LEARNING ORIENTATIONS OF FET STUDENTS: The case of the Applied
Learning Programme in a Western Cape FET college
by
Liza Hamman
Research Paper
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Education,
University of the Western Cape
2011
Supervisor: Prof. Zelda Groener
KEY WORDS
1. Further Education and Training
2. Vocational Education 3. Adult Learning 4. Globalisation 5. Part-time Students 6. Student orientations 7. Learning orientations 8. Motivational orientations
9. National Qualifications Framework
10. Employability
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the reasons why FET part-time students enrolled at a FET college by examining their learning orientations. Guided by the literature, the focus was on the vocational orientation to learning and orientations to learning were further investigated within the vocational orientation based on orientations developed for part-time students found in the literature. In addition, it was investigated whether students’ expectations have been met and if they were satisfied with the college experience. Lastly, the study examined the relevance of college learning to the world of work and the contribution it made to the career development of learners in a globalising world.
The research shows that part-time students enrol at FET colleges predominantly for vocational reasons and the majority of the students were enrolled in order to advance their careers and associated with a vocational orientation to learning. However, it emerged that reasons for learning within the vocational orientation to learning are often multi-faceted and complex. The most important findings are 3 new learning orientations for part-time students that were identified: ‘education for a qualification’, ‘education for adults who previously made the wrong choice’ and ‘education for adults as a model for their children’. Furthermore, the findings indicate that learners were satisfied with the programme they were enrolled in because they believed that the qualification would enable them to achieve their vocational aims which were primarily to find a new job, to be promoted and to increase their income. The findings suggest that the programme that was examined was relevant to the world of work, promoted employability and that it made a significant and important contribution to students’ career development in a globalising world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to thank those who made this research paper possible and I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to the following people:
My late mother, Elizabeth Hamman, who taught me strength and perseverance and without whom none of this would have been possible;
Prof. Zelda Groener, my supervisor, whose expertise, guidance and insight has been invaluable to me. Thank you for your support and opening up new possibilities that were previously unimaginable;
Ronald, for your unfailing support, the sacrifices you made in order to provide me with the space and time to complete this research paper and for always believing in me;
My father, Dr. Kas Hamman, who inspires me to continue learning through his example;
My family and friends, your informal support and encouragement has been indispensible. I would like to particularly thank Bronwyn, for your assistance during the final stages of this study;
The students who agreed to participate in this study. Without their willingness to co-operate this study would not have been possible.
DECLARATION
Herewith I, the undersigned, declare that the work included in this research paper, ‘Learning orientations of FET students: The case of the Applied Learning Programme in a Western Cape FET college’, is my own original work. To the best of my knowledge this research paper contains no material written by another person except where due reference is made.
This research paper is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Masters in Education and has not been submitted previously, in its entirety or in part, to any university for a degree.
... Liza Hamman 20 September 2011
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CHE Council on Higher Education
DoE Department of Education
DoL Department of Labour
ECD Early Childhood Development
EMP Employer
FE Further Education
FET Further Education and Training
IMF International Monetary Fund
IT Information Technology
NATED National Department of Education
NC(V) National Certificate Vocational
NQF National Qualifications Framework
NQF L National Qualifications Framework Level
PAYE Pay As You Earn
QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
Report 191 National Education Policy, formal Technical Colleges Instructional programmes in the RSA
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SDL Skills Development Levy
SETA South African Education and Training Authority
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UIF Unemployment Insurance Fund
UMALUSI Quality Council for General and Further Education and Training
US United States
USA United States of America
VAT Value Added Tax
VET Vocational Education and Training
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE KEY WORDS i ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii DECLARATION iv GLOSSARY OF TERMS v SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Context and Background 1
1.2 Aims of the Research 2
1.3 Rationale 2
SECTION 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5
2.1 Globalisation 5
2.1.1 Conceptions of Globalisation 5
2.1.2 Globalisation and Education 7
2.1.3 Globalisation and Vocational Education 8
2.2 The world of Further Education and Training 10
2.2.1 Conceptions of Further Education and Training 10
2.2.2 FET colleges and the National Qualifications Framework 11
2.2.3 FET colleges and Skills Development in South Africa 14
2.2.4 Employment opportunities for FET graduates in South Africa 16
2.3 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework: Learning Orientations, Vocational Education and Adults’ reasons part-time studies at post-school institutions
19
SECTION 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 26
3.1 The Research Question 26
3.2 Research Site 26 3.3 Research Methodology 28
3.4 Research Instrument 30
3.5 Data capturing and storage 31
3.6 Data analysis 31
3.7 Ethical Considerations 33
SECTION 4: DATA ANALYSIS 36
4.1 Description of the students 36
4.2 Satisfaction with the college experience 36
4.3 Learning Orientations 39
SECTION 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 58
5.1 Summary of findings 58
5.2 Recommendations 62
5.2.1 Recommendations to Mountain View College 62
5.2.2 Recommendations to the FET Sector 62
5.2.3 Recommendations to government 63 5.3 Conclusion 63 BIBLIOGRAPHY 65 APPENDICES 1. Consent form 2. Ethical Clearance 3. Interview Schedule
4. Profile of Learners Interviewed
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Context and Background
Globalisation has altered the education sector and the way that people experience education. In South Africa adult learning occurs within the context of the economic and political transformation of the apartheid system and changing global conditions. The focus is on providing education relevant to the needs of the economy, which will result in a highly skilled, mobile, workforce and therefore international competitiveness, economic growth and employment. In a country where unemployment is a major problem, education and competence development are seen as ways to promote growth and equality and it is central in restructuring the economy.
Globalisation has caused rapid change in society and working life where increased competition has turned the focus to the skills, knowledge and learning capacity of the workforce as a source of competitive success (Bryson, Mallon, Pajo & Ward, 2006; Tynjälä, 2008). Educational institutions are now challenged to develop new ways to ensure that the level of competence in the workforce meet the demands of the new economy. In South Africa the emphasis on skills development has turned the attention to the role of the FET sector in providing the necessary skills to meet the South African development challenge (Akoojee, 2008).
