Quantitative vs Qualitative Methods

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Quantitative

Versus

Qualitative methods

in

research

An approach to combine both research methods

into a useful mindset for social-scientific research

Zutphen, 5 February 2010 Zutphen, 5 February 2010 The Netherlands,

The Netherlands,

Joop Vinke, MBA Joop Vinke, MBA

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CONTENT

Content

Content ... .. 22

2.

2. The The differdifferences ences ... .. 66

2.1 QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ...

2.1 QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ...66

2.2.

2.2. DATA DATA ... . 66

2.3. RESEARCH

2.3. RESEARCH SETTING ...SETTING ... .... 77

2.4 MEANINGS

2.4 MEANINGS VERSUS BEHAVIOUR VERSUS BEHAVIOUR ... ... 88

2.4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND NATURAL

2.4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND NATURAL SCIENCE ...SCIENCE ...99

2.5 THE USE

2.5 THE USE OF HYPOTHESES ...OF HYPOTHESES ... . 99

2.6

2.6 ACTION ...ACTION ... ... 1010

2.7 PROFESSIONAL DECISION MAKING, THE REPRESENTATION OF THE CASE

AND GENERALISA

AND GENERALISATION FROM CASES ...TION FROM CASES ... ... 1010

2.8

2.8 Resume Resume ... .. 1212

3. The research

3. The research ... ... 1313

3.1 Human resou

3.1 Human resource managerce management. Only for the ‘paiment. Only for the ‘paid’ employeed’ employees? s? ...1313

3.2 Research on the needs and wishes of volunteer in a volunteer organisation

...

... ... 1616

3.2.1 Intro

3.2.1 Introduction duction ... . 1616

3.2.2 Motive

3.2.2 Motives in the literaturs in the literature e ... .... 1717

3.2.2 Research on

3.2.2 Research on the wishes and the wishes and needs of volunteers needs of volunteers in the liin the literature terature 1919

3.3 Practi

3.3 Practice of the researce of the research ch ... ... 2020

3.3.1

3.3.1 Interviews Interviews ... ... 2020

3.3.2 Result

3.3.2 Results interviews interviews s ... ... 2121

3.3.3 Translati

3.3.3 Translation to on to questioquestionnaire nnaire ... ... 2222

3.3.4 The results of the question

3.3.4 The results of the questionnaire naire ... ... 2323

4. Conclusions. 4. Conclusions... ... 2929 ... ... .. 3030 Used Literature Used Literature: : ... .. 3131

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1. INTRODUCTION

Quantitative vs. Qualitative research Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

This paper is made for and as a reaction on the course “Quantitative research This paper is made for and as a reaction on the course “Quantitative research methods” for the study PhD at

methods” for the study PhD at the University of West Timisoara.the University of West Timisoara. The intention of this paper is

The intention of this paper is not to promote a not to promote a specific research method or tospecific research method or to value one of them

value one of them

In my experiences with research I have used

In my experiences with research I have used both approaches and would like toboth approaches and would like to point out that both

point out that both quantitative and qualitative research methods can be useful.quantitative and qualitative research methods can be useful. I would like to

I would like to start with some of the start with some of the main difference between those twomain difference between those two approaches. The following different mindsets can explain that a

approaches. The following different mindsets can explain that a lot:lot:

Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research Q

Quuaalliittaattiivvee QQuuaannttiittaattiivvee

"All research ultimately has "All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" a qualitative grounding" - Donald Campbell

- Donald Campbell

"There's no such thing as qualitative "There's no such thing as qualitative data. data. Everything is either 1 or 0" Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger - Fred Kerlinger

The aim is a complete, detailed The aim is a complete, detailed description.

description.

The aim is to classify features,

The aim is to classify features, countcount them, and construct statistical models them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is

in an attempt to explain what is observed.

observed. Researcher may only know roughly

Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is

in advance what he/she is lookinglooking for.

for.

Researcher knows clearly in advance Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.

what he/she is looking for.

Recommended during earlier phases Recommended during earlier phases of research projects.

of research projects.

Recommended during latter phases of Recommended during latter phases of research projects.

research projects. The design emerges as the study

The design emerges as the study unfolds.

unfolds.

All aspects of the study are carefully All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected. designed before data is collected.

Researcher is the data gathering Researcher is the data gathering instrument.

instrument.

Researcher uses tools, such as Researcher uses tools, such as

questionnaires or equipment to collect questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.

numerical data. Data is in the form of words,

Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.

pictures or objects.

Data is in the form of numbers and Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.

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Subjective - individuals’ Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is interpretation of events is

important ,e.g., uses participant important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc. observation, in-depth interviews etc.

Objective – seeks precise Objective – seeks precise

measurement & analysis of target measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys,

concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc.

questionnaires etc. Qualitative data is more 'rich', time

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be consuming, and less able to be generalized.

generalized.

Quantitative data is more efficient, Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may

able to test hypotheses, but may missmiss

contextual detail. contextual detail. Researcher tends to become

Researcher tends to become

subjectively immersed in the subject subjectively immersed in the subject matter.

matter.

Researcher tends to remain Researcher tends to remain

objectively separated from the subject objectively separated from the subject matter.

matter.

(The two quotes are from Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 40). QUALITATIVE DATA (The two quotes are from Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 40). QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS

These both comparisons make clear that there can be

These both comparisons make clear that there can be different mindsets behinddifferent mindsets behind the approach the research will be done. The main differences can be also

the approach the research will be done. The main differences can be also explains in the following points:

explains in the following points:

•

• QualitativeQualitative research involves analysis of data such as research involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., fromwords (e.g., from

interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g.,

interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artefact).an artefact).

•

• QuantitativeQuantitative research involves analysis of numerical data.research involves analysis of numerical data. •

• The strengths and weaknesses of The strengths and weaknesses of qualitativequalitative andand quantitativequantitative researchresearch

are a perennial, hot

are a perennial, hot debate, especially idebate, especially in the social scn the social sciences. iences. The issuesThe issues invoke classic 'paradigm war'

invoke classic 'paradigm war'

•

• The personality / thinking style of The personality / thinking style of the researcher and/or the culture of thethe researcher and/or the culture of the

organization are under-recognized as a key factor in

organization are under-recognized as a key factor in preferred choice of preferred choice of methods.

methods.

When focusing on the debate of "qualitative

When focusing on the debate of "qualitative versusversus quantitative" frames thequantitative" frames the methods in opposition.

methods in opposition.

I think it is important to focus more on how the techniques can be integrated, I think it is important to focus more on how the techniques can be integrated, such as in m

such as in mixed methods ixed methods research. research. More good can More good can come of social come of social sciencescience researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is superior.

superior.

