai (2004). He said that the industry has agreed to commit to produce hygienic products in a sustainable manner that provides for long term economic benefits.
“It is important to be able to process clean products from antibiotic free culture practices. This means the application of traceability concepts and good manufacturing follow the requirements of Code of Conduct (CoC),” said Dr Chen.
The requirement for quality shrimp is pushing governments in Asia to implement good aquaculture practices (GAP) and traceability programs to ensure the security of their products. In China, farmers can obtain quality certification for their products after a year of quality assessment by authorities. The procedure includes monthly tests on the various sizes of shrimp and water. In Indonesia, Dr Bambang Widigdo said that a biosecurity program, well implemented can be effective (AAP, 2005). Additionally, all players from those in broodstock supply to grow out are responsible. Indian shrimp farmers have the assistance of NACA (Network of Aquaculture Centres) in Asia and MPEDA (Marine Products Export Development Authority) to improve shrimp quality. This is a four year health management project which has helped to reduce the incidence of diseases to 15%. Importers from Japan and Canada have expressed interest in shrimp from these ponds (NACA, 2005).
The processing trend is also towards more direct purchasing from farms and from contract farming. Asia’s fully integrated companies such as Grobest and CP control the production process and can assure the traceability of their products. More and more feed companies are becoming fully integrated to assist customers assure quality products all along the production process. However, despite authorities assuring that quality of exports have reached international standards, occasional rejections by importers continue to be reported.
According to Glen Iling, “Non-integrated companies do have options to ensure traceability for the processors to meet export criteria. There are various international accreditation programs such as the Aquaculture Certification Council, FXA or similar programs which, individual farmers, companies, farming groups or co-operatives can subscribe that will satisfy the traceability requirements. These programs can link information from the whole shrimp chain,
hatchery, feed supplier, shrimp farm and processor. This may be the future direction in traceability.”
Dan Fegan is Alltech’s Regional Technical Manager –Aquaculture Asia Pacific. He is based in Bangkok
Glen Iling is Managing Director of SyAqua Siam.
2006 and beyond
In Table 1, Dr. Chen has made some estimations on the growth of the industry in 2006. At the Global Shrimp Outlook meeting in October 2005, Chen Dan of the Evergreen Group in China projected an increase in China's shrimp production to 450,000 tonnes in 2006.
The government wants to revitalise the industry in Indonesia which should contribute USD 1 billion in exports. Made L Nurjana, Director General Aquaculture at the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Affairs, said that the target in 2006 is 350,000 tonnes which is 17% above the current levels of production (also see interview with the Minister Freddy Numberi on page 13).
According to India’s Dr M Sakthivel, the government would not want to lose its present share in the world market because of diseases. “If and when disease resistant broodstock is developed elsewhere for P. monodon, India and other countries which are pessimistic with P. vannamei, will go for a major expansion with this species. If she decides to join the race in shrimp production through introduction of disease resistant variety, the present production figure will then double”.
In the marketing of shrimp, processors in China, Thailand and Vietnam have been emphasizing the value added segment during the last three years. Globefish (2005) reported that imports of headless shell on frozen shrimp products into the US have declined in volumes in 2005 as compared to 2004. In contrast, breaded frozen products recorded strong increases. Products from India constitute only 20% value added as compared to 90% of products from Thailand, according to the Seafood Exporters Association of India (SEAI). The new strategy is to increase value adding to products as well as introduce branding of the products to revive exports and gain market share.
Industry has forecasted that China, now a net exporter of shrimp may become a net
importer. This is because of the increasing demand for shrimp products as the purchasing power of consumers increase. China will require imports to meet domestic demand and also for its reprocessing industry (Rabobank, 2005). Glen Iling said, “Current estimates indicate that China will be a net importer within five years. If the country experiences disease challenges, this may come earlier which will change the shape of the global shrimp trade dramatically.”
In its wish list, the industry would like to see improvements in culture technology. These include more efforts in the domestication of the black tiger shrimp. Meat quality traits such as proportion of tail meat and fatty acid compositions including that of omega 3 fatty acids, will become more important, according to Glen Iling. SyAqua has determined differences in these traits between families and therefore can be developed through genetic selection enabling processors to develop new and more innovative products.
“If the present production cost continues, the shrimp market in both developed and developing countries will expand faster than the present rate in the coming years. However, only if the production cost of shrimp comes down perhaps through lower feed costs, then the shrimp market for middle class consumers in developing countries will expand rapidly”. said Dr Sakthivel.
Many producers would also like to see more transparency and fairness in trade, marketing and setting of
prices to ensure that competition takes place on a level playing field and producers are adequately compensated for their products. The impact of anti-dumping tariffs in the US on demand, prices and markets and the strong influence of importers in setting low prices have caused many producers to face losses and consider switching to other species.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank members of the shrimp industry for their assistance in the preparation of this article.