Adults are expected to become lifelong learners in the new knowledge-based economy in order to ensure that their skills stay current and to ensure employability. According to Kember, Armour, Jenkins, Lee, Leung, Li, Chi Ng, Siaw & Yum (2001) the fast pace of technological change means that an increasing proportion of the workforce face the prospect of changing their field of work during their lifetime. Globally it is believed that lifelong learning will ensure a competitive advantage in the highly competitive global world and it has emerged as a strategy to deal with the challenges associated with globalisation and the new knowledge-based economy (Uggla, 2008).
Educational programmes are designed and developed to incorporate the markets’ demand for specific skills and resources are focused on vocational training. FET colleges are expected to become more responsive to development goals and to the labour market in order to adapt to the demands of globalisation. Along with these developments, the literature has shown that there has been an increase in the number of more mature, part-time students enrolling at FET colleges. According to Akoojee, McGrath & Visser (2008: 260) this trend indicates either a wider programme offering by colleges that cater specifically for this age group or an effort by colleges to recruit this specific age group in order to be more responsive to national skills development goals.
1.2 Aims of the Research
The purpose of the research was to describe the learning experiences of adult part-time Further Education and Training (FET) learners who are rarely the focus of research, although the literature has shown that this is a growing sector in South African education. The increasing number of part-time student enrolments drew my attention to the need to investigate the college experience of these students. At the specific FET college where the research was conducted 854 students are enrolled on a full-time basis and 293 students part-time (J. de Villiers, personal communication, May 13, 2011).
For this study I used a case study research method to examine the experience of students who were enrolled at a FET college on a part-time basis and the aim of the research was to discover students’ reasons for enrolling in terms of their learning orientations, to investigate whether students’ expectations in relation to their own specified aims have been met and lastly to examine the contribution of college learning to the learners’ chosen career path in a globalising world.
1.3 Rationale
As a lecturer at a FET college, in addition to teaching full-time students during the day I also teach part-time students who attend class in the evening. While teaching and interacting with these students I became interested in the reasons why these usually more mature students enrol in a part-time programme. Cyril Houle notes that:
“...the proper task of adult education should be to give integration, to give richness and meaning, to that experience. Education is a process of helping people to change themselves, of giving them the opportunity to acquire new skills and knowledge, to deepen their insight and understanding, and to broaden their attitudes and their appreciations” (Houle, 1967: 20).
I was curious to know what the purpose of college learning was for part-time students. Adult learners are defined in the literature as adult part-time learners with full-time adult responsibilities in addition to their studies (Thompson-Davenport, 1996). I was wondering what difference learning was making in the lives of adult students, or what difference they were anticipating it would make? What motivated them to take on the extra responsibility of studying part-time in addition to work, family and other responsibilities? I also became concerned about the significance and usefulness of college learning for these students. Studying part-time is challenging and it means sacrificing valuable free time and other resources and I wanted to know if these students considered the sacrifice worthwhile.
In a globalising world there could be several reasons why adults engage in learning and most people may have more than one reason for learning. However, the literature has shown that the majority of courses are taken for reasons that are job related. Kember et al. (2001) note that most adults are learning new skills for job advancement, to make a career change or to keep up with their present positions. According to Cross (1981: 84) adults are often motivated by the need to use or apply their knowledge and skills. Akoojee & McGrath (2008) found that most students at FET colleges, including part-time students, have an employment dominated rationale for studying.
Based on a review of international literature I determined that from a theoretical standpoint learning orientations provided the insight into the complex set of reasons, purposes, aims, motivations and needs that prompt students to enrol in a programme, which is what I wanted to investigate in relation to part-time FET students. It is mentioned above that FET students and part-time adult learners usually have employment related reasons for studying; therefore I anticipated that most students would be vocationally orientated. Within the vocational orientation, I used the orientations developed by Kember et al. (2001) to further investigate part-time FET college students’ reasons for learning and found students frequently associated with the orientation, ‘re-training for a career shift’, as developed by Kember et al. (2001). Furthermore, I identified 3 new learning orientations within the vocational orientation to learning of which ‘education for a qualification’, was the most prominent because the overwhelming majority of the students identified with the specific orientation. Additionally, 2 other learning orientations ‘education for adults who previously made the wrong choice’ and ‘education for adults as a model for their children’ also emerged from the research.
In line with a vocational orientation to learning, South African FET colleges are increasingly expected to offer courses that are relevant to the needs of the South African economy in a global world and to become more vocationally orientated. In an attempt to adhere to the requirements of the labour market, the FET College where I work has introduced the Applied Learning programme which is offered on a part-time basis only. The programme is aimed at providing students with the skills and knowledge required in the workplace and it is also specifically linked to job functions. My concern was that college learning may not be sufficiently integrated with business practice to equip students with the necessary skills for improved proficiency in their current positions, career advancement or to meet the demands of the new, global economy.
In my international literature review I found that many studies investigate reasons for learning in relation to career development but very few have focused on the Further Education and Training sector. In research conducted by Afrassa (2001) the employability of TAFE graduates in Australia was investigated and it revealed that reasons for enrolment often influence employability of graduates. The South African literature relating to FET is according to McGrath (2000) and Wedekind (2008) produced by a small group of researchers, rather underdeveloped and there is a need for further research. However, there is an emerging literature. For example, the link between the market and colleges has been investigated by Badroodien (2006) who looked at ways to
improve the relationship between colleges and the world of work. Cosser (2003) and Kraak (2008) both investigated the employment rate of college graduates and Jacobsz (2004) developed guidelines to ensure market driven FET programmes.
I found that FET students’ reasons for enrolment was investigated by Akoojee & McGrath (2008), Cosser (2003) and McGrath (2003b) but there is limited exploration of students’ experience of learning specifically in relation to their own specified aims and career development in a globalising world. McGrath (2004: 167) notes that it is vital that colleges know how their graduates are doing and how they are progressing. Therefore, I believe that the research I conducted made a valuable contribution to this field of knowledge.
SECTION 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This section reviews the literature in 3 broad areas. First, this study is contextualised in the global world, followed by an overview of the literature relating to FET in South Africa and lastly an examination of the conceptual/theoretical framework of learning orientations.
2.1 Globalisation
The investigation of the learning orientations of FET students enrolled in the Applied Learning programme was conducted at a local level but it is important to recognise how the global context shapes the developments within the education and the vocational education sector in South Africa. The literature, as discussed in this section, reveals that global trends influence the learning orientations of learners and educational institutions and that it encourages a vocational orientation to learning and a closer relationship between education and the world of work.
