A Concise Psychological Dictionary

•

•

•

A Concise

Psychological

Dictionary

Edited

by

A. V.

Petrovsky

and

M.

G.

Yaroshevsky

rogress Publishers

Moscow

•

Tran~laled from Ihe Rus.\lan

Ediled by Pyolr Shikhirt'I', Cando Sc, (Phil.) De<;igned b)" Yur; Dal'ydm'

KPATK~~ nCHxoJl0nt4EcK~tl. CJ10IlAPb nOA pe.'l. A.n.neTpo8cKoro II

M.r. SlpoweacKOro

c nOJlI1TI13.'laT, 1985

English lranslalion C, Progress Publishers 1987 Printed in Ihe Union of SOI'iel Sociaiisl Republicg

K 0304000000-519

014(01)-87 17- 87

'.

Publisher's Nofe

Thi

s

dictionary is intended

for

a wide

range

of

readers

seeking

inf

orma

tion

on

concep

t

s

used

in

modern psychologgy.

The entries embrace

the main

branches of psychology.

theoret-ical

trends and concepts,

methods

of psychological research,

and major aspects

of the

history

of

p

sychology.

Because

of

its

concise form, many special notions from

engineering and

medi

ca

l

psychology, pathopsychology,

psycho-physics. and other branches

of

psychological

knowledge are

not

included

in

the dictionary,

while others may be found in

more

general entries.

Italici

sed

cross-references will help

the

reader

to

find relevant entries with fuller information

on

the

subject of

intere

st.

The

dictionary does

not include

terms which, though used

in psychological

literature, actually belong to other branches

of

knowledge.

such as

philosophy,

pedagogy, anatomy. and

physiology. This

information

may

be found in special

encyclo-paedia

s

and dictionaries.

When cited

in

the body of an entry. its title is abbreviated

to

the

firsl

letter

(or letters). A's standing for the plural

and A.'s, for the possessive

case.

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,\bililies. individual p,ychological fea-tures of [he person-ality, a premise for ~uccessful accom-pli~hment of specific productive acth·jty. A. became the subject of specialised psychological sludi~ In Ihe 19th ..:entury. when the worb of Francis Galton initialed experimental and statis-tical studie:. of per:.onal dislincliom.. Other conditions being tXlual, A. mani-fest Ihemo;eivcs in how quickly, ea:;ily and effllienlly Ihe individual masters methods needed 10 organbe and per-form some kind of aclivity. A. are dmely ~Ixialed with the general o('ir>ntu.lion 01 the pa.umalit)', with stability of human propen\iti~ for a given form of 31.:tiviIY. DifTerCnI A. may underlie idel1lical accomph sh-menh in some 8<.:1lvil),; al Ihe same time, Ihe same A. may underlie suc(:t'::;s in different types of act;,ity. An important factor in the couro;e of training and education is that (If '>Cnsitive periods which help develop certain A. (see Dew·/opm(.'nta/ Sl'n~itil'enl:'_\,~). A. pre-sumably form on the ba!.i!. of indina-tions. A qualitative analysi!; of A. is designed 10 reveal individual human char(lcleriMic~ needed to accomplish 'peciflc type of activity. Quantitative change.s In A. characterise their development level, which i:> generally estimated by te\l~ (~ee Achiel'('meITt Telt.l: InielliXl'IKe Tests; and Crea -Ii lIily re~h), A st uJy of ~peciflc psyc!lO-logil'al characreri~tic~ of ~ariou.'> A. make.\ it po~"ble to di.'>tinguish the individual's general qualities that meet

the requiremcn" of nOI one, but sel'eral form~ of activity (see Imel/ect) , and the spo:x:ial qualities that meet a reslrict_ ed range of requirements in that particular form of activity (see Abili -lies, Specific). The degree of develop_ ment of A. is expressed in talent and geniality. In So\'iet rr.>ychology, the problem of A. i~ treated in the work:; of Boris Tcplov, Natan Leites, Vadim Krutctsky, and others. All-round development of m8n\ A. is in line with the principle of socialist society: "From each according to his ability, to each

according to hi!> work."

Abiliti~, Specific, individual p~)'cho­ logical feature~ allowing to ~ucces.~+ fully perform ~ome spel'ifll: activity

(muskal, ~cenic, literary, etc.). A.,S. develop on the basis of suitable illdi notiOflS, such as good mu!>ical ear and memory. Today. we know of ~pcciflC sensitive periods (sec Dt.'\·e/opmellta/ Semilil'('II('Ss) , Juring which A .. S, develop particularly well. For imtance, A.,S. for music invol\e children unner fIH". who actively develop good musical ear and memory. Given that

inclina-tions are many-~ided, A .. S. can form on various phy"iological ba~es. Thus,

a certain level of A.,S. (mathematicIIl. artisti", etc.) could be devdoped in virtually all healthy children. Thus, there is every reason to believe that all-round development of talems in children .::al1 be achieved through specially organil>Cd training.

Abstraction, a ba~ic type Qf thinkillg whereby the ~ubje(f mentally differen-tia'e~ some qualilies or IISpcCts of lin object and i~olate~ 111,,"111 from OIher

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qualitie~ or aspects. The result is an intellectual construct (concept, model, theory, da~iflcation,_etc.) also d~noted by the term "A". Ongmally" A. IS st:en

ill a direct sensory rellectlon of the environment, when some p'ropertl~ of the laller provide orientatIOn for per-ception and action wh.ll~ others. are

ignored. A. is a requl~lte condition for categorisation. By A. gcnerah~ed images of reality are formed, allo~lIlg to select relations and connections essential to activity by isolating t.hem from other rellU,ions and connections. When essential properties of real~ty are ignored, A. assumes a su~erflclal and shallow character. In thiS case, the term is used to refer to conceptu-alisation and reasoning which ha~e n~ basis in reality. A. true to r~ahty IS that simplifIcation of the multitude of phenomena which increases t.he ca-pacity of thought by vl~lUe ,of Its COII-centration on that which IS essent.lal for a given cognitive silUa!i~n. Practice

is the criterion for determllllng to w.hat extent A. is genuine and productive.

Abulia, a pathological disturbance ~f the mental regulation of aetiol/s. It IS seen in the absence of an impulse t.o

act, inability to make or aCI.on deCI-sions, although the person IS awa.re of this necessity. A. should .be diS-tinguished from la~k of ~llIpower

as a {'haracter trait resulll1lg from IInproper upbringing and corrigible by adequate training (see Will).

Acalculia, inability to calc~llate and perform arithmetical (Iperallon~ as a

5

result of cortical lesions. Various groups of A. are recognised: primary ~ .• associated with disturbance o~ sp~tlal organisation of numbers and Impaired ability to calculate; and secondary A., -;eell in other disorders of mental func-tions (aphasia. agnosia. amnesia) or

in general impairment of purposeful intellectual activity.

Acceleration, an increase in the rate of the somatic and physiological

matu-ration of children and teenagers. ob-served over the past 100-150 y.ears. A.

shows itself primarily in an mcrea~e in the bodily size and weight and m earlier onset of puberty. Data show that during this century the average size of infants has increased by 0.5-1.0 cm and the weight, by 100-300 g: the body size and w~ight of 5-7-year. olds has been increasmg by an average of 1.5 cm and 0.5 kg every ten rears; and the body size of schoolchildren

has increased by 10-15 cm over the

I

period. Puberty ~ts in ?I~e to _two

years earlier. ThiS condlllon. gIVen traditional modes of pre+adolescent upbringing and sta~dard~ of behal'iOllr, can sometimes _~e_ r!se }O_ .. me~l1al collisions, such as semanllC _hu_'!!.ers. -·c()I1f!iCH. and affective behaVIOUr. There are data related to the a~cele­

rated mental development of children .J£sychological acceleration): however, )

there Is not enough statistical data to draw a reliable conclusion.