References
AAP, 2005. Recognising the international role of aquaculture. Aquaculture AsiaPacific, Vol 1, Number 4, pp32-33.
Globefish, 2005. Shrimp Market Report, December 2005. http: //www.globefish.org
Kaelin, A.J., 2002. Shrimp aquaculture production in China 2002. Presentation at the Global Shrimp Outlook, 2002.
NACA, 2005. MPEDA expands program on shrimp farmer clubs. NACA Newsletter, Oct-Dec, 2005. p6.
Rabobank 2005. Revitalising the export market for Indonesian shrimp. SPB, 2005. Statistik Produksi Budidaya, 2004.
Trobos, 2005. Tuara syndrome attack, angers national industry. Trobos, May 2005. pp 71-73. (in Indonesian).
Wang and Wang, 2005. Recent trends in China’s aquaculture. Aquaculture Asia Pacific, Vol 1, Issue 5. pp18-20.
Paneetatayasai, S., 2004. Current Issues in the Thai shrimp industry and market access. Presented at the investment seminar on market access, opportunities and challenges in the shrimp industry. Kuala Lumpur. 2004.
Patton, R., 2005. Market Outlook China. Extracted from the presentation at the Shrimp Global Outlook 2005.
Tookwinas, S. (2004). Shrimp farming in Thailand. Evironmental Management systems and action plan for development. World Shirmp Farming, 2005. Number 18, published by Shrimp News
International, Editor Bob Rosenberry, USA.
Table 1. Estimates on production volumes in 2004 to 2006 (Chen, pers comm.) 2004 2005 2006 China 352,000 300,000 -14 Thailand 325,000 280,000 -14 Indonesia 238,341# 230,000 12 Vietnam 106,000 115,000 9 India 100,250 100,000 -Bangladesh* 40,000 40,000 na Malaysia 28,000 32,000 14 Philippines 35,000 35,000 -Total 1,224,591 1,132,000
*World Shrimp Farming, 2005; #actual, SPB, 2005
Table 2. Production volumes in 2000 to 2002 (FAO, 2005) and industry estimates for 2003 from various industry sources
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 China 217,994 304,182 384,141 390,000 Thailand 305,644 276,500 160,300 260,000 Indonesia 117,917 129,465 137,548 160,000 Vietnam 69,433 67,500 67,500 220,000 India 96,715 102,930 114,970 155,000 Bangladesh 59,143 55,499 57,881 70,000 Malaysia 15,894 27,014 25,582 32,000 Philippines 40,467 40,698 35,491 30,000 Total 864,064 948,289 925,532 1,287,000
Dr M Sakthivel is president of the Aquaculture Foundation of India. Based in Chennai, AFI was established in 1994 as a non-profit organization (NGO) for the promotion of aquaculture in India (web: aquaculturefoundation.in).
I f f a S u r a i y a i s Executive Secretary of the Shrimp Club, Indonesia. She is based in Surabaya.
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INDUSTRY REVIEW
What is the government’s strategy to increase shrimp production and make shrimp as a prime export commodity in 2006?
Our main strategy is to revitalize the industry with programs in shrimp culture and intensification of shrimp farming. The Directorate General of Aquaculture will look at species diversification; improvements in broodstock and shrimp fry quality and also feed quality. Of course, good aquaculture practices. The implementation of all these will certainly need the right degree of communication between packers and farmers. Therefore, we need to establish immediately an Indonesia Fisheries Incorporated. To stop rejections against our shipments, it is important that processors keep maintaining HACCP and any traceability, farm and hatchery certifications by a competent authority (CA). Then we have to make sure that any CA continues to upgrade and follow any new rules and standard imposed by the European Union (EU). We will have intensive promotions in ESEs (European Seafood Expositions), and work closely with SIPA (Seafood Importer and Producers Alliances) and SIPPO (Swiss Import Promotion Program). Of course, there should be the right synergy with CA and the Indonesian Embassy in the EU.
What steps can the government take in hygiene and food safety, especially for markets in the EU and US?
We have taken the necessary steps to ensure this. We have a monitoring system in place for all in the fisheries industries such as fishermen, shrimp farms and processors to comply with the requirements and standards of international markets. We also conduct training/inductions, intensive monitoring and supervision. Another important thing is that we have a communication line with importing countries (USA and EU) and coordinate within government institution offices for the higher fiscal/import fees. This includes close supervision by authorities for import products that are linked to GSP facilities.
Pertaining to the recent hike in diesel prices, what are the solutions to assist farmers?