The following section contextualises education and vocational education in a globalising world. It illustrates how discourses of globalisation changed the face of education and resulted in the view that education should be relevant to the labour market and promote employability, or in other words, have a vocational orientation. These developments turned the focus to vocational education and part-time studies as adults are now expected to become lifelong learners in order for their skills to stay current in the fast changing global environment. Educational institutions, such as colleges, are being reformed to be more vocationally orientated and the expectation is that these institutions should develop skills that are in line with the needs of the economy and promote employability of the students. The challenges that the South African vocational sector face are not only relevant locally, but also globally and in the following section I examine global trends that shape education and vocational education.
2.1.1 Conceptions of Globalisation
When engaging in discussions about globalisation it is necessary to understand what globalisation entails. It is not easy to define globalisation and during the last few decades the global environment have become more intertwined with increased economic integration, global forms of governance and globally inter-linked social and environmental developments all referred to as globalisation (Martens & Raza, 2010). There are different interpretations of globalisation and that it is understood by most as more than interdependence among nations is illustrated by the globalisation literature coming from diverse disciplines such as political science, sociology, anthropology, management and economics (Beekers, 2003). Among the more visible manifestations of globalisation is the increased international movement of goods and services, financial capital, information and
people. There are technological developments, political changes, ecological consequences and international cultural exchanges made possible by free trade, tourism and immigration (Martens & Raza, 2010).
Globalisation is more than an economic phenomenon and it is important to explore the different meanings and definitions of the term. Scholte (2003) identified 5 definitions of globalisation. The first identifies globalisation as internationalisation. This definition states that growing international exchange and interdependence will lead to a globalised economy. The second definition defines globalisation as liberalisation which focuses on the removal of restriction on movement between countries in order to create a more open global economy. Both these definitions envisage that globalisation will lead to a global economy and that national economies will play a less dominant roll. This trend can limit the authority of nation states and as a result politics can become more market driven. In addition, pressure on governments to manage national politics in such a way as to adapt them to global market forces will increase (Smith & Smith, 2002). The third and fourth definitions are both concerned with the spread of certain occurrences worldwide. In the third definition, globalisation is defined as universalisation which leads to the spreading of objects and experiences. In the fourth it is viewed as westernisation or modernisation and it is the social structures of modernity such as capitalism and industrialism that are spread globally. The fifth and last definition explores the transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions because people are no longer limited by their geographical location (Scholte, 2003).
Although there isn’t just one accepted definition for globalisation my literature review revealed that globalisation is usually understood as a way to describe the process whereby individuals, groups, companies and countries become increasingly interconnected and interdependent across the world with new information and communication technologies as the driving force behind it (Green, n.d.; Smith & Smith, 2002). Supporters of globalisation argue that it provides opportunities worldwide because it will lead to increased trade, stimulate economic growth and the spread of new technology to countries participating in the global economy (Green, n.d; Dunklin, 2005). Globalisation created wealth and has made the elimination of many diseases possible. Stiglitz (2002, as cited in Dunklin, 2005) points out that advances due to globalisation have made it possible for many people to live longer and have higher standards of living. Another benefit is that issues such as human rights, democracy and gender equality gets more public attention because of wider access to newspapers, radio, television, telephones, computers and the internet.
As discussed above there are many advantages associated with globalisation and although the supporters of globalisation argue that it will create jobs in the developing world, many authors disagree by arguing that the global world is wrought with inequality. These authors call attention to the fact that there is a gaping divide between rich and poor, both within and between countries. While some countries in the developing world, mainly in Asia, have experienced rapid economic growth and poverty reduction most of Africa and Latin America have experienced declining living standards (Dunklin, 2005; Green, n.d; Putzel, 2004; Smith & Smith,
2002). Globalisation has lead to increased efforts from organisations such as the IMF and the World Bank to create a global free market for goods and services (Smith & Smith, 2002) but a potential drawback of this trend is that the policies and rules implemented by these organisations are in effect promoting inequality among nations. The result, it seems, is that poor countries are staying poor, or becoming even poorer, since the escalation of globalisation (Dunklin, 2005).
Another factor contributing to the increasing gap between rich and poor countries is the rise of knowledge-based economies. Knowledge-based economies have made technology an important factor in the economy. The developed countries’ dominance of technology serves as a tool with which it may exploit poor countries’ low wage workers, weaker environmental laws and other factors to maintain their dominance of the global markets (Dunklin 2005; Smith & Smith, 2002). In addition, in order to cater for the fast changing skills requirements of a knowledge-based economy, it is necessary that countries develop their education sector and promote a vocational orientation to learning that supports skills development and a closer link to the world of work. In the following section I contextualise education within a globalising world and discuss how global education trends promote a vocational orientation to learning.
2.1.2 Globalisation and Education
A vocational orientation to education became more important with the rise of globalisation, which altered the education sector and the way that people experience education. Neo-liberal discourses encourage the marketisation of education which has turned the education sector into an arena of commercial activity where goods and services are priced and sold (Smith, 2002; Zeleza, 2002). Educational institutions are adopting business models for organisational and administrative purposes and they are pressured to become more efficient, productive and relevant, or in other words, more vocationally focused and closely linked to the world of work. These requirements may lead to education programmes being restructured in order for products to be standardised and marketed to achieve economies of scale. This focus on profit generation has increased pressure on educational institutions to increase their income by means of part-time and distance learning programmes and to reduce costs. The subsequent increase of students per teacher has led to a decline in the quality of teaching. People have become consumers, not participants, of education and it is seen as a profitable market to be in (Smith, 2002; Zeleza, 2002).
The commercialisation of education has not only led to a more vocationally orientated education sector but also an expansion of the privatisation of education and the increased involvement of private enterprise in the provision of education. There is an increase in vocationally orientated education providers because of the rising demand for education and the changing needs of the knowledge-based economy. It can be argued that the increase of vocationally orientated educational provision encourages student learning orientations with a vocational dimension and a focus on career development. The concern is that these trends towards a vocational
orientation to learning will lead to the disappearance of traditional notions of educational goals such as university autonomy, academic freedom, liberal education and quality. In addition, this market driven approach does not view education as a social or public good or as a human right, but as an economic investment. The more education is regarded as an economic investment, the more costs and returns are calculated according to market principles. State subsidies have been reduced or removed in many countries, and student tuition rates have been raised to reflect the ‘real’ cost of education (Smith, 2002; Zeleza, 2002).
