International Organizations

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Internationa

International l Organization, membership Organization, membership group group that that operates acrossoperates across national borders for specific purposes. Scholars of international relations national borders for specific purposes. Scholars of international relations consider international organizations to have growing importance in world consider international organizations to have growing importance in world politics. Examples of international organizations include the

politics. Examples of international organizations include the United NationsUnited Nations (UN), the World Bank (

(UN), the World Bank (seeseeInternational Bank for Reconstruction andInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development), the International Committee of the Red Cross, and Development), the International Committee of the Red Cross, and Greenpeace.

Greenpeace. Most

Most international international organizations operate organizations operate as as part part of of one one or or moremore

international regimes

international regimes. An international regime is a set of rules, standards,. An international regime is a set of rules, standards, and procedures that govern national behavior in a particular area. and procedures that govern national behavior in a particular area. Examples of international regimes include arms control, foreign trade, Examples of international regimes include arms control, foreign trade, andand Antarctic exploration. International organizations are often central to the Antarctic exploration. International organizations are often central to the functioning of an international regime, giving structure and procedures to functioning of an international regime, giving structure and procedures to

the “rules of the game” by which nations must play. For example, the the “rules of the game” by which nations must play. For example, the

World Trade Organization (WTO), the North American Free Trade World Trade Organization (WTO), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the European Union (EU) are key organizations Agreement (NAFTA), and the European Union (EU) are key organizations that define the international trade regime.

that define the international trade regime.

TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:

Internationa

International l organizations organizations fall fall into into two two main main categories:categories: intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations. intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have national governments as Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have national governments as members. Hundreds of IGOs operate in all parts of the world. Member members. Hundreds of IGOs operate in all parts of the world. Member nations have created each of these organizations to serve a purpose that nations have created each of these organizations to serve a purpose that those nations find useful. Membership can range from as few as two those nations find useful. Membership can range from as few as two member nations to virtually all nations. The UN and its various agencies are member nations to virtually all nations. The UN and its various agencies are

IGOs. So are most of the world’s economic coordinating institutions, such IGOs. So are most of the world’s economic coordinating institutions, such

as the World Bank,

as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the Groupthe International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the Group of Eight (G-8). The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) of Eight (G-8). The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) seeks to coordinate the production and pricing policies of its 11 member seeks to coordinate the production and pricing policies of its 11 member states. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) seeks to regulate the states. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) seeks to regulate the flow of nuclear technology to developing nations. The

flow of nuclear technology to developing nations. The WTO helps negotiateWTO helps negotiate and monitor agreements among 146 nations to lower trade barriers. and monitor agreements among 146 nations to lower trade barriers. Military alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Military alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and political groupings, such as the Arab League

and political groupings, such as the Arab League and the African Union, areand the African Union, are also IGOs. In general, regional IGOs have experienced more success than also IGOs. In general, regional IGOs have experienced more success than global ones, and those with specific purposes have worked better than global ones, and those with specific purposes have worked better than those with broad aims.

those with broad aims.

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are private organizations whose Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are private organizations whose memberships and activities are international in scope. NGOs do not memberships and activities are international in scope. NGOs do not possess the legal status of national governments. However, the UN and possess the legal status of national governments. However, the UN and other international forums recognize many NGOs as important political other international forums recognize many NGOs as important political institutions. Examples of NGOs include the Roman Catholic Church, institutions. Examples of NGOs include the Roman Catholic Church, Greenpeace, the International Olympic Committee, and the International Greenpeace, the International Olympic Committee, and the International Committee of the Red Cross. Although multinational corporations (MNCs) Committee of the Red Cross. Although multinational corporations (MNCs)

share many characteristics of NGOs, they are not international share many characteristics of NGOs, they are not international organizations because they do not coordinate the actions of members for organizations because they do not coordinate the actions of members for mutual gain.

mutual gain.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Historically,

Historically, international organizations and regimes international organizations and regimes have reflected have reflected thethe

interests of the world’s most powerful nations, or great powers. Many interests of the world’s most powerful nations, or great powers. Many

international organizations and regimes were established during times of  international organizations and regimes were established during times of  global hegemony

global hegemony——that is, when one nation has predominated inthat is, when one nation has predominated in international power. These periods have often followed a major war international power. These periods have often followed a major war

among the great powers. Today’s international organizat

among the great powers. Today’s international organizationsions——such as thesuch as the UN, the Organization of American States (OAS),

UN, the Organization of American States (OAS), and the World Bankand the World Bank——werewere created after World War II ended in 1945, when the United States was created after World War II ended in 1945, when the United States was powerful enough to create rules and institutions that other countries powerful enough to create rules and institutions that other countries would follow.

would follow. Although

Although rooted rooted in in power, power, international international organizations organizations and and regimesregimes generally serve the interests of most participating nations and usually generally serve the interests of most participating nations and usually endure even when hegemony wanes. Most countries share mutual endure even when hegemony wanes. Most countries share mutual interests, yet find it hard to coordinate their actions for mutual benefit interests, yet find it hard to coordinate their actions for mutual benefit because of the lack of a central authority. Nations also face the temptation because of the lack of a central authority. Nations also face the temptation

to bend the rules in their own favor. For example, it is in everyone’s to bend the rules in their own favor. For example, it is in everyone’s interest to halt production of chemicals that damage the earth’s ozone interest to halt production of chemicals that damage the earth’s ozone

layer. However, a country can save money by continuing to use those layer. However, a country can save money by continuing to use those chemicals.

chemicals.