In the next description of an earlier research done by me I would like to explain In the next description of an earlier research done by me I would like to explain how I used both approach in a combined way.

how I used both approach in a combined way.

The qualitative approach was at the base of this research that has been done in a The qualitative approach was at the base of this research that has been done in a volunteer organization. The outcome/ results have been translated in a

volunteer organization. The outcome/ results have been translated in a

quantitative way in which I made also use of quantitative methods and of the quantitative way in which I made also use of quantitative methods and of the electronic database SPSS that gives a lot of possibilities to translate date into the electronic database SPSS that gives a lot of possibilities to translate date into the used formulas in quantitative research.

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The combination of both and the

The combination of both and the translation of both methods into one translation of both methods into one overalloverall approach gives for social related research a g

approach gives for social related research a good base for using both ood base for using both methods inmethods in a mixed way.

a mixed way.

Because my PhD research will be mainly social –

Because my PhD research will be mainly social – scientific related it gives also anscientific related it gives also an example of the research methods that I

example of the research methods that I will use during this PhD will use during this PhD research.research. I hope this paper will make clear that using a qualitative approach does not I hope this paper will make clear that using a qualitative approach does not mean that the quantitative approach is not useable or excluded. I intend with mean that the quantitative approach is not useable or excluded. I intend with this paper to make even clearer

this paper to make even clearer that research cannot be done without the that research cannot be done without the use of use of both approaches. both approaches. Zutphen, February 2010 Zutphen, February 2010 Joop Vinke. Joop Vinke.

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2.

2. THE

THE

DIFFERENCES

2.1 QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

As mentioned in the previous chapter, qualitative research is

As mentioned in the previous chapter, qualitative research is often contrastedoften contrasted with quantitative research.

with quantitative research. There are, what can be

There are, what can be called 'sub schools of thought' on called 'sub schools of thought' on it. Nevertheless, thereit. Nevertheless, there are some critical issues in which researchers have a tendency to

are some critical issues in which researchers have a tendency to jump one wayjump one way

or the other, depending on the set of beliefs they hold. or the other, depending on the set of beliefs they hold. Personally I believe too, that some of

Personally I believe too, that some of these issues are more important tothese issues are more important to researchers who are carrying out research for the first time,

researchers who are carrying out research for the first time, especially in whenespecially in when quantitative measures such as grades have a

quantitative measures such as grades have a high profile in their eyes.high profile in their eyes. Qualitative research is more interested in answering the

Qualitative research is more interested in answering the why?why? Questions andQuestions and are not prepared to simply accept

are not prepared to simply accept the quantitative answers.the quantitative answers. I am not suggesting that the quantitative data is not important. I am not suggesting that the quantitative data is not important.

According to me it is just not enough on its own. I could go further and say that According to me it is just not enough on its own. I could go further and say that when placed alongside qualitative evidence, quantitative evidence is more clear when placed alongside qualitative evidence, quantitative evidence is more clear and powerful. Unfortunately it also sometimes appears so powerful that

and powerful. Unfortunately it also sometimes appears so powerful that itit

overpowers the opinions of the people involved and this

overpowers the opinions of the people involved and this is a danger we is a danger we have tohave to watch.

watch.

In addition there are still

In addition there are still many researchers, especially the less experienced ones,many researchers, especially the less experienced ones, who are not prepared to 'go the extra mile' and add the extra understanding to who are not prepared to 'go the extra mile' and add the extra understanding to the figures they have collected. This paper

the figures they have collected. This paper is centered upon the qualitativeis centered upon the qualitative element in research and while it is

element in research and while it is not without problems qualitative research isnot without problems qualitative research is the major form of educational research now done.

the major form of educational research now done. I would like to

I would like to consider the major points of contrast and debate consider the major points of contrast and debate between thebetween the broad categories of qualitative and quantitative research. The

broad categories of qualitative and quantitative research. The section that followssection that follows rests heavily upon a structure used by Hammersley [1991].

rests heavily upon a structure used by Hammersley [1991].

2.2. DATA

Where a quantitative researcher might seek to know what percentage of

Where a quantitative researcher might seek to know what percentage of peoplepeople

do one thing or another,

do one thing or another, the qualitative researcher pays much greater attentionthe qualitative researcher pays much greater attention to individual cases and the human

to individual cases and the human understandings that feature in those cases.understandings that feature in those cases. Nevertheless

Nevertheless, one finds , one finds the latter using terms such as the latter using terms such as 'frequently' and 'the'frequently' and 'the majority of people' and so on.

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Perhaps the quantitative researcher is more precise but the response would be Perhaps the quantitative researcher is more precise but the response would be that with people it is not possible to be so precise, people change and the social that with people it is not possible to be so precise, people change and the social situation is too complex for numerical description.

situation is too complex for numerical description.

At the heart of this discussion is a point coming out. I could ask myself: "How At the heart of this discussion is a point coming out. I could ask myself: "How sure can I be about what I claim to know?"

sure can I be about what I claim to know?" As educator in Management I

As educator in Management I have to deal with what have to deal with what is sometimes called 'soft'is sometimes called 'soft' knowledge, as opposed to 'hard' knowledge. I

knowledge, as opposed to 'hard' knowledge. I see claims [not always justified]see claims [not always justified] about certainty in the natural

about certainty in the natural sciences and mathematics. I as qualitativesciences and mathematics. I as qualitative researcher, have to be

researcher, have to be more circumspect.more circumspect.

As I wrote before, quantified evidence can be very powerful but it can also hide a As I wrote before, quantified evidence can be very powerful but it can also hide a great deal about people, especially their

great deal about people, especially their understanding.understanding. 2.3. RESEARCH SETTING

2.3. RESEARCH SETTING

Qualitative research has long been criticized by so called

Qualitative research has long been criticized by so called “laboratory based” “laboratory based” research as 'artificial' and noted that

research as 'artificial' and noted that people react differently in other contexts.people react differently in other contexts. There are also criticisms about those researched being influenced by the

There are also criticisms about those researched being influenced by the researchers so that conclusions are not sound, especially when compared to researchers so that conclusions are not sound, especially when compared to research in 'natural' settings. Responses to these arguments are criticisms about research in 'natural' settings. Responses to these arguments are criticisms about the artificiality of

the artificiality of structured interviews which qualitative researchers carry out.structured interviews which qualitative researchers carry out. Of course, interviews need not be structured though the

Of course, interviews need not be structured though the central issue is aboutcentral issue is about the extent to which the research act

the extent to which the research act interferes with what is researched.interferes with what is researched. In short: Are the conclusions valid? do they

In short: Are the conclusions valid? do they reflect what they believe they arereflect what they believe they are reflect or are people responding? And also

reflect or are people responding? And also to the researchers?to the researchers? The scientist Hammersley argues: [p231]

The scientist Hammersley argues: [p231]

"In my view this

"In my view this distinction between natural and artificial settings is spurious.distinction between natural and artificial settings is spurious. What happens in a school class or in a court of law, for example, is no more What happens in a school class or in a court of law, for example, is no more natural [or artificial] than what goes

natural [or artificial] than what goes on in a on in a social psychologicasocial psychological laboratory." l laboratory."

