Methods and Techniques of Data Collection in Research

(1)

Presentation on

Communication

and

Research

Skill

710001N

Presented

Presented by

by :-

:-

Guided

Guided By

By :-

:-Ravichandra

Ravichandra Kiritbhai Kiritbhai VValand aland Prof. Prof. Bhavesh Bhavesh RanaRana

ME 1

ME 1stst_{Semester ( Energy Engineering )}_{Semester ( Energy Engineering )}

Enrollment No:- 130190739011

Government Engineering

Government Engineering College , VCollege , Valsad.alsad.

Methods and Techniques of Data

Collection in Research

Subject

Subject Code

(2)

Contents

1 1.. A

Ab

bsstr

trac

actt

2. 2. In

Intr

trod

oduc

ucti

tion

on

3. 3. Dat

Data collec

a collection M

tion Method

ethods & T

s & Techni

echniques

ques

4. 4. Prima

Primary

ry meth

methods

ods :

: (a)

(a) Int

Interview

erview

(b) Observation

(c)

(c) Questionnair

Questionnaire

e

5. 5. Secondary

Secondary methods:

methods: Case

Case Study

Study

6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography

(3)

(2).

Introduction

In dealing with any real life (research) problem, it is often found that data In dealing with any real life (research) problem, it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are at hand are inadequate, and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.

appropriate.

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time, and other resources at the considerably in context of money costs, time, and other resources at the discretion of

discretion of the researcherthe researcher..

Research differs in many aspects, but they do have few similar aspects. Research differs in many aspects, but they do have few similar aspects. Many components are involved in conducting research. One very essential factor Many components are involved in conducting research. One very essential factor is collection of data.

is collection of data.

Data collection can be gathered from a number of sources, which Data collection can be gathered from a number of sources, which includes working environment, web technologies, focus groups, field notes, includes working environment, web technologies, focus groups, field notes, questionnaires and recorded social interactions or interviews. This article focuses questionnaires and recorded social interactions or interviews. This article focuses on various methods and techniques of Data collection.

(4)

(3).

Data

Data Collection

Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been de

been defined and fined and research designresearch design/plan chalked o/plan chalked out. ut. While decidWhile deciding about theing about the method of data collection to

method of data collection to be used for the sbe used for the studytudy, the researcher should keep in, the researcher should keep in mind two types

mind two types of data viz.of data viz., primary and secondary, primary and secondary.. Data Collection Method Data Collection Method

Primary Data

Primary Data Secondary DataSecondary Data

---Interview

Interview Observation Observation QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.

time, and thus happen to be original in character.

Secondary data on the other hand, are those which have already Secondary data on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process

(5)

(4).

Primary

Methods:

(a) Interview :

Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined interview as interview as ““a t w o - p e r s o n c o n va t w o - p e r s o n c on v e r s a te r s a ti o ni o n , , i n i t i a t ei n i t i a t ed b y d b y t h e i n t e rt h e i n t e rv i e w e r f o r t h ev i e w e r f o r t h e s p e c i f i c p u r p o s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f os e o f o b t a i n ib t a i n in g n g r er es e as e ar c h -r c h -r e lr e le v ae v an t i n f o r mn t i n f o r m a ta ti o n i o n a n d f o c ua n d f o c u s e d b ys e d b y h i m h i m o n o n t h e c o n t e n t s p e c i f i et h e c o n t e n t s p e c i f i ed bd b y t h e r e s ey t h e r e s ea ra rc h oc h o b j e c t i v eb j e c t i v es os o f d e s c r i p t i o n a n df d e s c r i p t i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n e x p l a n a t i o n ””.. Functions of interview Functions of interview Tw

Two major functions o major functions of the interview of the interview techniques aretechniques are i.

i. DescriptionDescription ii.ii. ExplorationExploration

Description Description

The information received from the respondent provides insight into the The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings & attitudes more clearly, and seek respondents, he can understand their feelings & attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for

him. him. Exploration

Exploration

Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem. Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.