The coordination of efforts to write new rules and monitor them requires The coordination of efforts to write new rules and monitor them requires an international organization. For example, the United Nations an international organization. For example, the United Nations Environment Program helped countries negotiate a treaty to stop Environment Program helped countries negotiate a treaty to stop producing ozone-destroying chemicals. Thus, nations find it useful to give producing ozone-destroying chemicals. Thus, nations find it useful to give international organizations some power to enforce rules. Most countries international organizations some power to enforce rules. Most countries follow the rules most of the time.

follow the rules most of the time.

International organizations are also able to make countries aware of the International organizations are also able to make countries aware of the need to act on emerging issues. For example, the World Health need to act on emerging issues. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations were

Organization (WHO) and the United Nations were instrumental in focusinginstrumental in focusing attention on acquired immunodeficienc

attention on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) as a y syndrome (AIDS) as a global crisis.global crisis. In

In the the 18th 18th century, century, German German philosopher philosopher Immanuel Immanuel Kant Kant and and FrenchFrench philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau broadly outlined the concept of a philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau broadly outlined the concept of a

global federation of countries resembling today’s UN. Nations joined the global federation of countries resembling today’s UN. Nations joined the

first IGOs in the 19th century. These were practical organizations through first IGOs in the 19th century. These were practical organizations through which nations managed specific issues, such as international mail service which nations managed specific issues, such as international mail service and control of traffic on European rivers. Such organizations proliferated in and control of traffic on European rivers. Such organizations proliferated in the 20th century to cover a wide variety of specific issues. At the same the 20th century to cover a wide variety of specific issues. At the same time, the scope of international organizations expanded, culminating with time, the scope of international organizations expanded, culminating with the creation of the League of Nations in 1920.

the creation of the League of Nations in 1920.

The development of European regional organizations after World War II The development of European regional organizations after World War II ended in 1945 mirrored the growth of IGOs historically, in that narrowly ended in 1945 mirrored the growth of IGOs historically, in that narrowly focused organizations preceded broader and more encompassing focused organizations preceded broader and more encompassing international institutions. The European Coal and Steel Community, international institutions. The European Coal and Steel Community, predecessor of the European Union, coordinated coal and steel predecessor of the European Union, coordinated coal and steel productionproduction.. Today, the European Commission, executive agency of the European Today, the European Commission, executive agency of the European Union, enforces regulations concerning labor, the environment, agriculture, Union, enforces regulations concerning labor, the environment, agriculture, and a host of other issues

and a host of other issues that affect the daily lives of that affect the daily lives of virtually every citizenvirtually every citizen in Europe.

in Europe.

NGOs similarly developed from the need to coordinate specific, narrowly NGOs similarly developed from the need to coordinate specific, narrowly defined activities across national borders. Beginning in the 19th century, defined activities across national borders. Beginning in the 19th century, churches and professional and scientific occupational groups formed the churches and professional and scientific occupational groups formed the first NGOs. The Red Cross was organized in 1863 to establish and monitor first NGOs. The Red Cross was organized in 1863 to establish and monitor the laws of warfare. It was one of the first NGOs to actively work to change the laws of warfare. It was one of the first NGOs to actively work to change the behavior of states. Some political parties

the behavior of states. Some political parties——notably communist partiesnotably communist parties in the early 20th

in the early 20th centurycentury——organized internationally and began to organized internationally and began to functionfunction as NGOs. In the 20th century, specialized NGOs also sprang up in such areas as NGOs. In the 20th century, specialized NGOs also sprang up in such areas as sports, business,

as sports, business, tourism, and communication.tourism, and communication. Between

Between 1945 1945 and and 1995, 1995, the the number number of of international international organizationsorganizations increased fivefold, reaching about 500 IGOs and 5,000

increased fivefold, reaching about 500 IGOs and 5,000 NGOs. By 2003, theNGOs. By 2003, the number of international organizations increased fivefold again, to nearly number of international organizations increased fivefold again, to nearly 25,000

25,000——mostly due to the proliferation of NGOs made possible by newmostly due to the proliferation of NGOs made possible by new technologies such as the Internet. On average, a new NGO is created technologies such as the Internet. On average, a new NGO is created somewhere in the world every few days. This trend reflects the growing somewhere in the world every few days. This trend reflects the growing importance of international coordination for both governmental and importance of international coordination for both governmental and private institutions in an

private institutions in an interdependent world.interdependent world.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS TODAY INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS TODAY