According to me this is

According to me this is not rightnot right. There is an . There is an enormous difference. If enormous difference. If Hammersley had argued that there is some form

Hammersley had argued that there is some form of reaction to all of reaction to all forms of forms of research I could have accepted that.

research I could have accepted that. He is, however, going much further in He is, however, going much further in that.that. In qualitative research I seek to

In qualitative research I seek to minimize the impact of my interventions but alsominimize the impact of my interventions but also recognize that there are other ways in

recognize that there are other ways in which we do intervene.which we do intervene. My knowledge is much softer. I cannot b

My knowledge is much softer. I cannot bee certaincertain that practical work will alwaysthat practical work will always make learning easier. I cannot

make learning easier. I cannot proveprove that a person will respond that a person will respond positively topositively to using a word processor. Yet I can have a pretty good idea that these maybe using a word processor. Yet I can have a pretty good idea that these maybe helpful to me in

helpful to me in certain situations.certain situations.

More importantly I endeavor to 'build' a

More importantly I endeavor to 'build' a theory from the ground of experience ortheory from the ground of experience or practice.

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For me as qualitative researcher the context in

For me as qualitative researcher the context in which practice takes place has anwhich practice takes place has an important bearing upon that practice and

important bearing upon that practice and research should be rooted accordingly.research should be rooted accordingly.

There are other implications of my position. One

There are other implications of my position. One of those is how of those is how I might transferI might transfer my research findings from one situation to another.

my research findings from one situation to another. This is called generalizationThis is called generalization and I will discuss that

and I will discuss that below. Another is that qualitative research does below. Another is that qualitative research does not avoidnot avoid the complexity of social life. Instead great efforts are made to illuminate and the complexity of social life. Instead great efforts are made to illuminate and understand social situations and human feelings through immersion and detailed, understand social situations and human feelings through immersion and detailed, in-depth exploration.

in-depth exploration.

2.4 MEANINGS VERSUS BEHAVIOUR

Where quantitative forms of

Where quantitative forms of research, employing questionnaires and samplingresearch, employing questionnaires and sampling procedures attempt to eradicate the individual, the particular and

procedures attempt to eradicate the individual, the particular and the subjective,the subjective, qualitative research gives special attention to the subjective side of

qualitative research gives special attention to the subjective side of life.life. Rather than asking how many people in a given locality have an IQ of 90, Rather than asking how many people in a given locality have an IQ of 90, qualitative researchers are more likely to ask how it

qualitative researchers are more likely to ask how it feels to be consideredfeels to be considered

having an IQ of 90 or what intelligence means to a given community. And what having an IQ of 90 or what intelligence means to a given community. And what is or is not

is or is not considered to be intelligent by that considered to be intelligent by that community.community. They focus more upon the social construction of such things

They focus more upon the social construction of such things as 'intelligence',as 'intelligence', 'special educational needs', 'behavior problems', and so on.

'special educational needs', 'behavior problems', and so on.

In order to find out what a given phenomenon means to people it is necessary to In order to find out what a given phenomenon means to people it is necessary to

ask

ask them and tothem and to observeobserve what they do. That is why both interview andwhat they do. That is why both interview and observation are key techniques in

observation are key techniques in qualitative research.qualitative research.

Rather than starting with a definition of special needs, the definition 'grows' from Rather than starting with a definition of special needs, the definition 'grows' from the data that

the data that is gathered from interview and observation. Thus theory tends tois gathered from interview and observation. Thus theory tends to be

be built from the ground built from the ground of experienceof experience rather than through academic reasoningrather than through academic reasoning distant from the scene of

distant from the scene of everyday experience."everyday experience."

Hammersley [op. cit.] accepts that qualitative researchers seek to articulate the Hammersley [op. cit.] accepts that qualitative researchers seek to articulate the views of people studied but adds

views of people studied but adds that qualitative researchers oftenthat qualitative researchers often analyzeanalyze thethe data in ways that are not suited to those studied. He also asserts that much data in ways that are not suited to those studied. He also asserts that much quantitative research concerns itself with the 'attitudes' of those studied and

quantitative research concerns itself with the 'attitudes' of those studied and isis

therefore grounded in the realities of

therefore grounded in the realities of people.people. I still stick to my

I still stick to my approach in this. According to approach in this. According to me quantitative research remainsme quantitative research remains more interested in what people

more interested in what people dodo without a very completewithout a very complete understandingunderstanding of of those actions. It tends, therefore, to be concerned with behavior as an end in those actions. It tends, therefore, to be concerned with behavior as an end in itself without paying sufficient attention to understanding that

itself without paying sufficient attention to understanding that behavior.behavior. Even where 'attitudes' are explored it is usually through p

Even where 'attitudes' are explored it is usually through pre-structuredre-structured

questionnaires which do not allow respondents to provide their own agenda.

questionnaires which do not allow respondents to provide their own agenda. TheThe

researcher decides on the important questions. One observes this sort of

researcher decides on the important questions. One observes this sort of practicepractice

especially amongst those who are

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2.4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND NATURAL SCIENCE

As qualitative research I have often

As qualitative research I have often found myself being criticized by naturalfound myself being criticized by natural scientists for not providing quantified conclusions and, equally, I

scientists for not providing quantified conclusions and, equally, I have defendedhave defended myself and criticized quantitative work.

myself and criticized quantitative work. What has been most disconcerting is the

What has been most disconcerting is the rigidity of thoughtrigidity of thought that I havethat I have experienced when discussing qualitative research. I found out that

experienced when discussing qualitative research. I found out that naturalnatural

scientists sometim

scientists sometimes place great store on es place great store on what they callwhat they call objective knowledgeobjective knowledge.. This is for me the knowledge which fits into a scheme that they are familiar with This is for me the knowledge which fits into a scheme that they are familiar with and about which they claim to

and about which they claim to be certain. Unfortunately, many natural scientistsbe certain. Unfortunately, many natural scientists are according to me not aware that even within their disciplines there are fads are according to me not aware that even within their disciplines there are fads and fashions and different ways of conceptualizing the data they gather.