Economic, social and cultural changes means that many now live in ‘knowledge societies’ that have strong individualising tendencies and a requirement for lifelong vocationally orientated learning that promotes employability. There is a perception that education should be made available to more people and that there should be increasing collaboration between educational institutions and the market. Educational institutions have to adapt to the vocational orientation to learning and the demands of continuing education for workers in knowledge-based industries by restructuring their courses, especially by increasing the availability of part-time courses, such as the Applied Learning programme. As a result many adults are now participating in organised learning throughout their lives and educational institutions are becoming more diversified in their programmes and student composition with an increasing number of older students participating in educational activities (Smith, 2002; Zeleza, 2002).
The vocational orientation to learning, encouraged by globalisation, has not only changed general education, but it led to the reconceptualisation and restructuring of vocational education to promote relevance to the market and create a stronger link to the world of work. In the following section I contextualise the vocational education sector within a globalising world and demonstrate how global developments contribute to an emphasis on a vocational orientation to learning worldwide.
2.1.3 Globalisation and Vocational Education
The globalisation of economies and rapid technological change has affected all countries; therefore nations are preparing to meet its challenges. One of these challenges, identified by Mustapha & Abdullah (2001), is the critical preparation of the workforce and vocational education plays an important role in preparing the workforce for the global marketplace. To a large extent, the interest in vocational education and a vocational orientation to learning is motivated by the necessity to address economic challenges and pressures associated with globalisation. Some of these pressures are identified in the literature by Pickersgill (2001) and include: the growth of global markets and the need to maintain international competitiveness through skills development; the emergence of service and knowledge-based industries that are significant for employment; the transformation of geographical and regional employment opportunities; the impact of new information/communication technologies on the community and enterprises in particular; the need to reduce unemployment rates and changes in the role of government from service provider to purchaser of services.
In the light of these challenges associated with globalisation and the emphasis on employability there has been a growing international emphasis on the importance of new learning approaches and skills development for vocational education. Learners are being encouraged to develop skills and attitudes of lifelong learning such a creativity, versatility, innovativeness, critical thinking and problem-solving skills which are deemed essential in today’s work environment. Learners must meet the demands of the economy and constantly update their skills in order to stay employable (McGrath, 2004: 170; Tabulawa, 2009) and Gamble (2004: 189) notes that employability is the new educational aim in vocational education. Although the concept of employability has been around for some time, the emphasis on the importance of employability skills is becoming more widespread pertaining to education at all levels. The Kirby Report (2000 as cited in Hager, Holland and Beckett, 2002), states that an individual’s employability depends on several factors which involves self-confidence and the ability to secure and retain employment. In addition to this, it also means that an individual will be able to improve his or her productivity and income-earning prospects. Employability skills can be viewed as a means of individual empowerment that necessarily places the individual in a privileged position, while it has also been argued that the labour market itself will determine the level of employability required (Moreau & Leathwood, 2006).
In addition to the emphasis on employability Tabulawa (2009) points out that technological change has led to uncertainty, unpredictability and constant change in the labour market. As a result, skills cannot be fixed on a particular job and the constant change means that workers are always learning and learning must be vocationally orientated. This trend explains the importance of lifelong learning and vocational education. Furthermore, technological change has major implications for the education sector of a country and Tabulawa (2009) argues that nations with education systems that can adapt to changing environments are the nations that are most likely to survive in the competitive global market. Therefore, education is being reformed in many countries in order to cater for the needs of the economy and become more vocationally orientated.
In addition to education becoming more vocationally orientated, changes in the nature of work have the effect that people think differently about a single job for life and it has changed traditional ideas about careers. Increasingly, labour has to be more flexible and workers need to be able to adopt throughout their working lives. Policy makers worldwide are viewing education and training as central features in long term, global, economic competitiveness (Gamble, 2003: 14). A growing demand to confront the pressures of globalisation has contributed to the renewed interest in vocational education as it is believed that vocational colleges have a more direct relation to the world of work. According to Raby (2001) it is alleged that vocational education ensures opportunities that lead to employment, economic development, prosperity and contribute toward improved social conditions. However, Raby (2001) argues that the ideal that vocational colleges provide opportunities that is a foundation for economic and political reform is questionable.
In Australia the reforms in the vocational education sector has been rationalised as an inevitable response to the above mentioned pressures of globalisation and that it was a necessary response to improve the country’s international competitiveness by up skilling the labour force. Australia is not the only country responding to globalisation in this way and internationally, to meet the demands of the new knowledge-based economy, there have been requests for the reform of the vocational education sector (Akoojee, 2008). In South Africa globalisation has led to the reconceptualisation and restructuring of Technical colleges and the establishment of Further Education and Training colleges. In the following section I will provide an analysis of some of the dimensions of vocational education in South Africa.
2.2 The world of Further Education and Training
FET is the most labour market-related element in the education and training system and is aimed at preparing young people and adults for entry into the world of work (Gamble, 2004: 176). Clark-Trow (1966, as cited in Wilder, Midkiff, Dunkerly & Skelton, 1996) determined learning orientations can be used to describe the objectives of institutions and therefore, based on the above mentioned vocational aim of the FET sector, it can be argued that FET institutions have a vocational orientation to learning. In addition, Clark-Trow (1966 as cited in Sedlacek, 1984) concluded that certain institutions are more supportive of certain orientations; therefore the vocational orientation of FET colleges will predominantly attract students with a similar orientation. In line with this reasoning, during their investigation of learning orientations within the German dual system of vocational education, Lewalter & Krapp (2004) focused on the vocational orientation to learning, which was also the focus of my research.
In the following section I discuss the global discourses that shape the South African FET sector and endorse a vocational orientation to learning in order to develop the skills required by the labour market.
2.2.1 Conceptions of Further Education and Training
Globalisation has highlighted the importance of a vocational orientation to learning and a close relationship between education and the world of work worldwide. Internationally, countries have varied strategies in relation to vocational education and Brown (2003) notes that vocational education reflects a country’s investment in education and the strategies used to improve the skills development of workers in order to promote employability. As a result the investigation of the vocational orientation to learning in relation to vocational education and career development is an important topic for analysis worldwide. Within the vocational education sector different terms are used in different countries to refer more or less to the same kind of educational provision. These terms include vocational education and training (VET); technical and vocational education and training (TVET); technical and further education (TAFE); further education (FE) and further education and training (FET).