Accentuation of Character, exagger~­ tion of certain personality traits m~I~I' festing itself in selective vulnerablh~y of personality in ~elation to certam

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di\\re .... ,>, ellces~ive mental pressure, etc.) while the person ..:an maintain emotional eqUilibrium under other types of mental :;tre~\. Although pure typt!s are s..:ar~e. and mIxed type~ predominate, the followmg Iype~ of A. of C. are dis-tInguished: (I) • ..:yeloid:- va.rimions of ",1000 resulting from

an

external situa-tion; (2) a~thenic-- worry, indeci~ive­ nes~, fatigue, irritability, inclination

toward~ l/epreHiom;; (3) scnsitive-\ shyn~ss, ~nsitivity. tendency to feel

lIlfenor; (4) ~..:hil.Oid-aloofn~. reti-..:ence, lo~ of ability to maintain per-sonal contacts hee £xlrol'ersion-Il1IrOl'f'nion), inability to sympathise

(see .ElI1phathy); (5) paranoiac-e)l.ce~lve Irrllability. persistence of negative uff('~·I.\, hypersensith'ity.

sus-PICIousness. exaggerated sense of self-Importan..:e; (6) epileptic-uncont-rolled and impulsive behaviour, in-tolerance, mental rigidity, fighting and quarrelmg. mordmately detailed speech, adherel~ce to standards: (7) histrionic (hysten..:al) -pronounced tendency towards repression of unpleasant faclS or events, lying, fantasy and affected behaviour aimed at drawing attention dIsregard for the feeling of oEhe;

persons, tendency towards recklessness vanlly, "escape into disease" when

th~

need for recognition is not satisfIed'

(8) hypenhymic-constantly high splnb, cravl11g for action combined wllh mood shifES and a tendency to abandon pur\uit~ in mid-course, exces-sive loquac~ty (galloping thought);

(9) dysthymlc,- e~cessive gravity, high sen~e of re~ponslbllity, concentration on gloumy and \ad aspects of life,

~u\CepllbllllY to depr~ions,

inade

-quate a":!l\cnes,\: (It)) un\tahle (extra-vert) -- temll-ncy to bc mnuellccd hy external ~hlllg~, ,8 ~'OlllII1U\lll' ,carch for .fr~sh mlprc).slons or new cumpany, abLlII) to estabh\h qUick contact (al_ though of 8\uperflcial character);

(II). conformmg-cxaggcl"alcd sub-~11lSSlvcness and dependability. Depend -mg 011 the degree of manifeMation overt and .covert

typc~

of A. of

C:

arc recog11l~ed. Becoming mure

pro-nounced IOwards teenage. A. of C. ~bates towards adulthood, rnanife;ting IIself nOI III any situation (as in psychopal~Y) .but .only in a complex

psychogel1lc Slluations, those bringing pressure 10 bear on the "weak link". A. of C. promote; the development of a~U1e a~ective reactions (sec P,~FhQ­ gen.,e Disorders), neuroses, patho-logical behaviour disorders. A. of C. ~ust be taken into account in elTe.;lUat-m~ an individual approach to raising chlldr.en and teenagers, as well as in choos1l1g adequate forms of individual and ~amil!, psycholherapies. The above cJassllicallon was suggcsled by Karl

Leonghard and Andrei Lichko.

Acceplor of AClion Result a mental ",1echanism of anticipation

~nd

evalua-lion of the result of action in functional systems. The. t~rm was introduced by ~yotr Anokhm III 1955. In Ihe informa-t~on aspect, A. of A.R. is "the informa-1I0nai equivalent of the result" re-trie~~d from memory in the proccs~ of deCfSlolI-lIIokillK which determines the org.a~isation of the organi~m's motor aClIvlty during the behavioural act and carries out Ihe comparison of the resull with its "anticipated rene.;tion". If they coincide, the completed

futlc-•

- -

-lional s..:hemc falls apart, ilnd the Mla-nism can I"lro..:eed to another purpO\eful hehuI'iour; if they overlap.

improve-menls arc introdu!;cd !II the programme of aClion; if they are lotally dilIcrent, exploratory-orienting behaviour I~ developed.

Achievement Motivalion, Ihe lllhjed_\

need 10 reach success in variou.\ types of actIvity. especially in competition with other people. Studics of A.M. were begun by a group of American re-searchers headed by David McClelland. They proposed the theory and

method-ology of measuring A,M. which were funher elaborated in the works of John Alkinson and Heinl. Heckhausen. A special projective method was worked out for lhe qualitative estimation and slUdy of A.M. (see Projective Tests). According 10 McClelland and others, A.M. is formed during the child's upbringing in the family, under the influence of his parents, flTSlly of his mother. The basis of A.M. Is made up of the affectively coloured associations which link the child's emotiOlwl expe-riem:e with Ihe forms of his behuI';Ollr.

If in early childhood the child is praised by the parents for his successes and punished for failures, by lhe age of 5 to 6 he forms A.M. which laler becomes a steady need and is manifested in

various types of activity. McClelland allernpted to explain, proceeding from A.M., the speciflc !raits in the socio-economic developmenl of I'arious

nalions. which is counter 10 the his-torical approach. Soviet psy..:holog)'

rejecls the idea of A.M. bcing formed exclusively during early childhood.

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-Achitvement Tnc,. a technique of f1I'.YI:hlldiul(rllJHS reveahllg tht e!llellt !O whi..:h wbJC..:!'J have ma\lered

'I!'e-(If" knowledge, abilitie1. and skill" A,T. (t'"'>cmble '>pecial abilitin IC!U

(o;ec Crealil-ity Te.~hl. Unlike the laller, howe~er, the)' reveal what the \ubject ha~ already ma.\lered, ralher than generalised ~kills devoid of !;oncrete ..:ontent and rC';ulting from variegated life experienc.:. There are three types of A.T., namely_ allion tests, wrillen tests. and oral te'>ts. AClion tl;"5ts are designed to reveal an ability to perform actIons wilh mechanisms. malerials, and implernent\. Written A.T. are performed 00 spe..:ial qucslionnaires. The subjects are told

to eilher select the correct oral an\wer among several options. or 10 mark in a diagram the reflection of the sltualion described ill a l',iHn question. or 10 find in a drawing the situation or detail providing a cut 10 the !;orrect solution, Oral A.T. are a sy~lem of

prepared questions which the subj«:ts must answer: in this case, Ihe el(pcri-menter must foresee the diffh:ulties that may arise because of inexperien..:e in articulating replies. A.T. are used in general and "ocational training. Aclioo, a unit of activit)"; a ,'oluntary intentional mediated aCEi,-it)" directed towards reaching a realised f,:wl. A. as a :;pecifLC unit of numan~-adrvity was inlroduccd in So,iet psy,lr%gy by Sergei Rubinstein and Alexei N. Leon-tye'. The nOlion of A. as unIt 0; analys-is and object of study is uscd in Ihe slUdy of pi.'r;:eplUu/, motor, mnemonic, mental. creative, and other A's. As regards ics structure, A., unlike the

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--

_-

-

-habitual or Imnulsiv" "'-1 _{( h. " .... ..., 18Vloural acts} .

w leh afe directly determined b' I

~b.Jt'~t_I\'e

,>.llIation) is always

lIled~a,~~~

:t smg "anous means such . ro/('\ \' 1 • as SIKns,

Ill" a 1/1',\, 1I0rms. etc. thco subject .. aMen an A., acquiring it as his OW"

perso lal" A , . _. . E very A. consists of ~lt'nt1ng, eflee.lor and control pans. s regardl> theIr fUTlctioning, A's can ~ grouped as voluntary and inten·

Ilona I. In Oll'o1?t'llesis the function of ~olun!ary control and regulation of A

IS

ef~e~ted

81 li.rst in the process

i

the JOInI actil'ilies of the adult

a~d

~he c!III? a.nd, later, as a result of the InferiOr/saIl on of social norms

(pat-terns) and schemes of A., the child Ix:gms to control his A. in accordance wlIh these. patterns and schemes. The

intentIOnality of

A..

is explained by Ihe ~aci that the subJecl decides that Ihe

,magi! of the future result of his A.

corr~spolI~s 10 Ihe motive of his activ-Ity: In th1$ case this image of action

acquires a personalised meaning and

~com.es Ihe subjecfs goal. The subject's lnt~nt/On gives rise to a goal-related a~tlfude, a readiness to alta in the

anti-Cipated ~esull of A. The goal-related aHllude IS connected with the image of the anticipaled result, which does not Imply concrete ways and means by wh.ich the goal could be reached mOSI likely and effectively. This image only. chariS the general direction for

formln~ A., while the executive pari of A:. IS determined by the concrete condlllOns of the given situation. In Ihe pro~ess of carrying out an A., the

subject comes inlo conlact with the

objective world and Iransforms (out-wardly or mentally) the objective situ

a-tlOIl alld utlain .. a n ... ult. TI h e,"aluat" .. it ..

p-er"Ollllli~ed

me':III~:1 J(,~I

hl\ ('motioll.f. In the

pn)l"~'s.\

of A SilVia s.oals may 8111>Cilr hee Goal Pt""., ('w troll) _. and tht' plal"C' of. . _{n. In The (luiv} 11/1

-II) may change. A.:cordin .