The increase in diesel price prices has had a huge impact on the shrimp industry in Indonesia as most farms use diesel for electricity generation and for pond aeration. Not to mention, for big farms and hatcheries that consume large volumes of diesel. Therefore, we will need to assist
farmers so that they continue operations. If these farms fail, then we’ll be facing a great loss in revenue as well as huge numbers of unemployment.
Therefore, the government will support farmers by supplying “solar packed dealer” (solar=diesel) to allow them to purchase supplies at controlled prices. The House of Representatives (DPR) has already approved some funds for the setting up fuel gas station for fishermen and farmers only.
On the issue of antibiotic contamination and rejections of Indonesian shrimp from the EU, what are the solutions?
We have already resolved that. The inspection team from the EU have come and seen for themselves several shrimp farms, especially those suspected of producing contaminated products. The team has met us to report their findings. We have also put forward our complaints with regards to their trade practice of shipping back all our exported products (Indonesian shrimp) despite the fact that only 2 out of 1,000 containers were positively identified as contaminated. This is not fair.
For us, the European Union (EU) is the largest shrimp export market after Japan and USA. In 2003, Indonesia’s shrimp exports reached 20,849 tonnes, valued at USD 115.3 million. In 2004, it reached 21,685 tonnes, valued at USD115.31 million. Now, their team has personally seen the processes in our shrimp production and they have not indicated any problems with these.
Nevertheless, I have asked the Directorate of Aquaculture and Directorate of Marketing of Fishery Products, to keep monitoring our shrimp production process. If once
again, our products encounter problems, then it would be far more complicated and we will be in an
extremely difficult situation.
How to gain an edge
Freddy Numberi, Minister of Fisheries & Marine Affairs, wants to revitalise the farmed shrimp industry
in Indonesia. In December, he talked to Iffa Suraiya on this, the recent issue with the EU prices on
contaminated consignments and on how to help farmers overcome the recent hike in diesel prices.
Freddy Numberi, Minister of Fishery & Marine Affairs
Mariculture is a form of rearing aquatic organisms for commercial purposes, either in an open coastal ecosystem or in a controlled marine ecosystem. It is an important aquaculture activity in the Asia-Pacific region. There are over 40 marine fish species commonly cultured, such as groupers (Epinephelus spp.), snappers (Lutjanus spp.), Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) and golden pompano (Trachinotus blochii). They are typically cultured in open floating net-cages along the
Asia-Pacific coastal areas, with an annual production of approximately one million tonnes.
The increasing intensification of production and lack of health management measures have lead to many disease problems of bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic origin. In recent years, the improper use of chemicals and antibiotics has raised concerns regarding both human and environmental safety.
Under natural environmental conditions, coastal waterways are free of obstructions. However, the placement of floating net-cages along these waterways has created ‘artificial islands’, resulting in the congregation of a diverse biological community comprising both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. Therefore, one would expect to find a similar congregation of bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites and other pathogens within this newly- created ecosystem, as well as the natural occurrence of other wild aquatic organisms.
Mortality of a large number of fish is seldom observed in the wild and, when it does occur, it is most
likely to be due to sudden environmental deterioration. However, in the confined net-cage environment, mortality is often seen. Signs include abnormalities in behaviour, darkened body, exophthalmia (pop eye) and ulcerations on the fish body. There are many causes of fish mortality in the confined net-cage environment but possible causes for these disease outbreaks are pathogenic parasites.
What are parasites, how do they enter the net-cages and how are they maintained there?
Parasites are invertebrate organisms; some are free-living and can become opportunistic parasites; others require hosts for their survival and reproduction, and these are referred to as obligate parasites. Both opportunistic and obligate parasites are found in fish hosts but most parasitic diseases in fish are generally caused by obligate parasites.
Types of parasitic diseases
Most apparently healthy fish usually harbour various parasites but at low numbers, either on or in their bodies. The low number of these parasites generally causes little or no harm to the fish. However, when the number of parasites per fish increases significantly (the natural parasite-host balance becomes broken) due to overstocking, changes in water temperature or salinity that are favourable to the reproduction and growth of parasites, or that cause a reduction in fish immunity
Part 1 – The parasites
Important parasitic diseases in cultured
marine fish in the Asia-Pacific region
by Leong Tak Seng, Zilong Tan and William J. Enright
Parasitic infections and associated diseases are becoming more frequent with the intensification of
mariculture systems in many parts of the Asia Pacific region. In this two- part article, the authors
provide information on the various pathogenic parasites and their control measures.
Examples of some of the parasites that cause diseases in marine fish in the Asia-Pacific region.