There is a range of international approaches to further education and training and it differs from country to country. In Australia TAFE is the major provider of further education and the focus has shifted to lifelong learning and the need for up skilling those already in employment rather than the traditional focus on pre-employment training (Pickersgill, 2001; Unwin, 2003: 2). In the United States the community college model is intended to confront socio-economic issues of labour and technology training. The rational is that the low tuition increases access and that colleges provide an alternative route to university (Raby, 2001). In the United Kingdom college students include full- and part-time students but in European countries such as Scandinavia, Germany and the Netherlands, vocational schools are focused on young, full-time students (Unwin, 2003: 2). However, in the Czech Republic the US community college model is used to develop colleges with the aim to increase the percentage of the population that are able to meet university entrance requirements (Raby, 2001).
In the Far East vocational education enjoys high priority. In Japan, technical colleges and secondary vocational schools service full-time students. In Hong Kong, the private sector dominates further education and training although there is some provision for government-funded technical colleges (Unwin, 2003: 2). Malaysia is developing vocational education and training in order to achieve its vision of becoming an industrialised nation by 2020. This is in line with the Malaysian government’s beliefs that the future of Malaysia’s global competitiveness depends on the skills of the workforce (Mustapha & Abdullah, 2001). Even countries in the Middle East, where vocational training has been underdeveloped, have started to develop the sector in the light of the global emphasis of lifelong learning (Unwin, 2003: 2).
Based on the above discussion it is clear that not all countries have a similar approach to further education and training. For example, although community colleges in the USA are similar to FET colleges in South Africa, these colleges offer both vocational and academic qualifications and community colleges offer programmes that are the equivalent of the first two years of a university degree (American Association of Community Colleges, n.d.). Therefore, it is possible that further education and training could include academic qualifications but in South Africa the focus of FET colleges is on vocational education that is closely linked to the world of work. The NC(V) programme, which is the core component of FET, is the most significant government expression of the vocational focus of FET colleges (Republic of South Africa, 2009). These days, South African FET includes all provision at Levels 2-4 of the NQF and also includes secondary schools. FET colleges are expected to deliver vocationally orientated programmes in Level 2-4, although they also have programmes within the NQF L 5 which is considered post-school and pre-degree (Akoojee & McGrath, 2007; Gamble, 2003: 4; McGrath, 2004: 159).
2.2.2 FET colleges and the National Qualifications Framework
FET colleges operate under the NQF which is a framework that encompasses the principles and guidelines into which training and education standards are registered and it enables the recognition of skills and knowledge on a
national and international level (National Qualifications Framework, n.d.). The NQF Act 67 that was introduced in 2008 determines that SAQA oversees the development and implementation of the NQF while it also established 3 quality councils which included the Quality Council for General and Further Education and Training (Umalusi) focusing on NQF Level 1-4, the Council on Higher Education (CHE) for education at Levels 5-10, and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) which include NQF Level 1-10 and focuses on work related training (Jewison, 2008: 28; Stumpf, Papier, Needham & Nel, 2009).
The 3 quality councils manage the 3 sub-frameworks within the NQF which are firstly the General and further education and training sub-framework, including formal education institutions, schools and FET colleges under the guidance of Umalusi. Secondly, the Higher education sub-framework which include universities and universities of technology guided by CHE and lastly the Trades and Occupation sub-framework which focuses on training in the workplace overseen by QCTO. The function of these quality councils are ensuring quality and developing qualifications within their respective frameworks and promoting international comparability of the qualifications (National Qualifications Framework, n.d.).
The NQF is an attempt to empower the individual and in this way it is a tool for social, economic and political reform indelibly linked to FET colleges and the vocational orientation of these colleges. Allais (2007) notes that one of the objectives of the NQF is to provide education that is relevant to the needs of the economy and to provide competent workers, which is indicative of a vocational orientation to learning and a close link to the world of work. National qualification frameworks are an expression of neo-liberal education policies with the aim to promote the development of skills, as well as social equity and inclusion. The approach is intended to take the power away from traditional educational institutions by relying on qualifications to make the educational system more flexible. The generic nature of the qualifications criteria is a strategy to provide fairness and access to broad participation, as well as lifelong learning. The NQF seeks to limit the autonomy of providing institutions, such as colleges and universities (Allais, 2007; European Commission, 2008; ILO, 2008).
The rationale behind this approach is that once an educational system is freed from the institutions through which outcomes are achieved, education systems will be more flexible and qualifications will be more transferable between national economies. Qualifications that are expressed in terms of outcomes are intended to guarantee educational standards and promote comparability. The concern is that international comparability can be difficult to achieve because learning outcomes are interpreted in different ways and not all NQFs use the concept in the same way; for instance, in South Africa outcomes are more narrowly defined than in Australia where the focus is on the qualification. This approach could weaken the role of institutions and work against the stated goals of the NQF by reducing the kinds of knowledge and skills to which the majority of learners have access (ILO, 2008).
The NQF aims to promote equality, economic competitiveness, social inclusion and educational opportunities. The outcomes based system ideally offers recognition and accreditation can be given to informal and work-based learning. In this way it offers access to some who were previously excluded. By allowing the learner to submit their experiences for assessment to receive credit and by providing general access to the attainment of qualification levels, the NQF provides strategies to address inequality. In line with a vocational orientation to learning the NQF also deals with issues of employability as a way to increase the role of the employer by allowing them to be directly involved in the definition of outcomes. Qualifications allow a potential employer to know exactly what skills the individual possesses, which arguably makes the person more employable. Conversely, the focus on qualifications can actually take away from investing in knowledge and skills acquisition to the point that the role of the qualification is weakened in promoting employability (ILO, 2008).