Lt'"Ol1I~e\".

1111 A. clln hecome all

~pt.r:o

~()~I,

If. 1\ repealedly al1ninc-d

soat

hlch II> f1rlnly connected wit I tl' means of reaching ;,

,·c

"0 I' "

I

. , . , oliger

rea Ised as a resull of il b .

automatic and becom'"'" _{_ . . . " Wlt11l1} .

le~ommg

_the

structure _{f '} of actIvit, " _{, n} '0 d· ₁₁₁₀₁₁ . f _or

per ormlllg another A. (shif1 of the goal _. towards the conditio") _{" .} B _egm-. nlllg .to perf~Jrln an A. as a result of a cenam motive, the subject can later perform ~n A. for the purpose of the A. Itself (shtft of the motive towards the go~l), in which case the A. becomes

an mdependent activity. The mechanism of Ih,~ ~orma\lon of realised "motive-goals IS aile of the mechanisms of

the. f.orn.lation of new types of human actIvIty In onto~~nesis. On Ihe dynamic

pl~ne the stability of an A. is deter-mmed by its goal orientation. The psychophysiological organisaTion of

an A. is provided by such a funClional block of the bruin as the block of

programming. regulation and control

?f which the frontal lobes are the mos; Important part (Alexander Luria). Activafion, a state of the nervouS system characterising the level of ils excitation and reactivity. A. of The nervous system as a whole, as its general characteristic, should be dis-tinguished from A. of anyone brain struClure. The optimal level of A. would be the utmost degree of

cor-I

-rC_\p<)ndl'nlC bt·twec.-n the tl.ale uf the nervlIUS \y\ll:," ami a hc.-hlvioural att; the IIldividual h:vc.-I ,.f A. i, thl"' ilage of A., pt:(uliar to each mdl~,rjual. ar

whi(h he temh to elTeI-'lualc hit a.:

tivilY·

Activeness, the unlvcr\al charaddi\til

of Jiving beings, their Intrin\i~' dynamics as a soU"C of transfnrming or

malll-taining vital relation~hlp' with the

surrounding world: ahility for

auto-nomou~ action. In psychology. A. is

correlated with activity, manif~ting

it-self as a dynamic condition for the

laner's origination, effectuation, and

transformation, and as a property of

its movement. A. is characterised by a

high degree of mediaTion of any action by The :.peciflc inner state of Ihe sabject at the very moment of the action, as distinct from reactivity (when actions are mediated by the antecedent

silUa-lion): by autonomy, i.e. medialion by

the subject's gool, as distinct from

fIeld-dependent behaviour (see Fidd Independence); by cross-situational features, i.e. the surpassing of Ihe initial goals as distinct from

adapta-bility as limitation of the subject"s

actions by the narrow framework of

the presenl goals (see ActIveness, SillUllionally Independent): by a considerable degree of stability vis_Ii_vis

the adoploo goal. as distinct from

passive adaptability to the objects to be

encountered by the subject in the course

of activiTY·

Activeness, Orienting. behaviour aimed

at changing a siluatioll lor one's au i-tude towards it) wilh an absen(e of a

-Ikfmlle pro,nmlS of Ihe r~ulls bul

With a "oflllnuoUi a(count takc-n of the dc,ree of th(' behaviour's efree·

IIven~. A"O. IS an e90Cnlial component of many Iype'l of behaviour. In animals. it embra<.:e<i alltype1 of adi~'e-ddensive

beha~iour (aggrCMion, complex fonn'

of danser avoidance), self_stimulation. orit"nl3ting behaviour (Ke Group 8ehadQur of Animal\). In men. A.,Q.

c; a major component in the pn:N;C1","'S

of planning. fantasy. e-tc

Activeness of Personality. man'~ capa-city for produ<.:ing socially rdevant

transformations in the world relying on the appropriation of the- wealth

of material and spirilUal culture;

mani-fests itself in cr~ath'e udil'ity. a(t5 of volition, communication (I). The inlegra1 characteristic of A. of P. is

adoption of an active slance di5played in the person's principled ideological position. consislent stand in defe-nding

personal "iewpoints. maintenance of a

unity of word and deed (see A ... til·enNs;

Ac,i\'~ness, Situationally Independ~n'; Deed: A.clil"ity: Persunalit)·).

Acti ... en~ Situationall) Independent.

a subje,t's capacit)" to remain inde-pendent of a gi\en situation, set ~oal_~ excessi,-e from the point of vi<!:w of the initial task (Vadim Petro\sky). By way of A.,S.D. the subject over-comes e"ternal and internal limitations

("barriers") to adivily (see Attitude). A.,S.D. is manifesl<!:d in aeatiw'

a,-til'it)', cogniti,'e (intellectual)

activ-eness, "unseltlsh"' risk, supernormative

acti,eness {see E/ficien,:}' of a Group).

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10

Acthdty, a dynamic system of the Iubj('~'(s interaction with the

surround-ing .... 'orld in the proceS> of which the psychological imul!t' emerges and

~ dIecluated ill the objc~-t, and Ihe subjecl's relalionships In objeClivl'

reality mediated by il are realised.

The category of A. is a distinctive

feature of So\'iet psychology based on the Mar)(i5l-Lenini!;1 ml!fhod%I:Y. There are two characteristic points in Soviet psychology: (a) the pro-po~ilion of Ihe unity of psyche and A. which counterposes Soviet psychology to various Iypes of the psychology

of consciOllSllesli which analysed psyche

apart from behul'iour (see Introspec-til't' PsychO/o!:)': Gestalt Psychology), and also to) various naturalistic trends

in behaviourill psychology, analysing

behaviour apart from psyche (see

Behal'iouri5m: Neobehaviourism); (b) the introduction of the principles of development and historicism whooe

realisation in research necessarily calls for an approach to A. as to the driving

force of the development of psycho-logical reflution. The category of A.

is used to explain the mind's functioning

in the study of various flelds of psychic

reality (psychology of cognitive

proces-ses, mmil'ation, will, emotions, person-alily, intragroup processes) and in

establishing various psychological fields

(general, social, developmen/al, peda-gogical. medical, engineering, work. and animal psychology). The usage

of the A. calegory as an explanatory principle led to a change in Ihe

prin-ciples of analysing psyche in general

psychology (the principle of unity of

(onsciousness and A., the principle

-

-

---of unity ---of the l'xternal and mternfll

strUl·ture!> of A., the i"'t'fi()ri~<lti(}11 e.\·leriori.(aliOIl prillc.:iple n\ n l11e(h. a11lsrn of ,,(quinng 'Ol'io-hi,torical c:\perieTll'c: the principlc of the

depen-dence of ~y(holoSil'!11 renettion 011

the ~ition of the relle..:te(t object

in the struclure of A., elC.), and to the elaboration of the provision~ on the systematic formAtion of mcntnl actions, on the leading activity as the

bnsb for slruclUring the dewloprncnt

of psyche into ~tage~, on the

l1Ii(ro-stru,;tural analysis of cognitive and executive A., on the mltdiation of

inter-personal relationships, etc. Object rela-tion and subjectivity are the basic

characteristics of A. The specifIC

nature of A.'s object-related

deter-mination lies in the fact that the Objects of the surrounding world influence the subject indirectly, being trans·

formed in the process of A., owing to which they are renected in con-sciousness with a greater adequacy. The phylogenic preconditions of A:s

object relation are revealed in the

animal activity being conditioned by

the nature of objects and the cues

which emerged during the species'

evolution and served to satisfy the given biological needs, and not by any

influence of the surrounding world. Only man's A. is explicitly object-related. This is manifested in man's A.