(6)

Types of Interviews

There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the others in structure, purpose, role of the interviewer, number of respondents others in structure, purpose, role of the interviewer, number of respondents involved in each interview, and form and

involved in each interview, and form and frequency of administration.frequency of administration. Structured Interview

Structured Interview

A structured

A structured interview interview is is sometimes sometimes called called as as standardized istandardized interviewnterview.. Same questions are asked for all respondents.

Same questions are asked for all respondents.

Corbetta (2003) states structured interviews

Corbetta (2003) states structured interviews are”are” i n t e r v i e w s i ni n t e r v i e w s i n w h w h i c h a l l r ei c h a l l r es p o ns p o n d e n t s a r e d e n t s a r e a s k ea s k ed t hd t h e s ae s am e q um e q u e s t ie s t io n s o n s w i t h t h e s a m ew i t h t h e s a m e w o w o r d i n g a n d i n t h e s a m e q u e s t ir d i n g a n d i n t h e s a m e q u e s t io n s o n s w i t h t h e s a m e w o r d i n g a n d i n t h ew i t h t h e s a m e w o r d i n g a n d i n t h e s a m e s e q u e n c e s a m e s e q u e n c e ..””

The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning.

questioning.

The strengths of structured interviews are that the researcher has The strengths of structured interviews are that the researcher has control over the topics

control over the topics and the format of and the format of the interviewthe interview..

On the contrary, drawbacks of structured interviews are they adhere On the contrary, drawbacks of structured interviews are they adhere too closely to the interview guide and may be the cause of not probing for too closely to the interview guide and may be the cause of not probing for relevant information.

(7)

Semi-structured Interviews

In this Semi-structured interviewer the researcher has a list of key In this Semi-structured interviewer the researcher has a list of key themes, issues, and questions to be covered. Here the order of the questions themes, issues, and questions to be covered. Here the order of the questions can be changed depending on t

can be changed depending on the direction of the he direction of the interviewinterview.. Corbetta (2003)

Corbetta (2003) explains semi-structured interviews asexplains semi-structured interviews as follows:follows:

The order in which the various topics are dealt with and the wording of The order in which the various topics are dealt with and the wording of the questions are left to the

the questions are left to the interviewer‟sinterviewer‟s discretion. Within each topic, the discretion. Within each topic, the interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he thinks fit, Additional interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he thinks fit, Additional questions can be asked and some may be questions that have not been questions can be asked and some may be questions that have not been anticipated in the beginning

anticipated in the beginning of the interviewof the interview..

The strengths of semi-structured interviews are that the researcher The strengths of semi-structured interviews are that the researcher can prompt and probe deeper into the given situation. For example, the can prompt and probe deeper into the given situation. For example, the interviewer inquires about using computers in library. Some respondents are interviewer inquires about using computers in library. Some respondents are more computer literate than others are.

more computer literate than others are.

The drawbacks are inexperienced interviewers may not be able to ask The drawbacks are inexperienced interviewers may not be able to ask prompt questions. If this is

(8)

Unstructured Interviews

This type of interview is non-directed and is a flexible method. It is more This type of interview is non-directed and is a flexible method. It is more casual than the aforementioned interviews.

casual than the aforementioned interviews.

There is no need to follow a detailed interview guide. Interviewees are There is no need to follow a detailed interview guide. Interviewees are encouraged to speak openly, frankly and give as much detail as possible.

encouraged to speak openly, frankly and give as much detail as possible.

The strengths of unstructured interviews are no restrictions are placed on The strengths of unstructured interviews are no restrictions are placed on questions.

questions.

It is useful when little or no knowledge exists about a topic. So, It is useful when little or no knowledge exists about a topic. So, background data can be collected.

background data can be collected.

Unstructured interviews are flexible. Unstructured interviews are flexible.

The drawbacks of unstructured interviews are that they can be The drawbacks of unstructured interviews are that they can be inappropriate for inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers may be bias and ask inappropriate for inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers may be bias and ask inappropriate questions.

(9)

Non-directive Interviews

Questions are usually not

Questions are usually not pre-plannedpre-planned..

The interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewer The interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewer follows what the

follows what the interviewee has to interviewee has to saysay. The interviewee leads . The interviewee leads the conversation.the conversation. The interviewer has the objectives of the research in mind and what The interviewer has the objectives of the research in mind and what issues to cover during the interview. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely about issues to cover during the interview. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely about the subject.

the subject. The

The interviewer‟sinterviewer‟s role is to check on unclear points and to rephrase the role is to check on unclear points and to rephrase the answer to check

answer to check for accuracy and for accuracy and understanding (Grayunderstanding (Gray, 2004)., 2004).

The strengths of non-directive interviews are to find the deep-seated The strengths of non-directive interviews are to find the deep-seated problem and the subconscious feelings.

problem and the subconscious feelings.

On the other hand, the drawbacks are that there are no directions or On the other hand, the drawbacks are that there are no directions or issues to explore which can cause some problems in coding and analyzing the issues to explore which can cause some problems in coding and analyzing the data.

(10)

Analytical interviews

These types of interviews are based on theoretical foundation and These types of interviews are based on theoretical foundation and serve to analyze concepts, theories, social

serve to analyze concepts, theories, social relationships and events.relationships and events. Biographical interviews

Biographical interviews

A b

A biographical interview is an interview foriographical interview is an interview form employed to study the lifem employed to study the life history of a respondent. It is often carried out in conjunction with document history of a respondent. It is often carried out in conjunction with document analysis,

analysis,

Focused interviews

This was developed by R K Merton in the 1940

This was developed by R K Merton in the 1940‟s‟s in the context of in the context of propaganda research, and analysis of mass communication. it focuses on a propaganda research, and analysis of mass communication. it focuses on a specific topic, which respondents are asked to discuss, thereby providing their specific topic, which respondents are asked to discuss, thereby providing their views and opinions on the research question.

views and opinions on the research question. Soft interview

Soft interview

Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.

(11)

Hard interview

The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate

give an answer when they hesitate..

In-depth Interview

An

An in-depth in-depth interview interview is is a a dialogue dialogue between between a a skilled skilled interviewer interviewer andand an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995).

analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995).

It is much less formal than the semi-structured interview. While you It is much less formal than the semi-structured interview. While you have structured some basic questions on paper, the discussion on the issue is have structured some basic questions on paper, the discussion on the issue is largely free- ranging. When you intend to collect complex information, largely free- ranging. When you intend to collect complex information, containing a high proportion of opinions, attitudes and personal experiences of containing a high proportion of opinions, attitudes and personal experiences of the respondents, you go in for in-depth interview.

the respondents, you go in for in-depth interview.

For an in-depth interview, the sample is kept small. Only a few For an in-depth interview, the sample is kept small. Only a few purposively selected people are subjected

(12)

Focus Groups

Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation.

observation.

Use of the group interaction to generate data. Use of the group interaction to generate data.

The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the

discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents‟respondents‟ behaviors, attitudes, behaviors, attitudes, language, etc.

language, etc.

Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the problem.

characteristics relevant to the problem.

Focus groups conducted by experts take place in a focus group facility Focus groups conducted by experts take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual).

that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual). Telephone interviews

Telephone interviews

Telephone interviewing demonstrates the same structural characteristics Telephone interviewing demonstrates the same structural characteristics as standard interviewing techniques, except that it is conducted by telephone. as standard interviewing techniques, except that it is conducted by telephone. These are employed when the interviews are simple and brief, when quick and These are employed when the interviews are simple and brief, when quick and inexpensive results are sought, when it is not required to approach the respondent inexpensive results are sought, when it is not required to approach the respondent face to face and when sampling inaccuracies (e.g. non subscribers and unlisted face to face and when sampling inaccuracies (e.g. non subscribers and unlisted numbers) are not considered important.

(13)

Interviewing in the computer age

The development of computers has affected many aspects of life of The development of computers has affected many aspects of life of every Individual and consequently the researcher, the interviewer and the every Individual and consequently the researcher, the interviewer and the interviewee. The following are some examples of computer packages that are interviewee. The following are some examples of computer packages that are relevant to i

relevant to interviewingnterviewing..