and fashions and different ways of conceptualizing the data they gather. Different academics carry out pioneering work and come up with

Different academics carry out pioneering work and come up with different termsdifferent terms for describing their findings and the

for describing their findings and the new terms then take over from the new terms then take over from the old ones.old ones. At the same time some of

At the same time some of the concepts widely used begin to change.the concepts widely used begin to change. The view described in the paragraph above

The view described in the paragraph above might be called themight be called the objectivistobjectivist viewview and we see it sewn into the heart of the national curriculum which has a clear and we see it sewn into the heart of the national curriculum which has a clear unquestionable framework which encom

unquestionable framework which encompasses all of passes all of the knowledge that childrenthe knowledge that children need. A different set of views are held by someone we might call a

need. A different set of views are held by someone we might call a subjectivistsubjectivist.. Decisions made by a thorough going subjectivist rest upon whim, p

Decisions made by a thorough going subjectivist rest upon whim, p ersonal tasteersonal taste or bias. Both objectivism and subjectivism can be

or bias. Both objectivism and subjectivism can be contrasted tocontrasted to relativismrelativism whichwhich is the basic idea

is the basic idea that when we consider fundamental notions such as that when we consider fundamental notions such as rationality,rationality, truth, reality, good and so on, each is as acceptable as any other. The relativist truth, reality, good and so on, each is as acceptable as any other. The relativist relates ideas to a g

relates ideas to a given conceptual scheme or set of social practices or iven conceptual scheme or set of social practices or historicalhistorical era while the subjectivist relates ideas to him

era while the subjectivist relates ideas to him or herself.or herself. 2.5 THE USE OF HYPOTHESES

2.5 THE USE OF HYPOTHESES

Another tendency among quantitative researchers is to see their studies as Another tendency among quantitative researchers is to see their studies as centrally concerned with testing an initial hypothesis. It is

centrally concerned with testing an initial hypothesis. It is rarer but not unknownrarer but not unknown among qualitative researchers.

among qualitative researchers.

One important contrast drawn in this respect is

One important contrast drawn in this respect is that betweenthat between explanationexplanationandand

understanding

understanding. Quantitative research seeks to explain an . Quantitative research seeks to explain an initial hypothesis butinitial hypothesis but the qualitative researcher strives to understand the views of the

the qualitative researcher strives to understand the views of the 'actors'.'actors'.

I have experienced that initial hypotheses tend to be poorly informed and that I have experienced that initial hypotheses tend to be poorly informed and that after a period of 'immersion' in a situation the researcher is better able to draw after a period of 'immersion' in a situation the researcher is better able to draw hypotheses [mature hypotheses] which emerge from experience in

hypotheses [mature hypotheses] which emerge from experience in a setting.a setting.

While qualitative research is more concerned with understanding then explaining While qualitative research is more concerned with understanding then explaining this is not always the

this is not always the case.case.

Qualitative research does aspire to an 'insider' view and

Qualitative research does aspire to an 'insider' view and this requires thethis requires the researcher to mix in some way rather than a

researcher to mix in some way rather than adopting a detached stance. We dopting a detached stance. We willwill return to this question below. In

return to this question below. In addition we will suggest some ways, below, addition we will suggest some ways, below, inin which researcher bias might be minimized in the 'insider' situations.

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2.6 ACTION

Qualitative research pays considerable attention to the action it

Qualitative research pays considerable attention to the action it seeks to bringseeks to bring about. In this respect there are efforts to ensure that the gap between theory about. In this respect there are efforts to ensure that the gap between theory and practice is minimized, or more commonly, that theory and

and practice is minimized, or more commonly, that theory and practice interact.practice interact. Qualitative researchers are concerned to 'build' theory from the ground of

Qualitative researchers are concerned to 'build' theory from the ground of thethe

experience of practitioners; to research face to face levels

experience of practitioners; to research face to face levels of interaction; to focusof interaction; to focus on the everyday or routine. These are allied to a fundamental respect for

on the everyday or routine. These are allied to a fundamental respect for individual human beings, sometimes exemplified by a concentration upon the individual human beings, sometimes exemplified by a concentration upon the 'underdog'.

'underdog'.

Qualitative researchers do not seek the 'detached objectivity' of the quantitative Qualitative researchers do not seek the 'detached objectivity' of the quantitative researcher.

researcher.

Rather he/she tries to engage practitioners in his/her research and

Rather he/she tries to engage practitioners in his/her research and to reportto report

findings in terms which are familiar

findings in terms which are familiar to the subjects of investigation.to the subjects of investigation.

Ultimately, it is this engagement which gives subjects a stake in, and an Ultimately, it is this engagement which gives subjects a stake in, and an understanding of, the research. This is considered the

understanding of, the research. This is considered the basis for action andbasis for action and change.

change.

2.7 PROFESSIONAL DECISION MAKING, THE REPRESENTATION OF

THE CASE AND GENERALISATION FROM CASES

Decisions are made all the time, often with hardly a thought given to how the Decisions are made all the time, often with hardly a thought given to how the decision was made. When asked, we might

decision was made. When asked, we might say 'I drew upon my experience'.say 'I drew upon my experience'. That implies that something about the present situation raises an

That implies that something about the present situation raises an echo of echo of

previous similar situations. The reasoning may be: 'If I

previous similar situations. The reasoning may be: 'If I did 'x' on previous similardid 'x' on previous similar situations, then I should the same in this situation as for example in learning situations, then I should the same in this situation as for example in learning theories. In schematic form this can be

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The shown diagram is an example that

The shown diagram is an example that was inspired by a was inspired by a discussion between adiscussion between a group of health professionals who were reflecting upon how

group of health professionals who were reflecting upon how they came tothey came to decisions.

decisions.

They were in agreement that no matter

They were in agreement that no matter how similar one situation may be to how similar one situation may be to aa past situation, no case is identical. Thus it is always important not only to past situation, no case is identical. Thus it is always important not only to recognize the similarities but also to identify the

recognize the similarities but also to identify the differences. Over the years adifferences. Over the years a professional develops a rich repertoire of cases together with their

professional develops a rich repertoire of cases together with their similaritiessimilarities and differences. This enables sophisticated modifications in courses of action

and differences. This enables sophisticated modifications in courses of action asas

cases are monitored for their variations. cases are monitored for their variations. This process is an example of

This process is an example of generalization across cases to formulate generalgeneralization across cases to formulate general principles, categories of explanation and theories as a

principles, categories of explanation and theories as a basis for organizingbasis for organizing experiences about immediate cases.

experiences about immediate cases.