~ing socially conditioned, in its link with meallings fIxated in lools and

schemes of action, in the concepts

of language, social roles, I'ailles, and

social norms. The subjectivity of A. is expressed in the following aspects

of the subject's ac/iI'elless: III the

-dependence nf th~ p"y(holotl:l(al unilflc

, ~I(nt>ricn(e nI'I'll.l. ulltlmil'.f.

on pa!i I'~' .• ,

. ,'"'/\ ilnd nwIH'l'l uC cr· emO\lon" ... . . I .

mining the orientall()Jl ilnd the 'I' .c(-. _'"" of A' in th~ f'('rWnullIed tlven . . . . , ' f l f

. ,h- mo,ive ("mcill1l1lg u or

meUI!IIl/:, ... ' .'

me") to variou, event~, 3(\1011\ anu deed~. The 3naly~is of A. may ~

divided into three plane~: gCI1~t~c, strucwrally fundiona! and .dynamlc.

On the genlttic plane, ~oclal /mnt aclil'ilies are the initial form of all human A., while interiori~ation, whkh provides for the acquisition of SOCl~­

historical experience through the tra~s* formation of joint social aCI1VltlCS into individual A., serves as a pattern of the human psychic development.

In the process of inte~iorisal1on the transition of external A. mto IIlternal A. also takes place. The structurally functional approach to the structur.e of A. is based on the "unit" analy~lS

(Lev Vygotsky). when the given r~alllY is decomposed into "units" contalllmg

the basic characteristics in.herent. m

this reality as a whole. The hlerarchl~al lies between A. units are mobIle.

Depending on the position of the

renect-ed object in the structure of A., the content of the psychological re~ec­ tion, the level of rel1ection (consciOUS or unconscious) and the type of A.

re.gulation (voluntary or involuntary.) change. Analysis of A. in the dynamIC

plane is devoted 10 the study of

mechanisms providing for the pro~re~­ sion of A. per se: situarionally mde-pendenl activeness (see AClil'em:ss, Silliutiollally IlIdept'lufell!) whIch

determines the self-development of a(tivilY and the appearance of !lew

11

-form..: anJ to the.

~r;entatlon

~~K:.

(tJnJitJ(JfI~ the )Ctahllit) vf pur~

r

111 ,hc con'llalltly chan.glllll: rca.~t~

A. i'i reali-.ed lin the ba,~~ of ~y... . logical rnechani,m1 :.tudleJ 111 Nlk(lla,~

Bern~tem'~ "ph)"\iolog)' 01 adlvelle!S

f . '>Cit I ~eh '''I 0/ .Movement ("onIlrudl flll . . . I ( . _IIII,e . pi 0/1 _, P,'OIf Anokhm _{" A .. ,} s tleury _lor

of "funclional ~y'tem!> ,hee ~~tP of Adion Result), and A.lexa.nder

Luria'~ ideas of ~y\tem) orgarmatWIl f higher cortical functlOm hee

o . I

Higher Menial Fllnd/Om ,

AClualjsaltoo, retrieval of ~tored mate-. I from short-term or long-Ierm

na " h r '

memory for SUCCCSSI\e uSc: In I e cou '>C of recof.:nition: recail, reco/lecf/flll. or direct reproduction .. The extent to whi~'h A. is easy or dlfftcuh depenili. on the degree of memOrbmg. or

for-elling of the slOred matenal (ot.ee

g ., )

ForSellill.!: .. \1emorr.~IIlf.: '

Adapt:ation. SellSOC). adapti\e modifl-calion of sensitil'ity 10 SUI! the change

in the degree of intensilY of the slimulU5 acting upon the sense orltan. It may maniiesl itself in ,anous subJec-m'e effects (see After-I",ar:e). A.,S. may be achie,~d through incre.a.

ses

and de<:reases LO absolute sensu" 1\)

(such as adaptation to ~arknes; or lighl). A.,S. is chara':t~r~ed b)'. the scale and speed of se~s.lIl\"Jty

modlfica-lion and the selecu,·IIY. of. changes in relation to the adapme mnuen.ce. Thus, Ihe processes oi visual adaptatIon are partially selective IOwards sralJa~ frequency and direction of the. ~ImlUlus movement in the fleld of vl~lon; the processe:; of taste adaptalJon are

,

12

--~1«li\i~ toward!; all salts bul not towards \ariou\ acids, etc. Phy~io­

logical changes whi(h lie 31 the basis of A.,S. oc..:ur both in Ihe cenlral and

poeripheral unib of The analyser. The cmnbinalion of neurophysiological and p!)ychophysical mclh(Xh (:,ee P syl.'ho-phy,~I~'s) i.~ of major importane!;" for re.\earch into perception proc~es and Ihe mechanisms of A.,S. in particular.

Adaptation Syndrome. a lotality of

adaptation reactions of a human or animal organism of a generally defen-sive character, which develops ill re.~­ ponse 10 strong and prolonged pre s-sures (Slrt'SS faclOrs). A functional slale brought about by a stress factor is called stress. The concept of A.S. was introduced in 1936 by the Canadian phY5iologisl Hans Selye. Three stages are distinguished in the development of A,S,: (I) Ihe alarm stage, ranging from several hours to two davs; it

incorporales the phase of shock and the phase of counter-shock, the laller being Ihe process of mobilisation of Ihe organism's defensive reactions; (2) Ihe stage of resistance, in which

the organism achieves higher resistance 10 various disturbances; (3) either

the stage of stabilisation and recovery or rhe stage of exhaustion which may

result in dearh (see Adjustment),

Additiveness. a property of

magni-tudes cOllsisling in that their sum corresponding to an object's pan~

equal~ the magnitude corresponding to the whole object. The size of a

group, for instance, possesses the A,

property, whereas interpersonal Tela

-tioll~ within it or jOint lI,tit'itin do IIOt.

Adjustmenl, conformation tn the en. vironment achil'vcd by an organism's ,\Tucture, hlllctions, orgnn .. , and cells. The aim of A. proces.,e,s is to maintain h(mll'o.~tllsis. A. is onc of tltt· central

conl'cpts in biology, widely applieJ as a theoretical concept in lho~e types of psYl'-hology which, like Ge.\falt

1~\J'clwl-0RY or the psychology of illlel1igence developed by rhe Swis~ psychologist

Jean Piaget, see an indil'it/llal"s rela-tionships with the environment as Ihe

process whereby homeostasis is

sus-tained. The STudy of physiological

regulatory mechanisms of A., increasing the organism's resistance to changes

in temperature or barometric pressure, shortage of oxigen, or any other

disturbing factors, is highly relevant to finding solutions to applied problems of psychophysiology, medical psychol-ogy, ergonomics, and olher branches of psychology. Adaptive reaclions to

unfavourable pressures of high

inten-sity have a number of common fea· tures and are collectively called IIllap-talion syndrome,- The processes of A, to extraordinary conditions are

some-times broken down inlo various phases

(such as the phase of initial

de-compensation and the subsequent

phases of partial and total compens

a-tion), A, changes occur tit all levels-from the molecular structure of the organism to the psychological regula-tion of actil'ily, Of key importance for successful A. to extraordinary

conditions are training as well as the

imlh'idua/'s functional, mental, and moral stales.