Computer-aided personal interview (

Computer-aided personal interview (C A P I C A P I ))

This program allows interviews to be carried out through the This program allows interviews to be carried out through the assistance of computers, whereby to a certain extent the computer takes the assistance of computers, whereby to a certain extent the computer takes the place of the interviewer. Questioning and control of the responses is done place of the interviewer. Questioning and control of the responses is done through the computer.

through the computer. Computer-driven self

Computer-driven self

_–

completion interview ( completion interview (CODSCI CODSCI ))

The interview is carried out in a computer session in which the The interview is carried out in a computer session in which the respondent reads the questions from the computer screen in direct respondent reads the questions from the computer screen in direct communication with t

communication with the computer.he computer. After

After completion completion of of the the interviewinterview, , the the responses responses are are savedsaved automatically in the memory and further added to previous interview

(14)

Computer-aided telephone interview (

Computer-aided telephone interview (CATI CATI ))

Here the computer is used by the interviewer, who reads the Here the computer is used by the interviewer, who reads the questions to the interviewee through the telephone as it appears on the questions to the interviewee through the telephone as it appears on the screen and records the

screen and records the response in the cresponse in the computeromputer..

It can draw the sample, choose the telephone number, dial the It can draw the sample, choose the telephone number, dial the respondent through a self-dial system and connect the interviewer with the respondent through a self-dial system and connect the interviewer with the interviewee.

interviewee.

Advantages of interviewing

Flexibility

Flexibility & & High High response response raterate Easy

Easy administration administration & & OpportunityOpportunity to observe non-verbal to observe non-verbal behavior

behavior

Control

Control over the environment and order of the questionsover the environment and order of the questions

Capacity for correcting misunderstandings by respondents Capacity for correcting misunderstandings by respondents :: Such an option is very valuable and not available in other forms of data Such an option is very valuable and not available in other forms of data collection.

(15)

Opportunity

Opportunity to record spontaneous to record spontaneous answersanswers Control

Control over the time, date, & over the time, date, & place of the interviewplace of the interview More complex

More complex questions can be used, because the presence of the questions can be used, because the presence of the interviewer can assist in answering the

interviewer can assist in answering the questions.questions. Limitations

Limitations

Despite the above advantages, interviewing is limited by some factors that cannot Despite the above advantages, interviewing is limited by some factors that cannot be overlooked

be overlooked

Interviews

Interviews are more costly and time c are more costly and time consuming than other methods.onsuming than other methods. Interviews

Interviews are affected by the factor, interviewer & the possible bias are affected by the factor, interviewer & the possible bias associated with.

associated with. InterviewingInterviewing is more inconvenient. is more inconvenient.

It is less effective than other methods, when sensitive issues are It is less effective than other methods, when sensitive issues are discussed.

(16)

(b) Observation

Observation involves may take place in natural settings and Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening.

happening.

It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural' settings and that the presence of the research may observed in their 'natural' settings and that the presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.

lead to problems with validity.

Techniques

Techniques for colfor collecting data lecting data through through observation:observation: (1) Written descriptions

(1) Written descriptions I.

I. The The resresearearchecher mar makes wkes writritten dten descescripriptiontions of ts of the phe peopeople, sle, situituatiations ons oror environment

environment II

II.. LiLimmititatatioions ns ininclcluuddee

Researcher might miss out on an

Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notesobservation as they are taking notes The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation

The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation There is room for subjective interpretation of what

(17)

2) Video recording 2) Video recording

I.

I. AllAllowows ths the e rereseseararchcher er to to alalso so rerecocord rd nonotetess II.

II. LimitaLimitations tions may may incluinclude pde peopleople ace acting ting unnaunnaturalturally toly towardwards the s the camercameraa or others avoiding the camera

or others avoiding the camera III.

III. The The camecamera mra may nay not aot alwlways seays see eve everyerythinthingg (3) Photographs and arte facts

(3) Photographs and arte facts I.

I. UseUseful ful whwhen ten therhere ie is a s a neeneed to d to colcolleclect obt obserservabvable ile infonformarmatiotion orn or phenomena such as buildings,

phenomena such as buildings, neighbourhoneighbourhoods, dress ods, dress and appearanceand appearance II.

II. ArteArtefactfacts ins includclude objee objects octs of sigf significnificance - ance - memmemoraborabilia, ilia, instinstrumeruments,nts, tools etc.

tools etc. Limitations

Limitations with with observation observation include:include: I.