In the South African context, ‘intermediate skills’ are defined by the NQF as those qualifications below university-acquired degrees but above the entry-level skills and qualifications derived from primary and lower secondary schooling, or in other words above Grade 9. FET colleges in South Africa offers vocational education at Level 2-4 and Higher Education institutions offer education at Level 5 and above. A Higher Certificate is considered Level 5, Advanced certificate and Diploma Level 6, a Bachelor’s Degree Level 7, a Bachelor Honours Degree and a Post Graduate Diploma Level 8, a Masters Degree Level 9 and a PhD Level 10 (Stumpf, Papier, Needham, & Nel, 2009). Kraak (2008) notes that the availability of skilled labour at the intermediate level has become a critical issue in South Africa and it is the task of FET colleges to address this deficiency.
The aims of the NQF, as discussed above, made it a particularly attractive strategy for a developing country like South Africa where it was introduced to address post-apartheid educational and economic inequalities. The goal was to provide relevant education, produce competent workers, and to provide access to those who were previously excluded by recognising informal learning. However, this has proven to be a poor strategy of reform for a developing country with limited resources and an already weak educational system because the state's role in building educational structures is undermined and a market of provision is implicitly relied upon. In South Africa the educational provision, delivered against the new outcomes-based qualifications, remains low and severe inequalities remain widespread (Allais, 2007).
The discussion above clearly illustrates that the intention of the NQF is to link education to the world of work, therefore it is important to investigate whether FET college programmes located within the NQF produce graduates with skills that are relevant to the market and promote the employability of students.
2.2.3 FET colleges and Skills Development in South Africa
In recent years, in line with global trends, vocational education in South Africa has come under the spotlight. The South African FET system emerged under the colonial system to cater for the relatively small numbers of skilled workers needed in the formal sector of the economy. At first, it was based on the need for coloured workers to do semi-skilled labour in the Cape region and technical and vocational provision was regarded as only suitable for non-whites. However, after 1910 the focus and racial composition of Technical colleges changed to predominantly white recipients. At that time skilled labour for the South African economy was
mostly supplied by European immigrants but during the 20th century the government wanted to include local
white people to address the social and educational implications of the mineral revolution and white people losing their farms because of changing agrarian relations in the 1890’s (Badroodien, 2004: 22; McGrath, 2004: 159). The Technical colleges followed the British model and were mainly concerned with theoretical provision for apprentices. In the years to follow this sector was shaped by the racialisation thereof and South Africa’s particular developmental path (Akoojee, McGrath & Visser, 2008: 254). As a result, when South Africa became a democratic country, there was a need to reform the FET sector.
The transition to democracy has been associated with a transition from a nationalist, racially-exclusive, inward-looking economy to one that is trying to profit from external global relations (Altman & Meyer, 2003 as cited in Akoojee & McGrath, 2004). During the apartheid era South African colleges were protected from international pressures but when this period in South African history ended, in conjunction with the need to address the racialisation of this sector, it was also exposed to international discourse relating to college reform. Therefore, within this context, South African FET colleges are expected to become more responsive to development goals and to the labour market (Gamble, 2003: 1; McGrath & King, 1995 as cited in McGrath, 2003b: 16). In order to become more responsive to the needs of the labour market, it is necessary that FET colleges enhance the vocational orientation of the programmes that they offer and develop a closer link to the world of work.
The FET sector in South Africa has undergone major changes in order to become more vocationally orientated and to develop the necessary skills to face the post-apartheid and globalisation challenges. In South Africa, in line with a vocational orientation to learning, skills development is an emerging and fast developing domain of knowledge and practice. As is the case with other developing countries, skills development initiatives are influenced by a complex historical, socio-economic and legislative context. More than 17 years after the coming of democracy in 1994, the country still grapples with the challenges associated with unemployment and low skills (Córdoba & Farquharson, 2008)1. It is well known that South Africa has high unemployment rates; therefore the challenge is to promote vocationally orientated learning and to find ways to help individuals prepare for entry into the labour market in conjunction with the economic development that is necessary to expand employment (Unwin, 2004: 244).
1
Córdoba & Farquharson cite Edwards (2001) & Lewis (2002) to support this argument
In response to this dilemma, the attention was turned to skills development, FET and vocationally orientated learning in South Africa. Although the college sector has not received the same attention as schooling, higher development or skills development the DoE and the DoL have been engaged in a legislative process that resulted in a steady process of policy development in the FET sector. It began in 1996 with the appointment of the National Committee on Further Education to investigate options for overhauling the FET sector. Based on the recommendations of this committee the Green Paper on Further Education and Training was published which was followed by the White Paper on Further Education and Training. In addition, the Further Education and Training Act (1998), the Skills Development Act (1998) and the Skills Levies Act (1999) were drafted. Reforms to be initiated in South Africa’s FET sector were stipulated in A New Institutional landscape for the Public Further Education and Training Colleges (2001) which established the 50 new FET colleges and set out a vision for their development (Akoojee, McGrath & Visser, 2008: 256; Gamble, 2003: 1).
For public colleges, the above mentioned policy changes brought about the transformation of the previous Technical colleges into large, multi-site and partially independent institutions focused on vocationally orientated learning. The approximately 150 former Technical colleges were reduced to 50 FET colleges with 8 colleges in the Eastern Cape, 4 in the Free State, 3 in the North West, 8 in Gauteng, 3 in Mpumalanga, 9 in KwaZulu-Natal, 7 in Limpopo, 2 in the Northern Cape and 6 in the Western Cape. The expectation is that these institutions will be run in a more business-like manner and that it will be more responsive to the needs of the economy, or in other words, have a closer relationship to the world of work (Akoojee & McGrath, 2007; Stumpf, Papier, Needham & Nel, 2009). McGrath (2004: 161) notes that these developments reflect international trends that embrace globalisation and competitiveness. In line with neo-liberal discourse it is accepted that South Africa must respond to the pressures of globalisation by reforming educational institutions such as FET colleges. The aim of the policy changes is to build responsive public institutions that should address education and skills development goals for both individuals and industry. However, the FET Act (1998) does not indicate what specific type of skills the new colleges must deliver. According to Badroodien (2003: 65) the development of the new infrastructure for the FET sector will provide opportunities for lifelong learning and workforce development, or in other words, vocationally orientated learning. At the same time the goal is that colleges will promote key citizenship skills, attitudes, values and knowledge.