By studying cases, considerable sophistication can be brought to

By studying cases, considerable sophistication can be brought to bear upon thebear upon the analysis of each new instance of previous similar cases. I, as teacher, for

analysis of each new instance of previous similar cases. I, as teacher, for example, may have find behaviorist strategies to train

example, may have find behaviorist strategies to train a student based ona student based on behavior effective in the past.

behavior effective in the past. Thus when confronted by behavior defined by meThus when confronted by behavior defined by me as 'undesirable', it is likely to

as 'undesirable', it is likely to adapt the same strategies that adapt the same strategies that worked previously.worked previously. Through practice, I may become increasingly sophisticated in the application of Through practice, I may become increasingly sophisticated in the application of those behaviorist principles. I become a behavioral technician. This is

those behaviorist principles. I become a behavioral technician. This is the kind of the kind of approach that can be

approach that can be criticized. The student behavior is now only seen as criticized. The student behavior is now only seen as thethe 'problem to be solved'. However, a wider vision can

'problem to be solved'. However, a wider vision can be developed. To do be developed. To do this Ithis I must move to another level of analysis.

must move to another level of analysis. The student must be seen in The student must be seen in context.context. There is the immediate context of the

There is the immediate context of the student which relates to his or student which relates to his or her ownher own biography, local community and f

biography, local community and family experiences.amily experiences. Then there is the context of

Then there is the context of the classroom with its particular style of the classroom with its particular style of learninglearning management, teacher control and so on. Then

management, teacher control and so on. Then there is the school, its there is the school, its ethos, itsethos, its values, its style of management, its levels of resourcing and so on. And so on. values, its style of management, its levels of resourcing and so on. And so on. This is represented in the following diagram:

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Rather than focusing on the student as the source of 'the problem', I now apply a Rather than focusing on the student as the source of 'the problem', I now apply a professional critique to the context within which the student,

professional critique to the context within which the student, I, and other staff I, and other staff are operating.

are operating.

This kind of analysis can

This kind of analysis can be applied to any situation: be applied to any situation: the health service, businessthe health service, business management, or even the analysis of domestic life.

management, or even the analysis of domestic life.

As increasingly sophisticated analyses of the social situation are made,

As increasingly sophisticated analyses of the social situation are made, then thethen the

evidence base upon which the professional decision maker draws is going

evidence base upon which the professional decision maker draws is going to beto be

expanded to include information not previously considered. This will have an expanded to include information not previously considered. This will have an effect on the qualit

effect on the quality of decision my of decision making. aking. In representing tIn representing this case, it ishis case, it is insufficient to focus on a

insufficient to focus on a single instance such as a single instance such as a particular student withoutparticular student without seeing that student within a greater context. Even the notion of a student makes seeing that student within a greater context. Even the notion of a student makes no real sense without setting the concept 'student' within the

no real sense without setting the concept 'student' within the history of thehistory of the emergence of 'studentship' as a social category.

emergence of 'studentship' as a social category. 2.8 RESUME

2.8 RESUME

By allowing theories to form through what

By allowing theories to form through what people say and do, people say and do, qualitativequalitative research cannot be easily accused of

research cannot be easily accused of imposingimposing its theories upon people.its theories upon people. Equally by keeping detailed records of what is said and of what happens Equally by keeping detailed records of what is said and of what happens qualitative research does not reduce the complexity of social life

qualitative research does not reduce the complexity of social life to easilyto easily manipulated equations.

manipulated equations.

Rather than skating on the surface of everyday life, its close contact and detailed Rather than skating on the surface of everyday life, its close contact and detailed recording allows the research to glimpse beneath the polished rhetoric, or

recording allows the research to glimpse beneath the polished rhetoric, or thethe

plausible deceits; it is able to take more time to focus upon the smaller yet plausible deceits; it is able to take more time to focus upon the smaller yet powerful processes which other methods gloss over or ignore. For example, powerful processes which other methods gloss over or ignore. For example, many so called objective facts of

many so called objective facts of everyday life are revealed as being sociallyeveryday life are revealed as being socially constructed.

constructed. That is to sayThat is to say, if a target group is , if a target group is categorized as havicategorized as having 'specialng 'special needs', that can either be treated

needs', that can either be treated as an objective fact which as an objective fact which requires no furtherrequires no further investigation; or, it can be

investigation; or, it can be treated as a social treated as a social process requiring explanation.process requiring explanation. If it is simply an objective fact, then the only practical consequence is to find the If it is simply an objective fact, then the only practical consequence is to find the right 'treatment' for the target group.

right 'treatment' for the target group.

If it is seen as a social process, then the consequence is to inquire into the social If it is seen as a social process, then the consequence is to inquire into the social functions served by labeling some people as having

functions served by labeling some people as having special needs. It may bespecial needs. It may be found that some social classes or ethnic

found that some social classes or ethnic groups are more likely to be groups are more likely to be categorizedcategorized as having special needs than others. If this is the case, then the objective fact as having special needs than others. If this is the case, then the objective fact 'special needs' is being de-constructed to reveal

'special needs' is being de-constructed to reveal how how it was constructed; in thisit was constructed; in this fictitious example, constructed through processes of social

fictitious example, constructed through processes of social discrimination.discrimination. To illustrate this and to

To illustrate this and to show the relation and combining of show the relation and combining of the relation betweenthe relation between quantitative and qualitative research I will us

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3. THE RESEARCH

3.1 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. ONLY FOR THE ‘PAID’

EMPLOYEES?

A research for practising human resource management in a

A research for practising human resource management in a welfare organisationwelfare organisation with ‘unpaid’ employees in Zutphen. (Stichting Ouderenwerk Zutphen)

with ‘unpaid’ employees in Zutphen. (Stichting Ouderenwerk Zutphen)

Some years ago I confronted the fact that a year is marked as the ‘International Some years ago I confronted the fact that a year is marked as the ‘International year of the volunteer’. That was a reason for my interest in this “special way” of year of the volunteer’. That was a reason for my interest in this “special way” of organising people, work and ideal goals. This organising can be found in welfare organising people, work and ideal goals. This organising can be found in welfare organisations, particular that organisations that mostly work with unpaid

organisations, particular that organisations that mostly work with unpaid employees. (Volunteers) I personally was interested in the question if

employees. (Volunteers) I personally was interested in the question if thethe

modern human resource management has possibilities for these special kinds of modern human resource management has possibilities for these special kinds of employees.

employees.

My interest in these organisations also became greater with the

My interest in these organisations also became greater with the request of therequest of the director of a welfare organisation in Zutphen. He asked me to give advice about director of a welfare organisation in Zutphen. He asked me to give advice about personnel management in his organisation.

personnel management in his organisation.