I. ChaChange nge in pin peoeopleple's b's behaehavioviour wur when then they hey knoknow thw they aey are bre beineing obg obserservedved II.

II. A A 's'snanap shp shotot' vi' view oew of a wf a whohole sile situtuatatioionn III

III.. ThThinink Bk Big ig BrBrototheherr... IV.

IV. The reseThe researchearcher may miss sor may miss somethimething while thng while they are waey are watching atching and takinnd takingg notes

notes V.

V. The The researesearchercher may r may make make judgjudgemenements of ts of make make value value statemstatements ents oror misunderstand what has been observed

(18)

Strengths

Strengths of observation :of observation : I.

I. CaCan on offffer er a a flaflavovour ur fofor r whwhat at is is hahappppeneniningg II.

II. Can Can givgive ae an in insinsight ght intinto to the he bigbigger ger picpicturturee III.

III. Can Can demdemonsonstratrate te subsub-gr-grououpsps IV.

IV. Can be Can be used to used to assist iassist in the den the design of tsign of the reshe rest of the rt of the researesearchch

Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant observer, where they are taking part in the situation in order to be participant observer, where they are taking part in the situation in order to be accepted and further understand the workings of the social

accepted and further understand the workings of the social phenomenonphenomenon..

Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people actually behave (although it may about certain things - for example, how people actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why

not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way).they behave in a particular way).

Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying information provided in face to face encounters.

nullifying information provided in face to face encounters.„„ People or environment can be observed. People or environment can be observed.

When environment is researched, it can provide valuable When environment is researched, it can provide valuable background information that may inform other aspects of

(19)

A questionna

A questionnaire consists ire consists of a number of of a number of questions printed or questions printed or typed intyped in a definite

a definite order on order on a form a form or set or set of forms. of forms. The questionnThe questionnaire is aire is mailed tomailed to respondents

respondents

who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply

reply in the in the space meant space meant for the for the purpose ipurpose in the n the questionnaire questionnaire itself. itself. TheThe respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.

surveys.

Main aspects

Main aspects of a questionnaire:of a questionnaire:

Quite often questionnaire is considered as the

Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heartheart of a

of a

survey operation

survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is

properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail.bound to fail. (a)

(a) General formGeneral form

(b) Question sequence (b) Question sequence

(c) Question formulation and wording (c) Question formulation and wording

(20)

(a)

(a) GenGeneraeral forml form::

The general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can The general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either

either be be structured structured or or unstructured unstructured questionnaire questionnaire ..

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents.

respondents.

The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type „yes‟

„yes‟ oror „no‟)„no‟) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed

advance and not constructed during questioning.during questioning.

Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions alternatives. Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the

and answers are specified and comments in the respondent‟srespondent‟s own words are own words are held to the minimum.

held to the minimum.

When these characteristics are not present in a When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be

(21)

(b) Question sequence: (b) Question sequence:

In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the

quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question- question-sequence

sequence in in preparing preparing the quthe questionnaire. estionnaire. A A proper proper sequence sequence of qof questionsuestions reduces

reduces considerably the considerably the chances of inchances of individual questions dividual questions being misundbeing misunderstood.erstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning there by that the relation of one question to another should be readily meaning there by that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the

in the beginning.beginning.

The first few questions are particularly important because The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.

desired cooperation.

The opening questions should be such as to arouse human The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening interest. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a

(22)

I.

I. qu

ques

esti

tion

ons t

s tha

hat p

t put

ut to

too g

o gre

reat

at a st

a stra

rain

in on t

on the m

he mem

emor

ory o

y or in

r inte

tellllec

ect of

t of

the respondent;

II

II..

qu

ques

esti

tion

ons

s of

of a

a pe

pers

rson

onal

al ch

char

arac

acte

ter;

r;

II

III. I. qu

ques

esti

tion

ons re

s rela

late

ted to p

d to per

erso

sona

nal we

l weal

alth

th, et

, etc.

c.

(C) Question formulation and wording

(C) Question formulation and wording : :

With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey.

misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey.