Adju\tnlent, Social, (I) thc prn,,-c: whereby an imhvtdual adaph to a ne: envirolHnent; (2) the rewlt of ~ul'.h a

rOl:e~~. The ~()o.:io_P'>ycholoSKal ~un·

P I of A S _{ten " .} L~ I:onvergcnce of XIKlts

fwd I'U/UI:' orlrlltutionl of a ~rf/UP and an individual 11\ tl\L~ group, ado~­

lion by the individual of the group ~ norms and cu~tom .. , Ihe group culture. the individual'~ incorporatton III the • 01' -I,u'·ture In Western group s r c .. . . . . ' . lThychology, Ihe problem of A.,S. l5 developed within the framework of a

trend which originated m Ihe. 1930 5-1940s on Ihe basis of rreobelrul'IOLIT/:>m

(Neal Miller, John Dollard, Robert Sears, and others) and branches,- of psychoanalytic p~ychology (see

Psy,ho-a/ysis) connected with cultural

~~thropoiogy

(Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead) and psychosomatic med1C1I1e (Franz. Alexander, Thomas French). The social environment's and th.e. mdl-vidual's interests are ~e~t as or.lgmall), counterposed, and mal.or sLgnlflcance is anributCd to pathological. phenomena

(neurotic and psychosomalLc. dISorders, drug-addiction, etc.), 111 Sonet

psycho-logy, the mechanisms of A"S. ar.e studied in the conlexl of joinl Clclll

"-lie.~ shaped by community of

SCl

ais and value orienlations of a col1ecuve: the degree of thi~ community pro\·Ldt!.S

the basis for distinguishing the leve.ls or phases of adjustment. The basLc

types of adjustment processes are determined by rhe strucwre of nl:'('(L~ and motives of the individual. Two types are distinguished: (1) the type characterised by predolllllHlnce of an active impact upon the social

environ-ment, (2) the type charactensed by

-. onformLU a"lmilil(ion of the

pa'll>lVC:, c . . 01 th~ 0<113 and ,·slue OflcnTaUOtu . g A rdc:vant iUpc:~1 of A .. S,

group_ II A S is one

~ a(ceplance of a rl~, ' : ' - · h . of the ba~h; ... CX:IO_psy..:holog1I:al nu~{ •

ni .. m .. of the ~Q..'i",li....,tlfm of a per~· nality.

Affecl an intc:nsLve and relali\·d~ ~hort 'emutional ~tatc:. brought. a~lut

b a suddcn ~hange 111 any urlUnt-y ·,'1 for the ~ut>je(\ and a<:C01l1-\tances v I " _ .•

ed by \ividly exprc:s~n> mowr pam d chang~ in thc: funcllllll~ changes an A . a re>ponw of visceral organs. . I'> . . to the e\'ent which has alr~ady 01,;-cd and is somewhat ,>hLfled 10 the

curr , nh an

event's conclusion. A~ repre'><: .

inner conflict e:\penc:nced by the -> 'Ithu b)' the conflu:t

person. causa.o .

of dril'n, (llpir"'tion\. (lr d~."rl:'.\, or h discrepancy between the demand" tie ed upon the person (by other~

~rachirre.elf)

and his or her capacity for meeting th~ demand'>. A, dnelo~ 111 criTical situations when the ~ubJed

is unable 10 find an adequate way out of the dangerous and, marc often than not. sudden situation. p~!Io'>lng the . f dO"lin<lnl A dclaY' mental traIts 0 a " " .

processes irrde\anl to it amI Lm~c:S some slereOlyped c:mergency way. out

of the situation (frc:c:zmg, e.~ape, aggression) shaped in the pro..e~ of

bloogLca · 1 . 1 ,\"olution " ' . ' and therefore d·-·u~tihed only in tYPLcal bLologLl:allon 1

~ions.

Another illl('lOTlant

regula\l)r~

. . ' A is the amllSSlllg 01

tunctLOn 0 , . .

specifIC experience-aITe~'-tl~·e trale! (alT.:ctive comp]e\es) whLC~ ma.k

I 1 - , .. It ill cOllfntntalLOIt wllh

ttelllse v... . .

•

"

-whi..:h ha.' sin~1l ri~e 10 A. and whirh signal Ihe \lIuation's p,,,_\ible re~·ur.

ren..:c. The Slale of A. " (haral'ICri~l'd by narrowmg of com .. iOlI,\I/(·.~ in whidl Ihe Cllt/'ntioll of the subject is wholl\' ,,:ollcenlraled upon thl' circllrn~lann;!) Iha,' have produced Ihis Mate and the actlo~lS which II dictates. Impaired

C?l.IS(lOU~ness may resull in the

inn-bllu), 10 recall. individllal cQmporlt::111S

of the e\'e111 which ha\ given rise 10 A.: ~11 cxtrernely :.Irong A. can resuh

111 lo~, of consciousne~ and complete u/"'I~SICl. A. limits in the extreme the

POS!Slblhtl~ of spontaneous regulation of behaviour; hence the purpose of

A.-preventmg measures employed in reda~og:JC_ and psychOlherapeutical prao.:lices IS to pre\~nl A. b)' avoiding

A.-produ<.:mg SlIuallons through pcr~

f?rmance_ of distracting aCIS. explana~ lion of liS undesirable consequences

elc. The degree of resistance 10

develor~

men I of A. depends on the level of the personality\ moral mOli~'aliOI/.

Afferent Synthesis. in the theory of functional system (Pyolr Anokhin)

-!he ~ynthesls of the malerial imprinted 111 lIIemory, moth'ation, and informa-lion on the environment and the

sllm.ulus that sets the mind in aClion achIeved for the p"'pore of d,~'" .

, .

d}IOIl-1110 ·lIIg .. Memory is seen as an

aggre-gaee o.f mterrelaled funClional systems at various. levels, ro~med in the course of evolulioll and 1n individual life· ex~nence: motivation is seen as

con-crellsatlOn of one of the needs of Ihe

organiSm. In A.S., due 10 motivation a.1l syslems whose operalion has al

011~

tIme or another resulted in satisfaction

-

.

of _. Ihi\ \\al1l _{' l'} '~r _{;!clll;! l\l'd},. _{. Inl"ormll} lion 011 111(' l'll\irllllllll'nt h"lp, , •

tl - ~ - .l1am

II.' rl'qulrl'd rl,\ .. lh. Till' fllltil " ••• , ..

. , _, ... l\lOl1

IS mill l' whl'1I ,0111(' , .

. - \ l'1II thl'

IlIlpubl' add, pn'SMlrl' to Olll' of I

-s\'s_j tem_{_} s ehoSl"1l 1II1f;!('r lhe ,. _{I uenee of}

,n

",

11(' glYl'lI motivatioll and ,itua!"

Ina

~lIluch

us the hierarchy of

I~:~

s~'~tel1ls i~1 1~lemory reflects the

cvolu-tl~11 ~.\1(: II1dl~ Idual history of the orga_

nlsl'.1 s ddaptlvc correlations with the

CII\ Ironment, there ex,·","" , .

I . "., .. cer am

lIerarchy of A.S. As a systems process A.S: dol'S not occur in sOlile discree;

~ram s.t([l(·ture but is a p'rocess of

II1teraCII01l of lI~ural impulses of

vartous. morphological origins (central or per~pheral, afferent or efferent) embracll1g the entire brain and organism.

Affiliation. a pcr~on's desire to be in other per~o~l's company. A tendency

IOwards A. II1creases with the subjeCl"s

lII\'olvement in the potemially danger. ous, stressful (sec Siren) situation.

The company of other people allow~ the person to test the chosen mode of behaviour and Ihe nature of

r~spo~l~es in a complex and dangerous

SlIl1a!lo~. To a cerIa in extent. the

proxllntly to others directly decreases

worry, mitigating the effect of both ment~l and physiological stresses. The ~Iockmg of A. causes a sense of

lone-Imess and ulienalioll and gi\'es rise to {r IIsl ro t i 011.

Arter-Image, a visual .\ellsutiol1 con-tinuing for. some (normally short) penod of tIme after a visual stimu-lation. There are p~ilive and negarive

A'\. A p(l~itive A, I~ hued Ii"-!." the

irritant, and remain'l Inr vcry ~hort time. A negative A. pt:r'ii~t'i (tlr a longer time ilnd i\ tillted With all additional colour a,> cumparl'd ttl that

of the irriwIIL For ill\tatKe. In r~'

POIlSC to rcd colollr, a green negativeA.

would arbe. At prolollged or mh::n\lVC stimulation, one may ob\crve wvcral challgeovers of pmcitive and ncgativl'

A's, which la~t dO/.l'n\ of \cco1l(h or even millutcs (sec Reprewntati/}n~:

Eillelism) .