This organisation, the “Stichting Ouderenwerk Zutphen” (STOW) is one of

This organisation, the “Stichting Ouderenwerk Zutphen” (STOW) is one of thosethose

welfare-organisatio

welfare-organisations with idealistic goals, work ns with idealistic goals, work and volunteers. It is anand volunteers. It is an organisation with nine ‘paid’ employees and about hundred volunteers. The organisation with nine ‘paid’ employees and about hundred volunteers. The ‘STOW’ gives facilities and services to older people in

‘STOW’ gives facilities and services to older people in Zutphen.Zutphen. In the last years,

In the last years, the organisation discovers developments in the commitment of the organisation discovers developments in the commitment of the volunteers. They observe a decreasing amount of volunteers. There is

the volunteers. They observe a decreasing amount of volunteers. There is alsoalso

speaking of ageing from the volunteers and

speaking of ageing from the volunteers and the quality of the service seems tothe quality of the service seems to decrease. In several conversations with the management of the organisation, we decrease. In several conversations with the management of the organisation, we made a formulation of the

made a formulation of the problem. This problem is about which measures theproblem. This problem is about which measures the organisation has to take to insure a qualified amount of volunteers for the future. organisation has to take to insure a qualified amount of volunteers for the future. The result of this is to insure the strategic targets of the organisation and

The result of this is to insure the strategic targets of the organisation and therefore the continue to exists

therefore the continue to exists First, I made a

First, I made a (theoretic) analysis of the organisation. For making this (theoretic) analysis of the organisation. For making this analysesanalyses I have used the method

I have used the method of the SWOT-analysis (Strength and Weakness versusof the SWOT-analysis (Strength and Weakness versus Opportunities and Threats).

Opportunities and Threats). After this, I translated

After this, I translated the results to another method, known as the results to another method, known as “TOWS- “TOWS-strategies’.

strategies’.

The result of this translation was

The result of this translation was an outcome of several partial strategies asan outcome of several partial strategies as shown in figure 3.1.1

shown in figure 3.1.1

Using volunteers for technologic improvements en then

Using volunteers for technologic improvements en then training other employee.training other employee. Improving of the communication in the organisation

Improving of the communication in the organisation Professionalizing of the

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Integrated use of

Integrated use of HR-instrumentsHR-instruments

New employees select on the base of competences New employees select on the base of competences Aiming the strategy of the

Aiming the strategy of the organisation on new marketsorganisation on new markets Coaching the employees on their new roll

Coaching the employees on their new roll Figure 3.1.1

Figure 3.1.1

After this analysis with the results as shown in the figure, I developed a special After this analysis with the results as shown in the figure, I developed a special research-metho

research-method in which I d in which I tried to find out tried to find out which wishes and needs volunteerswhich wishes and needs volunteers themselves h

themselves have. ave. The goal of this The goal of this research was tresearch was to get insight of the o get insight of the supportsupport there is by the present volunteers of

there is by the present volunteers of the organisation for introducing andthe organisation for introducing and implementing the partial strategies from the analyses. The results of

implementing the partial strategies from the analyses. The results of thisthis

research also could give insight in the

research also could give insight in the way HR-policies can be formed andway HR-policies can be formed and implemented in this organisation.

implemented in this organisation. To take use from the

To take use from the experience of other scientists I studied the literature aboutexperience of other scientists I studied the literature about research on volunteers. Particular have I looked at the

research on volunteers. Particular have I looked at the experience with researchexperience with research in volunteer organisations and the introducing of policies for

in volunteer organisations and the introducing of policies for volunteers and thevolunteers and the thesis’s on that

thesis’s on that subject.subject. In beginning of the

In beginning of the research, I gathered information via interviews with someresearch, I gathered information via interviews with some key persons in the organisation. From this information, I

key persons in the organisation. From this information, I made themes, as shownmade themes, as shown in fig. 3.1.2, which I translated to measurable hypotheses.

in fig. 3.1.2, which I translated to measurable hypotheses. The attention of the organisation for

The attention of the organisation for the volunteersthe volunteers Visible and latent needs and

Visible and latent needs and wishes of attention of the wishes of attention of the volunteersvolunteers The needs for attention in the future of the volunteers

The needs for attention in the future of the volunteers

The way that the attention of the organisation should be given The way that the attention of the organisation should be given The need for professionalizing of the

The need for professionalizing of the volunteer policyvolunteer policy

The relation between the motif to participate and the affinity with the kind of work The relation between the motif to participate and the affinity with the kind of work of the volunteer

of the volunteer Figure 3.1.2 Figure 3.1.2

With hypotheses from the themes in fig 3.1.2, I held a questionnaire with the With hypotheses from the themes in fig 3.1.2, I held a questionnaire with the present volunt

present volunteers of the organiseers of the organisation. ation. The result of tThe result of this research exhis research explains thatplains that there is enough support by the

there is enough support by the present volunteers for introduction of a new HR-present volunteers for introduction of a new HR-policy and several new HR-instruments. In addition, it

policy and several new HR-instruments. In addition, it became clear that thebecame clear that the partial strategies from the analysis make a

partial strategies from the analysis make a perfect connection with the wishesperfect connection with the wishes and needs of the

and needs of the volunteers. A clear example for this is volunteers. A clear example for this is the wish of interviewedthe wish of interviewed volunteers to professionalize the management of volunteers with a professional volunteers to professionalize the management of volunteers with a professional HR-policy and HR-instruments. Eighty-five percent of the respondents agreed HR-policy and HR-instruments. Eighty-five percent of the respondents agreed with this.

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The results of both researches therefore was a

The results of both researches therefore was a good base for making a good base for making a strategicstrategic and integrated HR-policy, in which was given

and integrated HR-policy, in which was given special attention for the unpaidspecial attention for the unpaid volunteers. This policy however still misses a careful and for

volunteers. This policy however still misses a careful and for this specialthis special organisation made method to

organisation made method to become successful.become successful. I found this method in

I found this method in the developed ‘HR-scorecard’ by Becker, Huselid andthe developed ‘HR-scorecard’ by Becker, Huselid and Ulrich. (2001) the writers of this method have made this in principal to give a Ulrich. (2001) the writers of this method have made this in principal to give a complementary metho

complementary method to the d to the ‘balanced scorecard’ by Kaplan and Norton. With‘balanced scorecard’ by Kaplan and Norton. With the use of this method, it was possible for me to make a concrete HR-policy for the use of this method, it was possible for me to make a concrete HR-policy for this organisation that aims on the

this organisation that aims on the strategic behaviour of its employees.strategic behaviour of its employees. By developing a so-called “chain of

By developing a so-called “chain of creations’ for the organisation it seemedcreations’ for the organisation it seemed possible to make visible what the ‘performance powers’ are. These powers possible to make visible what the ‘performance powers’ are. These powers deliver their share – and therefore their ‘values’ – to the targets of the deliver their share – and therefore their ‘values’ – to the targets of the organisation.

organisation.