Question should also be impartial in order not to give a Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a l

a view to their forming a logical part of a well togical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.hought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions should meet the following s

In general, all questions should meet the following standards:tandards:—— (a) should be easily understood;

(a) should be easily understood;

(b) should be simple i.e., should convey

(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;only one thought at a time; (c) should be concrete and should conform as much

(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to theas possible to the respondent‟s

(23)

Strengths

Strengths of Questionnaire :of Questionnaire : I.

I. LoLow raw rate te of rof retetururn on of thf the de dululy fiy filllled ed in in ququesestiotionnnnaiaireres; bs; biaias ds due ue to nto noo response is often indeterminate.

response is often indeterminate. II.

II. It It can can be be useused ond only wly when rhen respespondondentents ars are ede educucateated and and cod coopoperaeratinting.g. III.

III. The The concontrotrol ovl over er quequestiostionnannaire ire may may be be loslost ont once ice it is t is sensent.t. IV.

IV. It It is dis diffiifficult cult to kto know now whewhether wther willinilling resg respondpondents ents are are truly truly reprrepresentaesentative.tive. V.

V. ThThis is memeththod od is is lilikekely tly to bo be te the he slslowowesest of at of allll.. Limitations

Limitations with Questionnaire include:with Questionnaire include: I.

I. TheThere re is lis low cow cost ost eveeven wn whehen the n the uniuniververse is se is larlarge age and nd is wis wideidely sprly spreadead geographically.

geographically. II.

II. It is free from the bias It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents‟ ownof the interviewer; answers are in respondents‟ own words.

words. III.

III. RespRespondeondents havnts have adeque adequate timate time to give we to give well thougell thought out anht out answeswers.rs. IV.

IV. RespoRespondenndents, who are nots, who are not easily apt easily approaproachablchable, can also be, can also be reache reacheded conveniently.

conveniently. V.

V. LargLarge same samples ples can can be mabe made ude use of se of and and thus thus the rthe results esults can bcan be mae made mode morere dependabl

(24)

Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I.

I. TTo bo be se succeuccessfulssful, q, questuestionnaionnaire ire shoushould bld be ce compaomparatiratively vely shorshort at and snd simpleimple i.e., the size of t

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.he questionnaire should be kept to the minimum. II.

II. QueQuestiostions shns shoulould prod proceeceed in lod in logicagical sequl sequencence movie moving frng from eaom easy to morsy to moree difficult questions.

difficult questions. III.

III. The latThe latter typter type of quee of questions astions are oftere often difn difficult to anficult to analyse analyse and hence d hence shouldshould be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. IV.

IV. The phyThe physical appsical appearaearance of the quesnce of the questionnationnaire afire affects the coopfects the cooperatieration theon the researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire

questionnaire, , particularly particularly in mail in mail surveys, surveys, is a is a plus poplus point for int for enlistingenlisting cooperation.

cooperation. V.

V. The quThe quality ality of the of the papepaperr, alon, along with g with its coloits colourur, must b, must be goe good so tod so that it hat it maymay attract the attention of recipients.

(25)

Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I.

I. TTo bo be se succeuccessfulssful, q, questuestionnaionnaire ire shoushould bld be ce compaomparatiratively vely shorshort at and snd simpleimple i.e., the size of t

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.he questionnaire should be kept to the minimum. II.

II. QueQuestiostions shns shoulould prod proceeceed in lod in logicagical sequl sequencence movie moving frng from eaom easy to morsy to moree difficult questions.

difficult questions. III.

III. The latThe latter typter type of quee of questions astions are oftere often difn difficult to anficult to analyse analyse and hence d hence shouldshould be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. IV.

IV. The phyThe physical appsical appearaearance of the quesnce of the questionnationnaire afire affects the coopfects the cooperatieration theon the researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire

questionnaire, , particularly particularly in mail in mail surveys, surveys, is a is a plus poplus point for int for enlistingenlisting cooperation.

cooperation. V.

V. The quThe quality ality of the of the papepaperr, alon, along with g with its coloits colourur, must b, must be goe good so tod so that it hat it maymay attract the attention of recipients.

(26)

(5) Secondary Method :

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone else

else

..

Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

data.

Usually published data are available in: Usually published data are available in: I.

I. varvariouious pus publiblicatcationions of ts of the che cententralral, st, state ate are are loclocal gal goveovernmrnmentents;s; II.

II. variovarious pus publicaublications tions of fof foreigoreign gon governmvernments ents or or of iof internnternationaational bol bodies dies andand their

their subsidiary organisations;subsidiary organisations; III.

III. tectechnihnical cal and and tratrade de joujournrnalsals;; IV.

IV. bookbooks, ms, magazagazines ines and and newnewspapspapers;ers; V.

V. reporeports arts and pnd publiublicationcations of vs of variouarious assos associatiociations cons connectennected wid with buth businesssiness and

and industryindustry, , banks, banks, stock stock exchanges, exchanges, etc.;etc.; VI.

VI. reporeports prerts prepared by rpared by researesearch scholach scholars, univers, universitiersities, econos, economists, etc. inmists, etc. in different

different fields; fields; andand VII.

VII. public recorpublic records and ds and statistics, historical documents, anstatistics, historical documents, and other d other sources ofsources of published information.

(27)

The

The sources sources of of unpublished unpublished data data are are many; many; they they may may be be found found inin diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

Case Study :

Case study research, through reports of past studies, allows the Case study research, through reports of past studies, allows the exploration and understanding of complex issues. It can be considered a robust exploration and understanding of complex issues. It can be considered a robust research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is

research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required.required. Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships.

limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships. An

An in-depth in-depth longitudinal longitudinal examination examination of of a a single single case case or or event event isis used.

used.

The longitudinal examination provides a systematic way of observing the The longitudinal examination provides a systematic way of observing the events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results over a events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results over a long period of time.

(28)

Conclusion

Despite the above stated limitations, we find that case studies are Despite the above stated limitations, we find that case studies are being undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool of being undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool of scientific research in view

scientific research in view of the several advantages indicated earlier. Most ofof the several advantages indicated earlier. Most of the limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these the limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these and are well trained in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the and are well trained in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the scientific techniques of assembling, classifying and processing the same. scientific techniques of assembling, classifying and processing the same. Besides, case studies, in modern times, can be conducted in such a manner Besides, case studies, in modern times, can be conducted in such a manner that the data are amenable to quantification and statistical treatment. that the data are amenable to quantification and statistical treatment. Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular day Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular day by day.

(34)

Bibliography Bibliography

1

1_{Black, T. R.}_{Black, T. R. Doing Quantitativ}_{Doing Quantitative Research in the Soc}_{e Research in the Social Sciences.}_{ial Sciences. London: SAGE Publications. 1999}_{London: SAGE Publications. 1999} 2

2_{Bryman, A.}_{Bryman, A. Social Research Methods.}_{Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.}_{Oxford: Oxford University Press.} 3

3_{Corbetta, P.}_{Corbetta, P. Social Research Theory, Methods and Techniques.}_{Social Research Theory, Methods and Techniques. London: SAGE Publications. 2003}_{London: SAGE Publications. 2003} 4

4_{David, M. & Sutton C.D.}_{David, M. & Sutton C.D. Social Research the Basics.}_{Social Research the Basics. London: SAGE Publications. 2004}_{London: SAGE Publications. 2004} 5

5_Foddy_{Foddy, William. Constructing}_{, William. Constructing Questions for Interviews,}_{Questions for Interviews, Cambridge University Press,}_{Cambridge University Press, 1993}₁₉₉₃ 6

6_{Gillham, B.}_{Gillham, B. The Research Interview.}_{The Research Interview. New Y}_{New York: Continuum. 200}_{ork: Continuum. 2000}₀ 7

7_{Gray, D. E.}_{Gray, D. E. Doing Resear}_{Doing Research in the Real W}_{ch in the Real World.}_{orld. London: SAGE Publications. 2004}_{London: SAGE Publications. 2004} 8

8_{Kothari, C R., Research Methodology. New Age International P Ltd. 2004}_{Kothari, C R., Research Methodology. New Age International P Ltd. 2004} 9