Age (ill psychology), a specifIC rela-tively time-limited ~tage of Ihe jndi-dduufs mental development and the

moulding of his perIOllu/il}'.

characte-rised by a torality of objective

physio-logical and psychological change-s

unrelated to idiosyncrasy. Transition from one A. stage to another is marked by restructuring and change of psychic development (see Mefllal Del'l!lo~

1711'111; Persol/ulity). The psycholl,!!i..::al

characteristics of A. are deterlllllled by concrete hislOrical condition~ in

which the individual develops. by Ihe nature of his upbringing, and by his

specifiC actil'ilies and comtt1l1tricaliol1

(I). Each A. is characterised by il'> specifiC "social situation of

develop-ment'" (Lev Vygolsky), and by specifiC

correlation bctYlcen the social

envlron-ml'nt and the intrinsic conditions 'lint determine the individual's

develop-ment as a personality. Objel"ti\'cly,

,he sallle dements of social environ-ment innuence people of different A. in different ways, depending 011 what previously develoi"Ied psychologi..::al properti~ they are ml"uiatl'd with. The

inter3t.tio-n of external and 111 .... 1'n.1

faclurs

engenJ~n

typical !l'"y.hoh,ska1

f('atufe'i ~Ilmrnon 10 [M.'oplt' of the !iltlll~

A, 10 Jctermilll: tts ~pa:lf1C; I:hitllgl"S

I" corrciatiOin belweell

,hew

rl&..:-t"r~

cllndition ill th('lr turn the IranSllll'lI to the nexr A. !>tage (1)a\'id h:·llhtem).

A. \tago:s ar(' di.~tillguime-d by relati\-ity and conv('ntionall)' 8\'eragcu chara..::terl\tic,c; howe-vcr, thi .. tItleS lint exclude IYSyt:hologi"::lIl \urielY I.f

indi-viduals. The A_ characteri,ti.:: of the per\onalit)' de~elopmenl rene-ctt ;l certain system of demands madl!' by

sociel), on the indi\'idual al I:erlain stages of life, and also rhe naturc (>1 hi .. relarions .",.ith other people. i.e-. his

social status. Speo:ifl":: A_ l"haralleri\lil\ are determined by how a l"hiid join,

groups with ditTerent le\ds of de\'ci{lp-ment (see un'l o{ Group D"I'dop'

menf) and edu..::ational in\litution';

by changes in the nature of family upbringing; by forming of new lyre' of aelh-ity Ihat help the ..::hilt! inh:r·

nalise . '>OCial e'perien..::e, a sy .. tem of

existing knowledge. norms anu rule\

of human acti\,jty: and by 'he 'p«"iflc\ of his phy~iological de,e-lormcllt.

The nOtion of A. pe..::uliaritie~ and age

boundaries i!. not an 3b~(>lutc aiterion,

since age boundarie\ are vanable anll depend on the hislOri..::al perioo III question, and are differenr in different socio-cconomi..:: eonditiom. The

fol-lowing A. classification is a(ccpted in the USSR: infancy (from birth to age I): pre-pres..::hool childhooo (age I 10 J); preschool ..::hildhooJ

(age", 10 0); Junior s.::hool age (age n to 10); teenagc peTiod (age 10 to 15);

16

age 15 10 17) and second period (age 17 10 21); malure age: first period (age 21 to 35) and second period (age 35 to 60); elderly age

(age 60 10 75); old age (age 75 10 90); and longevity (age 90 and more).

AgnOliia. impairment of perception

associated with cerla;n brai" lesions.

Several forms of A. are di:'linguished: (I) optical or visual A.- failure to re(ognise the ~hape an~ natur~ of objlo'c\\ despite the re!elllLO,1l of ,VIsual

powers: (2) tactile A.--- inability to recognise an object by louch

(3S-lereogllo,i~) or impairment of the ability 10 identify parts of one's own

body or the rdalio~ of its ;odi,vidual

!,arh. i.e. a defeci 111 apprecl311on, of

the body \Cherne (somaloagnmlal ;

e\) acm;,!ic or auditory A.- impair

-melll of phonemic hearing, i.e. the ahility to di .. tingui\h sound ... re.<,ulttng

in a .. peech d~order (see Apll!Hia) or impairment of the ability

torc,,;og-ni~e \\)ice'" melodie~. etc (dc"p'te the retention of elementary form.. of hearing)

Agraphia. inability to communi,,;ate in writing ao.:ompanying "ariou .... pee..:h

di~lUrbance~. It manifc. .. ts ihelf either in a IOlal 10\\ of the ability to write or HI IlH .. reading or Iran,p~ition of wnrd.\. {)n\l .. ~ion of letters and syllable~,

inahihlY to integrate written ~ymboh, etf. In children. A. i~ a form of "leech

retardatmn due 10 innate brain di~­ fUI1\:tion .. ; it is abo seen in

're

e..: h

di~onler.; manlrest 111 Ihe impaIred

aOlhty tn dl~t;nguish sounds as a re..ult

of poor hearing or deafness. tn adults,

A. i\ a form of aphasia.

Alexia., loss of the ability to read

resulting from damage (0 a specific

area of the left cerebral cOrlex (in

right-handers), .~r failu~e to acquire any reading ablhty. Vartous forms of

A. are recognised as associated with the 10000alisation of the 'esion.

Algorithm, a procedure based on a

system of !u]e\ prescr.ibin.&t~at a S!Q~p

of operations are executed 1Il a certam

.. equence; a .. Irict adherence to t~e ·prOl.:edure allows all /asks of a certam

cla.',s 10 be solved. A key to

malhe-matic' and mathematical logic. the com:ept is abo applied in ps}'cholog~'.

(engint'erillR psychology. pedagogl;; ~ydlOloRY. p.\ycllOlogy 0/

ma,,'!ge-ment. etc.), though not in a stnctly mathematical :o.en~e, in the study of

managerial proces:o.e.<, and of procedur~s for executing prescriplion~ 111 certam

types of a~·ti\'i/)". A. indudes

mdlc.a-tion of certain initial data essen!131

for the ~olution of a ta.',k, Ihe cnteno~

(or rule) whereby the process IS

recogm,>ed a\ completed up on the

achievement of a certain result. T~~ ability to .. olye a problem "in general.

i.e. mastery of ,,;ertain methods of solving a .. peciflc da~ of problems. signifies ma,>tery of a cerlam A.

Alienalion (in psychology), the dis~lay of such life rclatiomhips of a wbJecl

with the surrounding world in w.h~ch

the produus of the subject's acuyny.

tht' ~ubJect himself. as well as other indi\iduais and social groupS. are

conceived as!oPPoSite!to the subject. this oppositlOT rangmgfrorn difference \0 rejection and hOStility. Thj.,c is expre~ed in corresponding emotional experience:., viz. feeling.', of ~olation. solitude. rejection, loss of one'~ ego.

etc. The notion of A. should not be confused with the alienation of the personality in an antagonistic class society. As a social I)rocess. A. is characleriseJ by the transformation of

man's activity and also of man's prop· erties and capabilities into. somelhing _y

independent of and dommant over \

the persoll in question. In social

psychology, A. i., u~ed to characterise intl'rpl'rwlIlll rl'laliuns in which the individual i, set off against other individuals, groups. alld the whole of ~ouety to come to experu:nce a certain

degree of iloolation. Such connict relalion' within a group are cam~cd

hy the fad that the values conditioning joint activities are violated, and also by 10\' of the feeling of :o.olidarity.

when an individual in the given group perceiH:,> the otllt~r group members a., Ollien and hostile to himself. rejecting

their ~'ommon norms. law:>. and pre -'>Criplion~. Social psychologists in the West explain .. uch A. primarily by Uldividually typical trait.', of per:o.onality. Slgmunu Freud u~ed the concept 10

explain the pllthological development

ot a rcrl>ona!ity in culture alien and

ho~tilc to IIU1n\ nalural character. thi~ showing in the neurotic los~ of

tht: feeling of reality. or in the los:»

of one .... ;lIdil·it!lIlllity (dl'pefw)lwlisa.