One sign of the important role of international organizations is how they One sign of the important role of international organizations is how they have endured as international power relations shift. In 1991, the Soviet have endured as international power relations shift. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved and the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the Union dissolved and the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States ended. Russia and other formerly communist countries in United States ended. Russia and other formerly communist countries in Eastern Europe ceased to pose a threat to the capitalist democracies of  Eastern Europe ceased to pose a threat to the capitalist democracies of  Western Europe. One might have expected NATO, which defended Western Europe. One might have expected NATO, which defended Western European nations, to go out of business, but it did not. Similarly, Western European nations, to go out of business, but it did not. Similarly, the creation of the WTO did not

the creation of the WTO did not cause smaller free-trade associations suchcause smaller free-trade associations such as NAFTA to end. Instead, the mosaic of international organizations as NAFTA to end. Instead, the mosaic of international organizations continues to expand, particularly as

continues to expand, particularly as new communications and information-new communications and information-processing technologies make international groups more practical and processing technologies make international groups more practical and effective.

effective. International

International organizations have organizations have emerged emerged as as important actors important actors inin international relations

international relations. The . The International Campaign to Ban Landmines wonInternational Campaign to Ban Landmines won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for

the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for its work coordinating the efforts of IGOs,its work coordinating the efforts of IGOs, NGOs, and states to

NGOs, and states to write, sign, and ratify the write, sign, and ratify the international treaty banninginternational treaty banning the use of

the use of land mines. International organizatioland mines. International organizations are now able ns are now able to pressureto pressure states into adopting certain courses of action. When a state will not act, states into adopting certain courses of action. When a state will not act,

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international organizations can mobilize individuals to take action. In some matters, such as disaster assistance or aid for refugees, states have come to rely on international organizations to provide essential services that states are unwilling or unable to offer.

The interdependence of nations in the modern world means that no single nation can dictate the outcome of international conflicts. Nor can private groups and individuals rely on national governments to solve major world problems. Therefore, both governments and individuals will continue to turn to international organizations as an important way to address these problems and to protect their own interests.

EARLY COOPERATION AMONG STATES

1. Treaty of Chaumont March 1, 1814.

This treaty in terms includes only Austria and Russia, but Great Britain and Prussia were included in similar treaties formed at the same time. Although dated March 1 the treaty was not actually signed until March 9. The terms alluded to in article 1 were those offered to Napoleon at the Congress of  Châtillon. As the most comprehensive and typical of the series of treaties which created and controlled the alliance against France the terms of this document should be carefully noted.

His Imperial Majesty and Royal Highness the Emperor of Austria, King of  Hungary and of Bohemia, His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, His Majesty the King of Prussia, having forwarded to the French Government proposals for the conclusion of a general peace, and desiring, in case France should refuse the conditions of that peace, to draw closer the bonds which unite them for the vigorous prosecution of a war undertaken with the salutary purpose of putting an end to the misfortunes of Europe by assuring future repose through the re-establishment of a just equilibrium of the Powers, and wishing at the same time, if Providence blesses their pacific intentions, to settle the methods of maintaining against every attack the order of things which shall have been the happy result of their efforts, have agreed to sanction by a solemn Treaty, signed separately by each of  the four Powers with the other three, this double engagement. The High Contracting Parties above named solemnly engage by the present Treaty, and in the event of France refusing to accede to the Conditions of  Peace now proposed, to apply all the means of their respective States to the vigorous prosecution of the War against that Power, and to employ them in perfect concert, in order to obtain for themselves and for Europe a General Peace, under the Protection of which the Rights and Liberties of all Nations may be established and secured.

This engagement shall in no respect affect the Stipulations which the several Powers have already contracted relative to the number of Troops

to be kept against the Enemy; and it is understood that the Courts of  England. Austria, Russia, and Prussia engage by the present Treaty to keep in the field, each of them, 150,000 effective men, exclusive of garrisons, to be employed in active service against the common Enemy.

The High Contracting Parties reciprocally engage not to treat separately with the common Enemy, nor to sign Peace, Truce, nor Convention, but with common consent. They, moreover, engage not to lay down their Arms until the object of the War, mutually understood and agreed upon, shall have been attained.

In order to contribute in the most prompt and decisive manner to fulfill this great object, His Britannic Majesty engages to furnish a Subsidy of  £5,000,000 for the service of the year 1814, to be divided in equal proportions amongst the three Powers; and His said Majesty promises, moreover, to arrange before the 1st of January in each year, with their imperial and Royal Majesties, the further succours to be furnished during the subsequent year, if (which God forbid) the War should so long continue.

The High Contracting Parties, reserving to themselves to concert together, on the conclusion of a peace with France, as to the means best adapted to guarantee to Europe, and to themselves reciprocally, the continuance of  the Peace, have also determined to enter, without delay, into defensive engagements for the Protection of their respective States in Europe against every attempt which France might make to infringe the order of things resulting from such P acification.

To effect this, they agree that in the event of one of the High Contracting Parties being threatened with an Attack on the part of France, the others shall employ their most strenuous efforts to prevent it, by friendly interposition.

In case of these endeavours proving ineffectual, the High Contracting Parties promise to come to the immediate assistance of the Power attacked, each with a body of 60,000 men.

As the situation of the Seat of War, or other circumstances, might render it difficult for Great Britain to furnish the stipulated succours in English troops within the term prescribed, and to maintain the same on a War establishment, His Britannic Majesty reserves the right of furnishing his contingent to the requiring Power in Foreign Troops in his pay, or to pay annually to that Power a sum of money, at the rate of £20 per man for infantry, and of £30 for cavalry, until the stipulated succour shall be complete.