The speciality of this method is that

The speciality of this method is that it works with a principal it works with a principal of ‘system-thinking’.of ‘system-thinking’. The base of this is that every activity of each employee a ‘creation of value’ is, as The base of this is that every activity of each employee a ‘creation of value’ is, as long as it is a part of

long as it is a part of the total chain of values. This chain of values is the totalthe total chain of values. This chain of values is the total process (system) of creating values in the organisation.

process (system) of creating values in the organisation. By making these ‘performance powers’ visible

By making these ‘performance powers’ visible and measurable with and measurable with progress- progress-indicators it will become clear for everyone that, and

indicators it will become clear for everyone that, and how each employee ahow each employee a creator of value for the

creator of value for the organisation is.organisation is. One of the important hypotheses of this

One of the important hypotheses of this research is that the (unpaid) employeeresearch is that the (unpaid) employee often participates from his or her

often participates from his or her own motif. These motifs are different. Whenown motif. These motifs are different. When organisations try to see and recognize these motifs to

organisations try to see and recognize these motifs to participate as aparticipate as a ‘performance power’ in the ‘chain of value’ of

‘performance power’ in the ‘chain of value’ of the organisation, it will be the organisation, it will be clearclear that it is important to

that it is important to make this visible and measurable.make this visible and measurable.

Within the ‘system thinking’, this means that employees can get

Within the ‘system thinking’, this means that employees can get a clear insight of a clear insight of their own share in the

their own share in the value creation of the organisation. This value creation of the organisation. This gives an answer togives an answer to their motifs; it namely gives them satisfaction and

their motifs; it namely gives them satisfaction and therefore a strong ‘reward’.therefore a strong ‘reward’. That is one of the reasons why I used a grouping of motifs in function, as

That is one of the reasons why I used a grouping of motifs in function, as presented by the scientists Clary and Snyder. (1991)The reason of

presented by the scientists Clary and Snyder. (1991)The reason of using thisusing this

grouping in the research was that I

grouping in the research was that I believe it is necessary to give believe it is necessary to give attention toattention to this performance power. It is one of the important values in the chain of values this performance power. It is one of the important values in the chain of values form the organisation. People have needs for

form the organisation. People have needs for rewards or attentions to satisfyrewards or attentions to satisfy them and to make them g

them and to make them give their share to organisations in helping ive their share to organisations in helping them tothem to receive the strategic goals. That may be

receive the strategic goals. That may be the reason why employees are the mostthe reason why employees are the most important

important shareholders shareholders of the of the organisation! organisation! Employees Employees do not do not only want only want to beto be ‘motivated’ by external stimulators like financial rewards or attention by others. ‘motivated’ by external stimulators like financial rewards or attention by others.

By giving attention to the

By giving attention to the performance power they deliver, they will get theperformance power they deliver, they will get the stimulants in employing their own (intrinsic) creation of value. In

stimulants in employing their own (intrinsic) creation of value. In doing this,doing this, there will exists a new reward system, in

there will exists a new reward system, in particular for organisations withparticular for organisations with volunteers

volunteers

In the method of

In the method of the HR-scorecard, the writers call this the ‘HR the HR-scorecard, the writers call this the ‘HR structure’. Thisstructure’. This structure relies on the use of

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value. With the introduction of this HR-structure, I will give an answer on the value. With the introduction of this HR-structure, I will give an answer on the problem of the organisation.

problem of the organisation.

This seems a simple conclusion, but it is not only a way of changing strategy and This seems a simple conclusion, but it is not only a way of changing strategy and structure, it also asks for a big changing of the culture in the organisation.

structure, it also asks for a big changing of the culture in the organisation.

In this research and the result of the translation to a HR-scorecard, I asked for a In this research and the result of the translation to a HR-scorecard, I asked for a high level of abstraction. That is the reason why I made a plan for this

high level of abstraction. That is the reason why I made a plan for this organisation how they can introduce the HR-scorecard. In a

organisation how they can introduce the HR-scorecard. In a concrete plan I haveconcrete plan I have given recommends how to take the steps to make

given recommends how to take the steps to make the abstraction concrete. Withthe abstraction concrete. With this plan, it must be possible to make a successful introduction of the new this plan, it must be possible to make a successful introduction of the new HR-structure and HR-policies in the organisation.

structure and HR-policies in the organisation.

I think that In that way the experience from this research is giving a surplus I think that In that way the experience from this research is giving a surplus value to the human resource management. On the one side, it proofs that the value to the human resource management. On the one side, it proofs that the modern human resource management has possibilities for practicing in

modern human resource management has possibilities for practicing in organisations with volunteers. On the other side, it

organisations with volunteers. On the other side, it shows that theseshows that these organisations have some special sights that give them opportunities to

organisations have some special sights that give them opportunities to increaseincrease

the use of the ‘human capital’. By rewarding the motifs of employees, just by the use of the ‘human capital’. By rewarding the motifs of employees, just by giving it attention within a

giving it attention within a HR-structure, employees can be stimulated to giveHR-structure, employees can be stimulated to give their contribution in the creation of value. That is the reason for the sentence I their contribution in the creation of value. That is the reason for the sentence I gave in the header of

gave in the header of the researchpaper:the researchpaper:

“Do not try to motivate employees. Just try to reward their motifs!” “Do not try to motivate employees. Just try to reward their motifs!”

With the result of this, research and final project will be that the “Stichting With the result of this, research and final project will be that the “Stichting

Ouderenwerk Zutphen” with the introduction of this HR-structure will receive its Ouderenwerk Zutphen” with the introduction of this HR-structure will receive its targets in the future; I think that this ‘Year of the volunteer’ has given a clear targets in the future; I think that this ‘Year of the volunteer’ has given a clear surplus of value.

surplus of value.

To elaborate for this paper

To elaborate for this paper on the used research method during this on the used research method during this research Iresearch I will go deeper in this part.

will go deeper in this part.