Ilfm). In this ca~e, Freud thought Ihe. IInCOII.\doIlS i:o. the deci:o.ive factor

III Individual behaviour. which, in his

n'" ~

17

YICW. leads to antagoni .. m between

that individual and the social environ·

menl (see Freudiunism). In child

psychology, the nOlion of A. i~ applied

to expre~ the essential factor in the

establishment of the child's self-con-sciousncss, in the development of his

reflexive ability. In early age. the

child feels merged with the surround-ing world, unable to distinguish him·

self from his vital activity. In the later

stages of ontogl'nesis. the notion of A.

is associated with the child's allitudes

towards himself. adults, equals, norms

of beha\ iour and social demands that

are expressed in rejection. disagree-ment, lIega/iI·ism. Basing on joint aCliv-ily and communication, the individual develops an ability to look upon him-self through the eyes of other people

and to accept their attitudes.

Altruism, the system of a person's

\'allie orienta/ions whereby mterests

of other persons or a social community are the central moti\e and criterion for moral evaluation. The term was

coined by the French philo..opher

Auguste Comte as Ihe opposite notion

of I'/:oislll. Freud saw the

,

TIle

mecha-can be of diiTerent nature: A. may expressed

in the subject's actions taken in some concrete dangerous -"itumion (e.g. savillg a child al the cost of one's own life) or be a conscious value orienta-tion determining the subject's general

behaviour, in which case it espr~es the subject's purpo~e of liying.

l'

mill (If A. i~ ~ errolleous (I, lh

und{'re~tin13t;l'n. The real ,ignifK;JIlCC of ahruisl;c behaliour is tlelcnn;nl'd by IIII' nature of \a1ul!'> underlying Ihe per~"\11's relaliollship~ wilh olhcr~.

A. ",),pre~sed in forg;,,:nc',. 101l!ram:c

of short.::omillg~, blind sa"riflcc fliT the sake of Olher persons. induding

those who \ iotato.: the norms of rom-munist Illorality. is a negatIVe \'leT,O· n3lily trait. A. may be exhibited as a

socio_p~ychological expression of

IWIIHlIII',rt's.~ (see Idf.'11Iijicaliml,

Col-kd;I'iSr) in comillunicalion (I) and a(li\'ily.

Ambition. Ihe prominence of achieve-ment matil'alion. the aspiralion for . ..Ilory. awards. and _

r~~pecl

in som"';: sodal sphere. baggefaIed X. is

intensifled by vainglory. i.e. by arrogant altitudes towards Olhen.. As a desirot for social rotCognition, A. may

objec-tively playa relath'e!y positive role by stimulating social acti\·ities. Howotver, being individualistic In nature, A. acts as a hindrance 10 foslo:ring colleclivism, 10 combining public and

potrsonal interests.

Ambivalence of Sentiments. coexistence of several contradicting emotions toward.., a given objec!. A typical case of A. of S. is when individual traits of a complex object impre;.:; a person's

needs and I'aiues differently (thus, il is possible \0 respect the person's industry and disapprove of his, her hot temper), A spednc case of A. of S. is the antithesis of stable .~l'lIlimI'/IIS towards a certain object and situational enlo/iolls deriving from it (thus,

• J IlI!r,,:n1 i.\ hurt if ... l1ll1 pcr;on or JlI.'r~nn, t" wh()ln ho:she aIl3(h ... "

ro:<.i-til'l~ value ,Ire illatterlliH' to hUll /her).

Amncsill, 10\.\ of memor}, due to \pt'ciflt IOC31 Ic~ion~ (II the hruin. It~ twO most com mOil form, arc ro:trograde A. and

IIllt_{erog rmk} A. Rdrogradc A. rders to inability 10 recaU events antcdaling Ihe onset of the dborder (trauma, ottc.): it extenJs backwards to include events Ihat occurred several hours, days, or, sometim~, years prior to Ihc cause of memory disturbance. Anterograde A.

rders to inability \0 fOflll memories of event:; subsequent \0 the onset of the disorder. It may encompass potriods of \arious length. The most severe forms of A. wt'rc described by the Russian neurologbt S .... rgei Korsako\',

and are \-..nown as Korsakov's syndrome. There are forms of A. relaled to functional memory disturbances:

post-hypnolic A.- Io;,.:; of m .... mory for events that occurred during a hypnotic Slage; defensive A.- loss of memory (repres-sio/l) for unpleasant (traumatic)

experience.

Analgesia, lo~ or tOlal absence of the pain sensation. A. may be achieved by taking an analg~ic or by fIxing utll'lI/jlllr on ob'cch unrelated to the cause 0 pam {music, etc. , as · well 'as by S!lgge.~7i()/i, Ie/f_sll~gestioll.

hYPllmis. A. may abo be achieved by massage (general or punclural) and by application of heat or cold 10 specifIC points on the body.

Analogy, similarity of certain aspects of di;.:;imilar objects. Use of A. in

CH/lllili.url..Q.rnyi.lk-r ;~ h~\I' for n,!.&.hh '1I.ld T!ypnthc-.c~. 1)I'JlIlllon10y.,:A. na~e Ire<luclltly fell III uientifte <h>;<:ovcries.

1) ... -duclIl1n~ by A. are ba\ed on tile forrnation and lI,fllu/ilulimr II/ uISI"iu /iom. II i~ I)(>"\"hlc to make a purpf)'jt'ful search for A. The la\k o f · an A.

IS a component of examination. i·

• sjmjljH a-W't!~ abstract property

devclopmenl or imrairment

i n~.

Analyser, a neural apparatu~ thai

forn,s the function of analy~is

I

by Ihe Soviel I han

A. consists (I) rei.·eplor~ lTan..,-fornlrng a certain type of energy mto d neural proct'ss (the pt'ripheral unitt;

(2) afferent paths transmitting impubes from the receptor into the central

nerv.ous sySlem and efferent paths lran

s-mmmg Ilene impulses away from

Ihe central neo'ous system (espe.:ially from the cerebral cortex) 10 the lower

levels ',>f A., !nc1uding receptors. and r.egulallng therr operation; (3) projec-"?n. fibers of the corte:>.. Each A. dls!lnguishes an irritant of a c(,rtain type, providing for ils subsequent sepa· ration. into individual deml'nh. TI1U~. th~ Visual A. disling\1ish~ a certain \lnrt. of. electromagnetic oscillations, ~naklr1~ rt possible to differentiate Ihe rnte~l~rty, colour, shape, and other prop-erties of .obJccts. AI Ihe ~ame lime A

re~ect~

~I)atial

and tcmporal

rt'lation~

~lllpS of the~e elementary stimuli. Ty[lCs

,

.

of A aro; di..\lmg:;I~ht.J I' (<lrdll'. 10

Iho: types of f#'IL~ili\"l1) vlsIlal. aulJrtorv. olfactory, ta.~r('. ta.-lile. 11I010r, "Il' Innuellu:d by the envirolll1lenl III the

proct"'\S .)f phy/""rnni" arual)"1efS developed and diffefenliate" IhrOlr,h cvnslant lophislil·ali"n of tht' ("(',lIral and n.'ceptor syMem>;, Dcvt'lnpmenl lind differential ion of Ihe <"t'rd"lral corte.x rro~ided fnr Ihe de\cll'pnwnt of hIgher unulysi~ and _~yll/Ir,..,i\, Dut' to receptor differentiation, the flr\t ph~e of the analy~u of 5t'nsurv

ex~rience is achincd. when a given

A

dlstlllgU1She<> ~tinJr/1i of a deflrlite tyre fr.om .Ihe ma\:S of ~n\Ory ~timuli. In the light (If current dala on neural mechanisms... A, may be deftned a" a totalily (If r.:ceptors and Iht' dr-trc (JI' connected wilh th.:ln whie'" art' hierarchi.:aUy ordered: do:le..·lors of more compie:\. propertie"i lire lonsli· luted by dete.:rors oi a more elel1"k'ntary order. A number of parallt"! .Io:1«,or

systerJl.'> i~ buill up fr"nl a cer\.lln limited amount of re.:eplors, A. 1$ a

component of rell .... , me.:ha.usrn irl_

corporating alSOlhe etTerent mc(hJrllsm (an aggregate (If ~'ommand neur("n~. motorneurons, and mOlor Units) and special neurons--modulato("\

-challg-rnS Ihe degree of excitalion <,r othl'r neuronS.

the seraration of

,

pracli.:al and cogniti\e i t t lIOilh t~e en\ironment. On the ba~is of rrac-tteal a.-Ill'lt.\', marl ha~ dc\clop-o.'d till' abrlny 10 perform A. 81 Ihe le\d of con.'epl.l_ As an e-.,\erllial rha"e of

•

:w

(01;11111"11, A. i\ inc:>"lricably lin\..t'J \0

Iytllllnj,\, and ('on~,iIUlt~ one uf Ih,'

ba~i( operalion~ ItI Ih,' pro.:e,' \\1' Ihinking.