The High Contracting Parties mutually promise, that in case they shall be reciprocally engaged in hostilities, in consequence of furnishing the stipulated Succours, the party requiring and the parties called upon, and

acting as Auxiliaries in the War, shall not make Peace but by common consent.

In order to render more effectual the Defensive Engagements above stipulated, by uniting for their common defence the Powers the most exposed to a French invasion, the High Contracting Parties engage to invite those Powers to accede to the present Treaty of Defensive Alliance. The present Treaty of Defensive Alliance having for its object to maintain the equilibrium of Europe, to secure the repose and Independence of its States, and to prevent the Invasions which during so many years have desolated the World, the High Contracting Parties have agreed to extend the duration of it to 20 years, to take date from the day of its signature; and they reserve to themselves to concert upon its ulterior prolongation three years before its expiration, should circumstances require it.

Secret Articles

The re-establishment of an equilibrium of the powers and a just distribution of the forces among them being the aim of the present war, their Imperial and Royal Majesties obligate themselves to direct their efforts toward the actual establishment of the following system in Europe, to wit:

Germany composed of sovereign princes united by a federative bond which assures and guarantees the independence of Germany.

The Swiss Confederation in its former limits and in an independence placed under the guarantee of the great powers of Europe, France included. Italy divided into independent states, intermediaries between the Austrian possessions in Italy and France.

Spain governed by King Ferdinand VII in its former limits.

Holland, free and independent state, under the sovereignty of the Prince of  Orange, with an increase of territory and the establishment of a suitable frontier.

The high confederated parties agree, in execution of article 15 of the open treaty, to invite the accession to the present treaty of defensive alliance of  the monarchies of Spain, Portugal, Sweden, and His Royal Highness the Prince of Orange, and to admit to it likewise other sovereigns and states according to the exigency of the case.

Considering the necessity which may exist after the conclusion of a defensive treaty of peace with France, to keep in the field during a certain

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time sufficient forces to protect the arrangements which the allies must make among themselves for the re-establishment of the situation of  Europe, the high confederated powers have decided to concert among themselves, not only over the necessity, but over the sum and the distribution of the forces to be kept upon foot, according to the need of the circumstances. None of the high confederated powers shall be required to furnish forces, for the purpose set forth above, during m ore than one year, without its express and voluntary consent, and England shall be at liberty to furnish its contingent in the manner stipulated in article 9.

2. Treaty of Tordesillas

The Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded on June 7 1494 to settle the contentious matter of the possession of the newly discovered lands of the non Christian world between Portugal and Spain. It was ratified by Spain on July 2, 1494. and by Portugal on September 5, 1494.

The judiciary precedent of the treaty was the Inter Caetera Papal Bull, issued on May 4, 1493 by the Spanish Pope Alexander VI. The Inter Caetera Bull fixed the demarcation line along a circle passing 100 leagues W of the Cape Verde Islands and through the two poles. This division gave the entire New World to Spain and Africa and India to Portugal. The margin of the maneuver given to Portugal by the papal bull was small.

The Treaty of Tordesillas shifted the demarcation line to a circle passing 370 leagues West of the Cape Verde Islands and thus set the legal base for the colonization of the eastern coast of the land now known as Brazil by the Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvarez Cabral. He landed there on April 22, 1500 claimed the land and named it:Tierra da Vera Cruz (land of the true cross).

Translation of the Treaty

Don Ferdinand and Dona Isabella, by the grace of God king and queen of  Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, Toledo, Valencia, Galiciaj Majorca Seville, Sardinia, Cordova, Corsica, Murcia, Jaen, Algarve, Algeciras, Gibraltar, and the Canary Islands, count and countess of Barcelona, lord and lady of Biscay and Molina, duke and duchess of Athens and Neopatras, count and countess of Roussillon and Cerdagne, marquis and marchioness of Oristano and Gociano, together with the Prince Don John, our very dear and very beloved first-born son, heir of our aforesaid kingdoms and lordships. Whereas by Don Enrique Enriques, our chief steward, Don Gutierre de Cardenas, chief commissary of Leon, our chief auditor, and Doctor Rodrigo Maldonado, all members of our council, it was treated, adjusted, and agreed for us and in our name and by virtue of our power with the most serene Dom John, by the grace of God, king of Portugal and of the Algarves on this side and beyond the sea in Africa, lord of Guinea, our very dear and very beloved brother, and with Ruy de Sousa, lord of 

Sagres and Berenguel, Dom Joao de Sousa, his son, chief inspector of  weights and measures of the said Most Serene K ing our brother, and Ayres de Almada, magistrate of the civil cases in his court and member of his desembargo, all members of the council of the aforesaid Most Serene King our brother, [and acting] in his name and by virtue of his power, his ambassadors, who came to us in regard to the controversy over what part belongs to us and what part to the said Most Serene King our brother, of  that which up to this seventh day of the present month of June, the date of  this instrument, is discovered in the ocean sea, in which said agreement our aforesaid representatives promised among other things that within a certain term specified in it we should sanction, confirm, swear to, ratify, and approve the above-mentioned agreement in person: we, wishing to fulfill and fulfilling all that which was thus adjusted, agreed upon, and authorized in our name in regard to the above-mentioned, ordered the said instrument of the aforesaid agreement and treaty to be brought before us that we might see and examine it, the tenor of which, word for word, is as follows:

Inthe name of God Almighty, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, three truly  separate and distinct persons and only one divine essence. Be it manifest  and known to all who shall see this public instrument, that at the village of  Tordesillas, on the seventh day of the month of June, in the year of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ 1494, in the presence of us, the secretaries, clerks, and notaries public subscribed below, there being present the honorable Don Enrique Enriques, chief steward of the very exalted and very  mighty princes, the lord and lady Don Ferdinand and Dona Isabella, by the grace of God king and queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, etc., Don Gutierre de Cardenas, chief auditor of the said lords, the king and  queen, and Doctor Rodrigo Maldonado, all members of the council of the said lords, the king and queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, etc., their qualified representatives of the one part, and the honorable Ruy de Sousa, lord of Sagres and Berenguel, Dom Juan de Sousa, his son, chief  inspector of weights and measures of the very exalted and very excellent  lord Dom John, by the grace of God king of Portugal and of the Algarves on this side and beyond the sea in Africa, lord of Guinea, and Ayres de Almada, magistrate of civil cases in his court and member of his desembargo, all of  the council of the said lord King of Portugal, and his qualified ambassadors and representatives, as was proved by both the said parties by means of the letters of authorization and procurations from the said lords their  constituents, the tenor of which, word for word, is as follows:

[Here follow the full powers granted by Ferdinand and Isabella to Don Enrique Enriques, Don Gutierre de Cardenas, and Dr. Rodrigo Maldonado on  June 5, 1494; and the full powers granted by John II. to Ruy de Sousa, Joao

de Sousa, and Ayres Almada on March 8, 1494.]

"Thereupon it was declared by the above-mentioned representatives of the aforesaid King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, etc., and  of the aforesaid King of Portugal and the Algarves, etc.:

[I.] That, whereas a certain controversy exists between the said lords, their  constituents, as to what lands, of all those discovered in the ocean sea up to the present day, the date of this treaty, pertain to each one of the said parts respectively; therefore, for the sake of peace and concord, and for the  preservation of the relationship and love of the said King of Portugal for the

said King and Queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., it being the pleasure of their  Highnesses, they, their said representatives, acting in their name and by  virtue of their powers herein described, covenanted and agreed that a boundary or straight line be determined and drawn north and south, from  pole to pole, on t he said ocean sea, from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole. This boundary or line shall be drawn straight, as aforesaid, at a distance of  three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, being calculated by degrees, or by any other manner as may be considered the best and readiest, provided the distance shall be no greater than abovesaid.  And all lands, both islands and mainlands, found and discovered already, or 

to be found and discovered hereafter, by the said King of Portugal and by  his vessels on this side of the said line and bound determined as above, toward the east, in either north or south latitude, on the eastern side of the said bound provided the said bound is not crossed, shall belong to, and  remain in the possession of, and pertain forever to, the said King of  Portugal and his successors. And all other lands, both islands and  mainlands, found or to be found hereafter, discovered or to be discovered  hereafter, which have been discovered or shall be discovered by the said  King and Queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., and by their vessels, on the western side of the said bound, determined as above, after having passed the said  bound toward the west, in either its north or south latitude, shall belong to, and remain in the possession of, and pertain forever to, the said King and  Queen of Castile, Leon, etc., and to their s uccessors.

[2.] Item, the said representatives promise and affirm by virtue of the  powers aforesaid, that from this d ate no ships shall be despatched-namely 

as follows: the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., for this  part of the bound, and its eastern side, on this side the said bound, which  pertains to the said King of Portugal and the Algarves, etc.; nor the said 

King of Portugal to the other part of the said bound which pertains to the said King and Queen of Castile, Aragon, etc.-for the purpose of discovering and seeking any mainlands or islands, or for the purpose of trade, barter, or  conquest of any kind. But should it come to pass that the said ships of the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., on sailing thus on this side of the said bound, should discover any mainlands or islands in the region pertaining, as abovesaid, to the said King of Portugal, such mainlands or islands shall pertain to and belong forever to the said King of  Portugal and his heirs, and their Highnesses shall order them to be surrendered to him immediately. And if the said ships of the said King of  Portugal discover any islands and mainlands in the regions of the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., all such lands shall belong to and  remain forever in the possession of the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., and their heirs, and the said King of Portugal shall cause such lands to be surrendered immediately.