9_{Kvale, Steinar. Interview}_{Kvale, Steinar. Interviews An}_{s An Introduction to Qualitative}_{Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing}_{Research Interviewing,}_{, Sage Publications, 1996}_{Sage Publications, 1996} 10

10_{L V Redman and A. V H Mory, The Romance of Research, 1923, p.10}_{L V Redman and A. V H Mory, The Romance of Research, 1923, p.10} 11

11_{Lofland, J., and Lofland, L.H.}_{Lofland, J., and Lofland, L.H. Analyzing}_{Analyzing Social}_{Social Settings:}_{Settings: A}_{A Guide}_{Guide to}_{to Qualitative}_{Qualitative Observation}_{Observation and}_{and Analysis,}_{Analysis, 3rd Ed.}_{3rd Ed.}

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 1995 Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 1995

12

12_{McNamara, Carter}_{McNamara, Carter, PhD. General Guidelines for}_{, PhD. General Guidelines for Conducting Interview}_{Conducting Interviews,}_{s, Minnesota, 1999}_{Minnesota, 1999} 13

13_{Patton, M. Q.}_{Patton, M. Q. Qualitative Research and Evaluation}_{Qualitative Research and Evaluation Method.}_{Method. London: SAGE Publications. 2000}_{London: SAGE Publications. 2000} 14

14_{Sotirios, S.}_{Sotirios, S. Social Research}_{Social Research. Macmillan Press Ltd. 1993}_{. Macmillan Press Ltd. 1993} 15

15_{Hollowitz, J. & Wilson, C.E.}_{Hollowitz, J. & Wilson, C.E.} _{“Structured}_{“Structured Interviewing in Volunteer}_{Interviewing in Volunteer} _Selection”_{Selection”.Journal of Applied Communication}_{.Journal of Applied Communication}

Research, 21, 41-52, 1993 Research, 21, 41-52, 1993

16

16_{Michelle Byrne "Interviewing as a}_{Michelle Byrne "Interviewing as a data collection method". AORN Journal. FindArticles.com}_{data collection method". AORN Journal. FindArticles.com. 04}_{. 04 Mar, 2012.}_{Mar, 2012.} 17

17_{Pawlas, G.E.}_{Pawlas, G.E.} _“The_{“The Structured Interview: Three}_{Structured Interview: Three Dozen Questions to Ask Prospective}_{Dozen Questions to Ask Prospective} _{Teachers”,NASSP}_{Teachers”,NASSP Bulletin, 79, 62-65,}_{Bulletin, 79, 62-65,}

1995 1995

18

18_{Kajornboon, A. B.}_{Kajornboon, A. B. Creating Useful Knowledge: A Case Study of Policy Development in E-learning at Chulalongkorn}_{Creating Useful Knowledge: A Case Study of Policy Development in E-learning at Chulalongkorn}

University Language Institute.

University Language Institute. Dissertation. University of Dissertation. University of Melbourne: Australia.2Melbourne: Australia.2004004

19

19_{(http://cerg.csse.mona}_{(http://cerg.csse.monash.edu.au). The Evaluation}_{sh.edu.au). The Evaluation Resource Centre: Monash}_{Resource Centre: Monash University}_{University Defining Data Collection Methods.}_{Defining Data Collection Methods.}

(access 9/03/2012)). (access 9/03/2012)).

20

20_{(http://www.who.int). World Health Organization.}_{(http://www.who.int). World Health Organization. Intervie}_Interviews._{ws. (access 9/03/2012)}_{(access 9/03/2012)} 21

21_{http://cemca.or}_{http://cemca.or}_{g/books/chap10.htm (access 06-03-}_{g/books/chap10.htm (access 06-03-}₂₀₂₀₁₂₎₁₂₎ 22

22_{http://cerg.cs}_{http://cerg.cs}_se.mongas_se.mongas_{h.edu.au (access}_{h.edu.au (access}_06-03-2012)_06-03-2012) 23

23_http:/_http:/_{/mass-communication-tutorials.blogspot.in/2010/11/interview-method-of-data-collection.html. (access 09-03-}_{/mass-communication-tutorials.blogspot.in/2010/11/interview-method-of-data-collection.html. (access}

09-03-2012)

(35)