Haliotrema spp. on gills (gill fluke) Neobenedenia sp. (skin fluke)
Cryptocaryon irritans (white spot) Caligus sp. (sea lice)
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FOCUS ON DISEASE
Traditional marine fish farming in South-East Asia. Different species of fish with overlapping generations are cultured at one farm site. The lack of good health management practice, such as high stocking density, feeding trash fish and poor sanitation, has led to a high incidence of diseases.
(due to these stressful conditions), parasitic disease outbreaks often occur. Parasitic disease and other pathogens are interrelated. For example, bacterial and viral diseases can weaken fish and make them more susceptible to parasitic infestation and vice versa. In an aquatic ecosystem, where the health conditions of cultured fish are not easily observed, proper care of the fish and their environment are of the utmost importance. This is to help the natural immune system of the fish react and keep the pathogens in check.
A large variety of parasites have been reported in cultured marine fish. Some of these parasites have caused serious disease outbreaks in farmed fish resulting in significant financial losses to fish farmers. Parasites either cause major disease outbreaks in cultured fish or rather contribute to a chronic sub-clinical effect. In general, the fish are most susceptible at the early stages, particularly at the hatchery and nursery stages of the culture cycle when fish are small.
Parasitic organisms affecting cultured fish can be grouped into
FOCUS ON DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Table 2. Fish diseases caused by plathyhelminthes at different stages of mariculture in the Asia-Pacific region. The severity of infection is indicated as (+++ = severe; ++ = moderate; + = slight; - = seldom observed)*
Parasite Site of infection Nursery Grow-out Major signs Newly Grow-out
stocked
Capsalid Monogenean (skin flukes)
Benedenia spp. gills & body surface +++ +++ +++ Darkened body, erratic swimming behaviour, rub against
Neobenedenia spp. +++ +++ +++ net, pale gills, lethargy and loss of appetite, opaque eyes, patches of “dryness” on scales or loss of scales at forehead (above the eyes), haemorrhage & necrosis on body surface.
Diplectanid mongenean (gill flukes)
Pseudorhahdosynochus spp. Gills ++ ++ + Darkened body, rub against net, pale gills, lethargy, loss
Diplectenum spp + + + of appetite, excess mucus production.
Dactylogyrid monogenean (gill flukes)
Haliotrema spp. Gills +++ +++ + Rub against net, devoid of scales at forehead (above eyes),
Dactylogyrus spp. + + + pale gills, lethargy, loss of appetite, excess mucus production.
Microcotylid monogenean (gill flukes)
Heterobothrium spp. +++ +++ + Show no clinical signs except lethargy, loss of appetite,
Heteraxine heterocerca +++ +++ + pale gills and anaemia.
Microcotyle spp. Gills ++ ++ +
Bivagina sp. ++ ++ +
Choricotyle sp. ++ ++ +
Sanguinicolid digenean (blood flukes)
Cruoricola lates Circulatory system ++ ++ + No obvious signs, affected fish gasp for air at the water
Pearsonellum corventum ++ ++ + surface, gill lamellae fusion & hyperplasia.
Cardicola sp. ++ ++ +
Paradeontacylix spp. ++ ++ +
* These parasites are seldom observed in hatcheries
Table 1. Fish diseases caused by protozoan parasites at different stages of mariculture in the Asia-Pacific region. The severity of infection is indicated as (+++ = severe; ++ = moderate; + = slight; - = seldom observed)
Parasite Site of Hatchery Nursery Grow- out Major signs infection Newly Grow-out
stocked
Ciliates
Cryptocaryon irritans Gills & body ++ +++ +++ +++ Whitish spot on body surface, darkened body, lethargy,
(white spot) surface exophthalmia, increased mucus production, rub body
surface against net.
Trichodina spp. Gills & body ++ ++ + + Lethargy, non-feeding, pale gills with increased mucus
surface production, rub body surface against net, hyperplasia and
necrosis of epidermis.
Brooklynella spp. Gills & body +++ +++ ++ + Lethargy, non-feeding, rub body surface against net,
surface subcutaneous haemorrhage.
Henneguya spp. Gills & body +++ +++ ++ + Pale gills and hyperplasia. surface
Dinoflagellate
Amyloodinium ocellatum Gills & body +++ +++ ++ + Fish gather at water surface or aeration outlet, rapid gill
surface operculum movement, pale gills, darkened body, increased
mucus production in gills.
Myxosporean
Sphaerospora epinepheli Kidney, liver, – ++ ++ + Loss of equilibrium, floating upside down, some with swollen
spleen, & intestine abdomen & haemorrhages on mouth and body surface.
Microsporidian
Glugea spp. Internal organs – + ++ +++ Swollen abdomen, black nodules on internal organs.