3.2 RESEARCH ON THE NEEDS AND WISHES OF VOLUNTEER IN A

VOLUNTEER ORGANISATION

3.2.1

3.2.1 INTRODUCTINTRODUCTIONION

The research question for this part of the research I have done is based on the The research question for this part of the research I have done is based on the problem definition and sub questions. During the

problem definition and sub questions. During the organizational analyses I haveorganizational analyses I have chosen to look at the problem definition from a theoretical point and from the chosen to look at the problem definition from a theoretical point and from the view of the organization and the interest of the organization as a whole. For this view of the organization and the interest of the organization as a whole. For this part of the research in which I have done a research on the needs and wishes of part of the research in which I have done a research on the needs and wishes of the volunteers I have formulated a d

the volunteers I have formulated a different research target:ifferent research target: “Getting the insight on the

“Getting the insight on the acceptation level of the volunteers for the acceptation level of the volunteers for the theoreticaltheoretical strategies that came out of the

strategies that came out of the organizational analyses. Beside that my secondorganizational analyses. Beside that my second target is to get

target is to get an insight on the an insight on the differences when implementing those strategiesdifferences when implementing those strategies for the volunteers and the paid

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On that ground I have in this part looked from the sight and interest of the On that ground I have in this part looked from the sight and interest of the volunteer. The reason for this is to get a good insight on the acceptance level volunteer. The reason for this is to get a good insight on the acceptance level and the form it

and the form it can be rewarding for the can be rewarding for the volunteers when implementing thevolunteers when implementing the strategies. The next research question will give for this

strategies. The next research question will give for this the needed information:the needed information:

Which needs and wishes do the

Which needs and wishes do the volunteers in the organization have concerningvolunteers in the organization have concerning the policy the organization uses for them?

the policy the organization uses for them?

The choice for this, research question is based

The choice for this, research question is based on preliminary literature study.on preliminary literature study. The ground for this I will describe; Special attention is given to the motive of the The ground for this I will describe; Special attention is given to the motive of the persons that want to participate in

persons that want to participate in volunteers work en there is also givenvolunteers work en there is also given attention to the way and

attention to the way and form that volunteers can be rewardedform that volunteers can be rewarded An important hypothesis in this is that

An important hypothesis in this is that the motive to participate in the the motive to participate in the volunteervolunteer work gives an important insight for the acceptability for a policy and the way the work gives an important insight for the acceptability for a policy and the way the rewarding and valuing has to be done.

rewarding and valuing has to be done.

3.2.2 MOTIVES IN THE

3.2.2 MOTIVES IN THE LITERATURLITERATUREE

The “Why” question of participating by

The “Why” question of participating by people in volunteer work is already forpeople in volunteer work is already for ages an important research objective. In the

ages an important research objective. In the past year different structures andpast year different structures and models have been made to give an indication for dividing and measuring. One of models have been made to give an indication for dividing and measuring. One of those differentiations is given by the

those differentiations is given by the Dutch researcher Klandermans. (1983)Dutch researcher Klandermans. (1983)11 _on_on

the base of expectations of the

the base of expectations of the participant.participant. In a research on participation of

In a research on participation of people in divers’ social activities he divided threepeople in divers’ social activities he divided three different motives:

different motives:

•

• A collective motif;A collective motif;

(Certain expectations about the social value of

(Certain expectations about the social value of the collective wanted goal)the collective wanted goal)

•

• A social motif;A social motif;

(Certain expectations regarding new contacts, getting appreciations from (Certain expectations regarding new contacts, getting appreciations from others

others ... ... etc.)etc.)

•

• A material motif:A material motif:

(Making decisions between the expected material costs and benefits) (Making decisions between the expected material costs and benefits) Another researcher named Verloo (1992) put another motif to

Another researcher named Verloo (1992) put another motif to these three,these three,

named: named:

•

• A solidarity motif;A solidarity motif;

1

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(The expectation that with more people also more can

(The expectation that with more people also more can be done the non itsbe done the non its own... so out of solidarity for each other)

own... so out of solidarity for each other)

Verloo made as researcher during his researches use of

Verloo made as researcher during his researches use of a structure given bya structure given by Kanter (1972) who did research in

Kanter (1972) who did research in the seventies on participation in communes.the seventies on participation in communes. Kanter made a difference in

Kanter made a difference in motives based on dimensions of involvement of motives based on dimensions of involvement of individuals with this organisation

individuals with this organisation structurestructure22_::

•

• An instrumental dimensionAn instrumental dimension •

• An affective dimension (belonging to a An affective dimension (belonging to a group)group) •

• A moral dimension (creating new values).A moral dimension (creating new values).

(Also see: Leijenaar and Niemöller 1994b)

(Also see: Leijenaar and Niemöller 1994b)33

These two important theoretical views in motives and dimensions show that These two important theoretical views in motives and dimensions show that there are several perspectives to look at motives. Though to

there are several perspectives to look at motives. Though to put a relationput a relation between rewarding and valuing for a volunteer I have chosen for a different between rewarding and valuing for a volunteer I have chosen for a different perspective as given by the researchers Clary en Snyder (1991)

perspective as given by the researchers Clary en Snyder (1991)44_..

They made a structure and model for

They made a structure and model for motives based on the function thatmotives based on the function that volunteer work for the participant scan have, as shown in fig. 3.1.

volunteer work for the participant scan have, as shown in fig. 3.1.

Value-expressive functions Value-expressive functions

(participation to show social

(participation to show social and humanitarian involvement)and humanitarian involvement)

Social adapting functions Social adapting functions

(participating to meet new people or

(participating to meet new people or to get social appreciation)to get social appreciation)

knowledge functions knowledge functions

(participating to get new knowledge and

(participating to get new knowledge and skills)skills)

ego-defensive functions ego-defensive functions

(searching for compensation) (cited in Willems 1994: 191

(searching for compensation) (cited in Willems 1994: 19155 ₎₎

This last function that is

This last function that is more focused on own satisfaction to compensate severalmore focused on own satisfaction to compensate several parts for t

parts for the person: he person: feeling guilty, feeling guilty, useful time useful time spending etc...spending etc...

Fig. 3.2.1 Model for dividing motives in functions. Clary and Snyder (1991) Fig. 3.2.1 Model for dividing motives in functions. Clary and Snyder (1991)

2

2Kanter, R.M., Commitment and community. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1972.Kanter, R.M., Commitment and community. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1972.

3

3Leijenaar, M.H Leijenaar, M.H en B. Niemöller. Participatie in maatschappelijke organisaties. In: P. Dekker (red.).Civil society. Rijswijk/Denen B. Niemöller. Participatie in maatschappelijke organisaties. In: P. Dekker (red.).Civil society. Rijswijk/Den Haag: SCP/VUGA, 1994.

Haag: SCP/VUGA, 1994.

4

4Clary, E.G Clary, E.G en Snyder, M. . en Snyder, M. . A functional analysis of altruism and pro-social behavior. In: M.S. Clark (red.). Prosocial behavior.A functional analysis of altruism and pro-social behavior. In: M.S. Clark (red.). Prosocial behavior. London: Sage, 1991.

London: Sage, 1991.

5