Although the FET sector has undergone a process of institutional transformation and transition it is still challenged with becoming more responsive to the needs of the market and the South African government’s development vision (Akoojee, McGrath & Visser, 2008: 254; Córdoba & Farquharson, 2008). The transformation of colleges was necessary because for many years Technical colleges in South Africa, now subsumed under the FET colleges, has focused on offering the so called NATED programmes that were developed and examined by the national DoE. These programmes have been criticised for being outdated and not in line with industry needs. In recent years, the focus shifted to non-NATED programmes developed by the SETAs that were aligned with the NQF, more vocationally orientated and closely linked to the world of work.
Most colleges are still trying to find a balance between NATED and non-NATED provision with NATED programmes still being the dominant programme offering (Akoojee, McGrath, & Visser, 2008: 263).
Even though the programmes offered at colleges vary, Badroodien (2006) asserts that colleges generally cater for the needs of 3 groups namely (1) young people that would like to advance to higher education or find employment, (2) adults who need to update their skills or pursue education as a leisure interest and (3) employers who would like to improve the skills of their workers through education and training. In all 3 of these groups Badroodien identified vocational reasons for learning which leads to the conclusion that the vocational orientation to learning seems to be dominant among FET students, especially among adults. In recent years there has been an increase in adults who attend FET colleges which can be an indication of a wider programme offering that cater for the needs of this specific group or it could be an attempt from the colleges to cater for the national skills needs which requires a vocational orientation to learning and a closer link to the needs of the market (Akoojee, McGrath, & Visser, 2008: 260).
There is an unspoken assumption that in order for the sector to make a significant contribution to poverty reduction and economic growth, it needs to be both responsive and relevant. The role of the FET colleges in South Africa is considered vital not only for improving national competitiveness but also inclusiveness. It is accepted that economic development is intimately tied to social equity by ensuring that those excluded in the past are incorporated in the new democratic order. Although there has been evidence of progress, it is clear that there are major problems in the national skills development system. Cooperation between the Departments of Education and Labour has generally been poor; the NQF has not worked as planned; public FET colleges continue to train far fewer graduates than envisaged and the quality of their output remains questionable (Akoojee, 2008; Akoojee & McGrath, 2008). Therefore, the investigation of the learning orientations of FET part-time students and the contribution of college learning to their career development was an important task because based on the findings I was able to make recommendations for future programme development.
2.2.4 Employment opportunities for FET Graduates in South Africa
Worldwide the expectation is that the FET sector should have a strong vocational orientation, be responsive to the needs of employers, quick to respond to economical changes and thereby providing the vocational learning that will help graduates to do well in a globalising economy (Harwood, 2001 as cited in Badroodien, 2006; Unwin, 2003: 1). The focus of FET colleges is vocational learning and based on Clark-Trow’s findings, that the learning orientation of the institution influences the learning orientations of the students that the institution attracts, it can be argued that FET colleges will attract students with a vocational orientation (Clark-Trow, 1966 as cited in Sedlacek, 1984). Based on the argument that the vocational orientation to learning is the dominant learning orientation within the FET sector it is logical to assume that the relationship between vocational education and the employability of FET students is an important topic of investigation on a global level. In line
with the goals associated with a vocational orientation to learning McGrath (2003a: 95) notes that the most basic but also the most powerful indicator of college success is the employment rate of graduates.
In Europe Anderson & Van de Werfhorst (2010) studied the relationship between education and occupational status in fourteen European countries including 23’100 respondents. They found, without exception, that the employment levels of those with a vocational/technical education compared to those with a tertiary education were lower. For instance, in the Czech Republic 36.9% of those with a vocational education were employed compared to 66.3% with a tertiary degree. In Germany the numbers reflected 43.6% compared to 64.3% and in the Netherlands 45.8% in relation to 60.5%. Based on Anderson & Van de Werfhorst’s findings it can be argued that university graduates in Europe are more employable than graduates from institutions with a vocational focus.
In Australia Sherman (2006) examined the outcomes of TAFE education for young people aged 15 to 24. She determined that after completion of TAFE training students experienced improvement in occupational levels and wages roughly two and a half years after completion of their training. She established that not all students found employment right away but employment levels improved over time. Afrassa (2001) found that TAFE graduates in Australia who referred to a vocational orientation to learning, students who were employed before starting the course or employed during the course and graduates who received higher qualifications were more likely to find employment. Based on Afrassa’s findings it can be argued that a vocational orientation to learning improves FET students’ employment prospects.
In South Africa, in line with global trends, one of the main objectives of vocational education is to promote employability and after 1990 colleges focused on becoming institutions that offer a variety of vocational orientated subject choices, which include ‘softer’ subjects from the financial services, information technology, tourism and others (Kraak, 2008). Cosser (2003: 34) conducted a graduate tracer study which included an analysis of respondents’ attitudes regarding their college education. The population to which these findings can be generalised is college graduates who graduated in 1999. Cosser found that only 34% of graduates were employed or self-employed, whether full-time or part-time, 31% were unemployed and 35% were still studying. It is probable that a determinant for further study is an inability to find employment and therefore the picture of the employability of college graduates seem negative. The learners did not view FET as a direct gateway to employment which raises potential challenges for a Further Education and Training Certificate (NQF L 4) as the key exit qualification for colleges. These findings are disturbing in light of the vocational focus of colleges with employability being one of the main goals of vocational education.
However, in light of the low employment rates of college graduates, it is important to note that Cosser (2003: 54) states that there are many factors that can contribute to the high unemployment rate of college graduates
which could include the poor quality of schooling for many South Africans, the relatively inferior image of a college education, the low compensation levels of college graduates, the disparities between the skills outputs of colleges and the skills requirements of industry, the geographical areas where colleges are located and racial and gender discrimination in employment practices. With regards to the relevance of college learning to the world of work Cosser (2003: 50) found that 56% of graduates who were employed used the skills they learned at college at work, 16% used their skills to a small extent while 28% used their skills sometimes or never. Employed graduates also indicated that 55% found jobs that were related to their qualification while the rest were employed in an unrelated field. Cosser (2003: 53) determined that graduates did not perceive a college qualification as a direct route to employment.