Anal)tical Psycholog). the ~y\ll·tn 0'-\-r..ychology rJcH!lop<:d by the Swi" ps)chologL)' Carl Jung. who glne it Ihis name 10 difTeretlliale it fn)111

Freudian psyd!Oul!ulysi.~, U\..c Freud.

J ung belien!d Ihal Ihe Wldm.,,·i(lll~ ha~ a de(i~~\'e role_

.Ju_

the .re£.ulalion 01 behaviour. In addi,ion 10 the indi-vidual di\'ision of the UII,'OnSCLQU\,

Jung di~linguish<:,d Ihe collective

un-conscious, the (onlenlS of which cannot

be made consc1OUS. The colkcliv(' unconscious forms an autonomous merllal fund which imprints [i1e

experience inheriled from preceding

generations through Ihe brain structure. The b;uic mental

elements-arche-types- (representations of what is fundamental and typical to all

humau-ity) constiluting this area of the mind are portrayed in the symbols of er('ulil'e

aclil'ily. rima Is. dreams, and complexes.

As a means of revealing hidden mOlil'es,

Jung suggested inducing associations by stimulus-words (~ee Associafion Experiment): inadequate or delayed reply to the stimulus-word indicat~ the existence of a complex, A.P. sees the goal of mental development in individuation-the development of ind i-vidual penonalilY from the collective

unconscious. Although A.P. rejecI~ some principles of Freudian psychology

(libido, for example, is under~tood not a,> sexual but as any unconsciou~ psychic energy), in the light of material-ist methodology this approach to

per~o-lIi1lity .\lld lh ,k\l'h\jllll,'ll1 I' "' ~rull1H.l·

I,'" ,I' tllll'l' Ul oth,'r hrauch,', of

l""ydI\1;tn;11~,i\, ilhl\UlUdl ," 1\ (kn;e,

thc ~lll"i(1-h;'tnric.l1 wh\1I1nu' uf the motil,' force' 1.1 m,II1" hdli\liour (111,1 thc In'i,iH' role or C\lll,ciuu'ne~\

in bl'ili\,iour rl'gulation. A.P. pr~ellts hi\10ry, nlytholll~y, til,' .arh, and

reli-giOI1 in ;1 fube light, Heating them u\ products of \Ol1le eternal collective human p,ychl'. The c1a~\iflcalion of pl'r~on(llity IYpc, suggeMcd by Jung the recognised tWO gencral typC,!,: eXITlllcrt -oriented towards the

exter-nal world, ;lnd introvert- -one whose mental ellergy i~ turned inward) was developl"J imkpendelllly of A.P. in cOllcrele l>-'>ychological ~tudies of

perso-nalil), hee ExlrOI'('rsiOlI IlIlr(ll'",sioll) Anancasms. see Ob.~e~sions.

Animal Psychology, the ~cience 01 the animal psyche, of the manifestations and regulariti~ of psychIC rel1ection at this level. A.P. studies the formation of psychic processes in animals in

onlugl'ne:;i:;, the origius of the psyche anu ib development in the process of evolution, the biological requisites for and the origin of human con-S,iOIl.II/I'IS, The think.ers of long ago

paid alienI ion to the abilities of animab. The birth of :.cientiflt: A.P. at the turn

of the 19th CCIi\lJry is connected with the names of George BulTon and Jean

Lamarck ~lnd, lalcr on, Charles Darwin. In Ru::.sia, the founders of the scientiftC study of animal behaviour were Karl

Rulier and V.A. Wagner, who laid the founJation for a materiali~t

evolu-tionary trend in A.P. in the 191h and

2\11h ,:.·\lturlt'\. Thl\ ITt'nt! wa, furtllt'r ,It-vd'\pl"d h~' Snvid (">y. hul()¥i\l">.

WIH~ refute antrnpCl111t1rph;t,;. ideal;,l;.: :"Iml vul~ar·rt1.alen;lli\1 vlew~ IIf the fl'>ychit: .a.·livily of aIHl11ah, ha'ing

thcm~c1ve\ (In tilt: l.e!lll1i\1 tlu:nry flf

rd/I'(·lioll. They ,tudy the animal p'ydlC ill dialecllull Uluty with Iheir eXlernal, Ilrinwrily muwr, adi";ly hee

/1II/inc/il'I' 1I1'/WI'wur of Allimuk

Terriloriu/ 1I1'lew'iour of AII/mu"',

lhrough which they e\tabli\h all necessary ti~ w;lh Ihe environment. Ontogenesi~ and {JleyIOH('ne~i, regard the complication of aClivity as the primary factor leading to the inlen~i­ flCation, enrichmenl and perfection of the mOlor activity (Kurdt Fabri).

Empiric study of Ihe f"iychic activity of animals, their pcn:eplual processes, orienlalillg exploratory reactions. memory. emotions, ~k.ills and other

types of karning (see Leurnin~ by Allimub), inlelle,l, el<:.. i~ carried oul on che basis of an objective analysis of the Slructure of animal ~ha"iour and requires an all-round account of Ihe ecological panicularilie:s of the specimen, SLllce, as distinct from man, the psychic aClhity of animals is totally determined by biological factors. That is Ihe rca~on for the close link. of A.P, with /'lle%gy and other biological sciences. The achievements of Soviet A.P. are parlicularly signifICant In studies dealing with the psychic regula-tiOn of the behaviour of supreme

mammals (works by Nikolai VOllonis, Natalia Ladygina-Kots, el. a1.).

Anthropogenesis. the evolulion of man (Homo sapiens). 1I\an emerged 111 the

%1

-early Quaternary, n'~eral milhtHl )Til"

a~CI. The Pfll1"::lpal rC"l.jlli~lles rnr

an-thrnpngene,,' wer,' .h\I;lh:t;nllt f'l','I' liar til anthropoid apt.""l. \uth a~ a hll/It level of de~el"plllent of b"th prmripal typt:1 nf mllwr adivity (/0':""1111/'111

and maniplilufiflll); nHP,imum l1e:"lhll· ity (among animal\) of Ihl' furelln1tw. particularly flll!!,er. of Ihe foreMIU, and adaptation of limb<. for perforrning fairly complex gra..\ping opcr<ltillll\; hi-nocular vi~10n, predominating (lver sense of ~mell and funOiolling in

cml-junction wilh the movemerm of fore· arms and their ta,l1le and mu'><.:ular senSlllVlly, thus en~unng a beller knowledge of the phy~ical proper· ties of the obj«:IS of malllpulation: highly deH'lopeJ forms of group

be-haviour (see Group 8ehul'iour of

AIII-mats) and rommunication (\ee Com·

muni.:afion OJ. Animu/). The prj·

mata. (man's ancestor;) a\loumed the ful· ly erect attitude in walk.ing. A\ a re-sult. the forearm w&\ re\ie~'ed from

the walking function to adapt \0 it~

principal function of manipulation. That ensured inten~i\e de\elopment of in$lrumental actions h~

Imtrllmen-tal A.-lions of Anima/I) and a fur-ther rise- in the level of mental

ac-ti~·ity. The laller ""as the foundation for the first speciflCall)' human. albeit primitive. labour operations. charac-terised by the use of specially prf;':-pared implements of labour. Joint la-bour ga\e rise 10 social relationships, followed by articulate speech and ,'o/!-S,'iOIlSfll'.IS, which, in turn. had a sub-stancia] reciprocal effect upon the des(ent of modern man. As a whole, A. IS characterised not so much