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made straight and as nearly as possible the said distance of three hundred  and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, as hereinbefore stated, the said representatives of both the said parties agree and assent that  within the ten months immediately following the date of this treaty their  said constituent lords shall despatch two or four caravels, namely, one or  two by each one of them, a greater or less number, as they may mutually  consider necessary. These vessels shall meet at the Grand Canary Island  during this time, and each one of the said parties shall send certain persons in them, to wit, pilots, astrologers, sailors, and any others they may deem desirable. But there must be as many on one side as on the other, and  certain of the said pilots, astrologers, sailors, and others of those sent by  the said King and Queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., and who are experienced, shall embark in the ships of the said King of Portugal and the Algarves; in like manner certain of the said persons sent by the said King of Portugal  shall embark in the ship or ships of the said King and Queen of Castile,  Aragon, etc.; a like number in each case, so that they may jointly study and 

examine to better advantage the sea, courses, winds, and the degrees of  the sun or of north latitude, and lay out the leagues aforesaid, in order that, in determining the line and boundary, all sent and empowered by both the said parties in the said vessels, shall jointly concur. These said vessels shall  continue their course together to the said Cape Verde Islands, from whence they shall lay a direct course to the west, to the distance of the said three hundred and seventy degrees, measured as the said persons shall agree, and measured without prejudice to the said parties. When this point is reached, such point will constitute the place and mark for measuring degrees of the sun or of north latitude either by daily runs measured in leagues, or in any other manner that shall mutually be deemed better. This said line shall be drawn north and south as aforesaid, from the said Arctic  pole to the said Antarctic pole. And when this line has been determined as abovesaid, those sent by each of the aforesaid parties, to whom each one of the said parties must delegate his own authority and power, to determine the said mark and bound, shall draw up a writing concerning it  and affix thereto their signatures. And when determined by the mutual  consent of all of them, this line shall be considered as a perpetual mark and  bound, in such wise that the said parties, or either of them, or their future successors, shall be unable to deny it, or erase or remove it, at any time or  in any manner whatsoever. And should, perchance, the said line and bound   from pole to pole, as aforesaid, intersect any island or mainland, at the first   point of such intersection of such island or mainland by the said line, some

kind of mark or tower shall be erected, and a succession of similar marks shall be erected in a straight line from such mark or tower, in a line identical  with the above-mentioned bound. These marks shall separate those  portions of such land belonging to each one of the said parties; and the subjects of the said parties shall not dare, on either side, to enter the territory of the other, by crossing the said mark or bound in such island or  mainland.

[4.] Item, inasmuch as the said ships of the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., sailing as before declared, from their kingdoms and  seigniories to their said possessions on the other side of the said line, must  cross the seas on this side of the line, pertaining to the said King of 

Portugal, it is therefore concerted and agreed that the said ships of the said  King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., shall, at any time and  without any hindrance, sail in either direction, freely, securely, and   peacefully, over the said seas of the said King of Portugal, and within the said line. And whenever their Highnesses and their successors wish to do so, and deem it expedient, their said ships may take their courses and routes direct from their kingdoms to any region within their line and bound to which they desire to despatch expeditions of discovery, conquest, and trade. They shall take their courses direct to the desired region and for any   purpose desired therein, and shall not leave their course, unless compelled  to do so by contrary weather. They shall do this provided that, before crossing the said line, they shall not seize or take possession of anything discovered in his said region by the said King of Portugal; and should their  said ships find anything before crossing the said line, as aforesaid, it shall  belong to the said King of Portugal, and their Highnesses shall order it  surrendered immediately. And since it is possible that the ships and subjects of the said King and Queen of Castile, Leon, etc., or those acting in their  name, may discover before the twentieth day of this present month of June,  following the date of this treaty, some islands and mainlands within the said line, drawn straight from pole to pole, that is to say, inside the said  three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, as aforesaid, it is hereby agreed and determined, in order to remove all doubt, that all such islands and mainlands found and discovered in any manner  whatsoever up to the said twentieth day of this said month of June, although found by ships and subjects of the said King and Queen of Castile,  Aragon, etc., shall pertain to and remain forever in the possession of the said King of Portugal and the Algarves, and of his successors and kingdoms,  provided that they l ie within the first two hundred and fifty leagues of the said three hundred and seventy leagues reckoned west of the Cape Verde Islands to the above-mentioned line-in whatsoever part, even to the said   poles, of the said two hundred and fifty leagues they may be found, determining a boundary or straight line from pole to pole, where the said  two hundred and fifty leagues end. Likewise all the islands and mainlands  found and discovered up to the said twentieth day of this present month of   June by the ships and subjects of the said King and Queen of Castile,  Aragon, etc., or in any other manner, within the other one hundred and  twenty leagues that still remain of the said three hundred and seventy  leagues where the said bound that is to be drawn from pole to pole, as aforesaid, must be determined, and in whatever part of the said one hundred and twenty leagues, even to the said poles,-they that are found up to the said day shall pertain to and remain forever in the possession of the said King and Queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., and of their successors and  kingdoms; just as whatever is or shall be found on the other side of the said  three hundred and seventy leagues pertaining to their Highnesses, as aforesaid, is and must be theirs, although the said one hundred and twenty  leagues are within the said bound of the said three hundred and seventy  leagues pertaining to the said King of Portugal, the Algarves, etc., as aforesaid.

 And if, up to the said twentieth day of this said month of June, no lands are discovered by the said ships of their Highnesses within the said one hundred  and twenty leagues, and are discovered after the expiration of that time,

then they shall pertain to the said King of Portugal as is set forth in the above.