More recently, Kraak (2008) confirms that employment prospects for FET graduates remain low and that learners believe that they need to pursue further qualifications in the post-school sector in order to secure employment. However, even this strategy may not necessarily lead to employment. Kraak (2008) argues that many students face unemployment after graduating because there are no longer structured pathways for FET college graduates into employment. Factors identified by Kraak for the low employment rate of college graduates, similar to those identified by Cosser (2003), is a stagnant economy, claims of poor quality and outdated training at FET colleges, the continued racialisation of the labour market and the fact that employers have resorted to the employment of lesser skilled and lower paid workers as a cost saving strategy. Graduates are faced with the problem that structured pathways from FET colleges have broken down and the fact that the qualifications they have acquired are rendered more or less worthless in the labour market. In addition, Jacobsz (2004) notes that programmes offered by FET colleges frequently separate theory from practice causing these programmes to become irrelevant. As a result, the needs of the learners and the demands of economy are not met. In her research conducted among FET students in the Free State, Jacobsz (2004) found that students who found employment easily were those who participated in programmes where there was a balance between practical and theoretical elements. In comparison, students who only received theoretical training without any practical training struggled to find employment.
The low employment rate of FET graduates in South Africa and the perception of poor quality and obsolete training that does not meet the requirements of the economy are reasons for concern within the FET sector with its vocational orientation to learning. However, the findings of Jacobsz (2004) suggest that there are certain programmes where students find employment more easily and it can be argued that those programmes are better equipped to cater for the needs of the market. Therefore, it is important that colleges evaluate their programme offering and identify the programmes that cater for the needs of their students as well as the labour market, as was the intention with my research in relation to the Applied Learning programme. By investigating the learning orientations of part-time FET students I identified whether their orientation to learning was in fact vocational as suggested by the literature, if college learning satisfied their needs and how college learning influenced their career development and employability.
The discussion above illustrates the importance of a vocational orientation to learning in a globalising world. In the following section I examine the conceptual/theoretical framework of learning orientations in relation to adults’ reasons for part-time studies at post-school institutions.
2.3 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework: Learning Orientations, Vocational Education and Adults’ reasons for part-time studies at post-school institutions
I found that the investigation of learning orientations is quite common in the literature and the approach has been used by many authors to describe different student types in relation to behaviour and motivation. Most of the literature that investigates learning orientations concentrated on higher education institutions with the exception of Lewalter & Krapp (2004) who investigated learning orientations within vocational education. Although I searched extensively there is a lack of literature on learning orientations in relation to vocational education institutions but the literature on learning orientations in higher education and the vocational orientation to learning is relevant to develop a framework for investigating learning orientations in sites of vocational education, such as FET colleges. Darkenwald (1977) argues that the learning orientation which most closely represents the nature and purpose of the educational activity should be emphasised, therefore, when investigating the occupationally orientated programmes within FET colleges, it is appropriate to focus on a vocational orientation to learning. Significantly, a vocational orientation to learning has been identified by most authors as central and the literature has revealed that within a global context the vocational orientation to learning is accentuated. As a result, the vocational orientation to learning was the focus of my investigation.
Part-time students’ reasons for learning is an important topic to examine and Darkenwald (1977) argues that adult education programmes should be designed around the needs, interests and learning styles of adults. This reasoning is closely related to motivation for participation and emphasises why adults’ reasons for studying is an important topic to investigate. Beaty, Gibbs & Morgan (1984: 75) confirm that the reasons why adults study are of particular importance because of the voluntary nature of adult education. In my search for an appropriate framework for this study a wide literature concerning adults’ reasons for learning was consulted. The concept of motivation was explored but because it has been employed in so many studies in so many different ways it was difficult to find a precise definition of the concept. I found that learning orientations incorporate the reasons as well as contextual factors that motivate students to enrol in a course. Therefore, the paradigm of learning orientations was most helpful for the purpose of this research which was to examine how part-time adult FET college students came to participate in a particular course, what their aims and expectations were in undertaking a course of study and how their learning contributed to their career development.
In the available literature the terminology concerning learning orientations is varied and I found that student orientations, motivational orientations and learning orientations are used synonymously by different authors.
For example, Long describes student orientations as follows:
“Student orientations are held to be multidimensional and original in nature. This conception is not only more theoretical tenable, but also facilitates the study of the association between academic orientations and the antecedents of such orientations. Fundamental to this investigation is the assumption that such student academic orientations at the university level provide insight into an understanding of university student behaviour inasmuch as they are systematically related to the motivations, perceptions and learning of university students” (Long, 1977b: 13).
Similarly, Darkenwald (1977) identifies motivational orientations as the reasons that adult learners give for continued education and as a reflection of the needs and interest of the learners. Lewalter & Krapp (2004) describe motivational orientations as the answer to the question ‘why’ a person is willing to engage in education. Taylor, Morgan and Gibbs (1981 as cited in Beaty et al., 1984: 76) argue along the same lines when they define learning orientations as the attitudes and the aims which express the learner’s relationship with a course of study. In addition, many other authors have argued that an understanding of motivation depends on an understanding of the specific goals toward which individuals are orientated (Nolen, 1988)2.
My research produced a broad literature describing different learning orientations and various taxonomies have been suggested to classify learning orientations. One of the most significant researchers in respect to learning orientations has been William Clark-Trow. Between 1958 and 1966, using data collected from students at the University of California, Clark-Trow used a two dimensional scheme to classify students according to (1) the degree of students’ involvement with ideas and (2) the extent of students’ involvement with the institution. Based on these two dimensions Clark-Trow classified students in 4 categories namely (a) collegiate, (b) vocational, (c) academic and (d) non-conformist. The collegiate and vocational orientations can be described as non-intellectual in outlook whereas the academic and non-conformist orientations share a common interest and value in ideas and intellect (Luo & Jamieson-Drake, 2005; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1977; Yamamoto & Wiersma, 1971).
(a) The collegiate orientated student is described as a student who is not involved with ideas and issues over and above what is required to gain a qualification. This student has a strong interest in the social activities, interpersonal relations and the extracurricular activities associated with educational institutions.
(b) The vocational orientated student is enrolled for career training and development or status enhancement and is frequently working part- or full-time. There is little interest in intellectual materials which cannot be readily related to career development and education is only important in relation to future employment.
(c) The academic orientated student values intellectual stimulation, opportunities for learning, ideas and academic achievement, wherever this pursuit may lead.
2
Nolen cites authors such as Ames, 1984; Asch, 1952; Crutchfield, 1962; Dweck, 1985; Maehr, 1983; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986; Nicholls, 1984 & Spence & Helmreich, 1983