The said Don Enrique Enriques, chief steward, Don Gutierre de Cardenas, chief auditor, and Doctor Rodrigo Maldonado, representatives of the said  very exalted and very mighty princes, the lord and lady, the king and queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, etc., by virtue of their said power, which is incorporated above, and the said Ruy de Sousa, Dom Joao de Sousa, his son, and Arias de Almadana, representatives and ambassadors of  the said very exalted and very excellent prince, the lord king of Portugal and  of the Algarves on this side and beyond the sea in Africa, lord of Guinea, by  virtue of their said power, which is incorporated above, promised, and  affirmed, in the name of their said constituents, [saying that they and their  successors and kingdoms and lordships, forever and ever, would keep, observe, and fulfill, really and effectively, renouncing all fraud, evasion, deceit, falsehood, and pretense, everything set forth in this treaty, and each  part and parcel of it; and they desired and authorized that everything set   forth in this said agreement and every part and parcel of it be observed,  fulfilled, and performed as everything which is set forth in the treaty of   peace concluded and ratified between the said lord and lady, the king and  queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., and the lord Dom Alfonso, king of Portugal  (may he rest in glory) and the said king, the present ruler of Portugal, his son, then prince in the former year of 1479, must be observed, fulfilled, and   performed, and under those same penalties, bonds, securities, and  obligations, in accordance with and in the manner set forth in the said  treaty of peace. Also they bound themselves [by the promise]that neither  the said parties nor any of them nor their successors forever should violate or oppose that which is abovesaid and specified, nor any part or parcel of it, directly or indirectly, or in any other manner at any time, or in any manner  whatsoever, premeditated or not premeditated, or that may or can be, under the penalties set forth in the said agreement of the said peace; and  whether the fine be paid or not paid, or graciously remitted, that this obligation, agreement, and treaty shall continue in force and remain firm, stable, and valid forever and ever. That thus they will keep, observe,  perform, and pay everything, the said representatives, acting in the name of their said constituents, pledged the property, movable and real,  patrimonial and fiscal, of each of their respective parties, and of their 

subjects and vassals, possessed and to be possessed. They renounced all  laws and rights of which the said parties or either of them might take advantage to violate or oppose the foregoing or any part of it; and for the greater security and stability of the aforesaid, they swore before God and  the Blessed Mary and upon the sign of the Cross, on which they placed their  right hands, and upon the words of the Holy Gospels, wheresoever they are written at greatest length, and on the consciences of their said constituents, that they, jointly and severally, will keep, observe, and fulfill all the aforesaid and each part and parcel of it, really and effectively, renouncing all fraud, evasion, deceit, falsehood, and pretense, and that they will not  contradict it at any time or in any manner. And under the same oath they  swore not to seek absolution or release from it from our most Holy Father  or from any other legate or prelate who could give it to them. And even though, proprio motu, it should be given to them, they will not make use of  it; rather, by this present agreement, they, acting in the said name, entreat 

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this said agreement, according to what is set forth therein; and that he order his bulls in regard to it to be issued to the parties or to whichever of  the parties may solicit them, with the tenor of this agreement incorporated  therein, and that he lay his censures upon those who shall violate or oppose it at any time whatsoever. Likewise, the said representatives, acting in the said names, bound themselves under the same penalty and oath, that  within the one hundred days next following, reckoned from the day of the date of this agreement, the parties would mutually exchange the approbation and ratification of this said agreement, written on parchment, signed with the names of the said lords, their constituents, and sealed with their hanging leaden seals; and that the instrument which the said lords, the king and queen of Castile, Aragon, etc., should have to issue, must be signed, agreed to, and sanctioned by the very noble and most illustrious lord, Prince Don Juan, their son. Of all the foregoing they authorized two copies, both of the same tenor exactly, which they signed with their names and executed before the undersigned secretaries and notaries public, one  for each party. And whichever copy is produced, it shall be as valid as if 

both the copies which were made and executed in the said town of  Tordesillas, on the said day, month, and year aforesaid, should be  produced. The chief deputy, Don Enrique, Ruy de Sousa, Dom Juan de Sousa, Doctor Rodrigo Maldonado, Licentiate Ayres. Witnesses who were  present and who saw the said representatives and ambassadors sign their 

names here and execute the aforesaid, and take the said oath: The deputy  Pedro de Leon and the deputy Fernando de Torres, residents of the town of  Valladolid, the deputy Fernando de Gamarra, deputy of Zagra and Cenete, contino of the house of the said king and queen, our lords, and Joao Suares de Sequeira, Ruy Leme, and Duarte Pacheco, continos of the house of the said King of Portugal, summoned for that purpose. And I, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, secretary of the king and queen, our lords, member of their  council, and their scrivener of the high court of justice, and notary public in their court and throughout their realms and lordships, witnessed all the aforesaid, together with the said witnesses and with Estevan Vaez, secretary of the said King of Portugal, who by the authority given him by  the said king and queen, our lords, to certify to this act in their kingdoms, also witnessed the abovesaid; and at the request and with the authorization of all the said representatives and ambassadors, who in my   presence and his here signed their names, I caused this public instrument of  agreement to be written. It is written on these six leaves of paper, in entire sheets, written on both sides, together with this leaf, which contains the names of the aforesaid persons and my sign; and the bottom of every page is marked with the notarial mark of my name and that of the said Estevan Vaez. And in witness I here make my sign, which is thus. In testimony of  truth: Fernando Alvarez. And I, the said Estevan Vaez (who by the authority  given me by the said lords, the king and queen of Castile, and of Leon, to make it public throughout their kingdoms and lordships, together with the said Fernando Alvarez, at the request and summons of the said  ambassadors and representatives witnessed everything), in testimony and  assurance thereof signed it here with my public sign, which is thus. The said deed of treaty, agreement, and concord, above incorporated, having been examined and understood by us and by the said Prince Don

 John, our son, we approve, commend, confirm, execute, and ratify it, and  we promise to keep, observe, and fulfill all the abovesaid that is set forth therein, and every part and parcel of it, really and effectively. We renounce all fraud, evasion, falsehood, and pretense, and we shall not violate or  oppose it, or any part of it, at any time or in any manner whatsoever. For  greater security, we and the said prince Don John, our son, swear before God and Holy Mary, and by the words of the Holy Gospels, wheresoever  they are written at greatest length, and upon the sign of the Cross upon which we actually placed our right hands, in the presence of the said Ruy de Sousa, Dom Joao de Sousa, and Licentiate Ayres de Almada, ambassadors and representatives of the said Most Serene King of Portugal, our brother, thus to keep, observe, and fulfill it, and every part and parcel of it, so far as it is incumbent upon us, really and effectively, as is abovesaid, for ourselves and for our heirs and successors, and for our said kingdoms and lordships, and the subjects and natives of them, under the penalties and obligations, bonds and abjurements set forth in the said contract of agreement and  concord above written. In attestation and corroboration whereof, we sign our name to this our letter and order it to be sealed with our leaden seal'  hanging by threads of colored silk. Given in the town of Arevalo, on the second day of the month of July, in the year of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, 1494.

I, THE KING. I, THE QUEEN. I, THE PRINCE.

I, FERNANDO ALVAREZ de Toledo, secretary of the king and of the queen, our lords, have caused it t o be written by their mandate.

3. The Holy Alliance Treaty-September 26, 1815

This treaty, drawn up by Tsar Alexander, reflects the return to conservative politics in Europe after the long struggle against Revolutionary and Imperial France. It was subsequently acceded to by all the monarchs of Europe except the King of Great Britain, who declined to sign on constitutional grounds, Pope Pius VII, who refused to treat with Protestant monarchs, and the Sultan of Turkey. Both Castlereagh and Metternich dismissed the wording of treaty as largely meaningless, and it had little influence on the policies of the signatories.

The treaty of Holy Alliance

THEIR Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of settling the steps to be

observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our Saviour teaches:

Government and Political Relations

They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to  publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both in the administration of their respective States, and in their political relations with every other Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of that  Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace, which, far from being applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the  following Articles:

 ART. I. Principles of Christian Religion:Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures, which command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble fraternity, and considering each other as fellow  countrymen, they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid  and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and  armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit of   fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace, and   Justice.

 ART. II. Fraternity and Affection: In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely designated by  Providence to govern three branches of the One family, namely, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, thus confessing that the Christian world, of which they  and their people form a part, has in reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love, science, and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our  Divine Saviour, the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace, which arise from a good  conscience, and which alone is more durable, to strengthen themselves

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the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.

 ART. III.  Accession of Foreign Powers- All the powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.

Done in triplicate, and signed at Paris, the year of Grace 1815, 14/26th September.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

International organizations (IOs) serve as crucial forces of coordination and cooperation on many political, economic, social, military and cultural issues. Aside from the traditional domination of international politics by established or recently codified nation-states, IOs are important participants of the international system. The growth of transnational IOs was greatly facilitated by the rise of an increasing number of  tenuous networks of nation-states in political, economic, and financial affairs in early modern Europe. They began to proliferate in the course of the nineteenth century. As will be seen, the United States first participated in the development of IOs in a relatively minor way in the first two decades after the Civil War and in a more important way when American statesmen attended the Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907. For much of the twentieth century the United States remained a leading proponent of the formation and development of IOs. Washington was even instrumental in the creation of two of the most important IOs ever: the League of Nations founded in 1919 after World War I and the United Nations established in 1945 at the end of World War II.

The breakdown of the international system in the 1910s and late 1930s and the global bloodshed, devastation, and unsurpassed misery brought about by two world wars convinced the international community, led by the United States and Britain, of the urgency for the establishment of a new universal and cooperative order. In the course of World War II traditional American political isolationism was marginalized to a considerable degree. Beginning with the Atlantic Charter of 1941 and continuing with the 1944 Dumbarton Oaks and Bretton Woods conferences, the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 and the formation of many other international political and economic institutions, the pillars for a new multilateral order were created. The Cold War soon added another dimension to this, which led to the shelving of the dream of a new cooperative world order for more than four decades: the politics and culture of  bipolar containment. Genuine multilateralism was sidelined during much of the second half of the twentieth century. Instead international institutions, in particular the

General Assembly of the United Nations, were frequently exploited as a mere talking shop and a forum for ventilating hostile rhetoric.

From the mid-1970s, however, a cautious revival of  multilateralism, in the form of the Helsinki process inaugurated in 1975, may even have contributed to hastening the end of the Cold War in 1989 –1991. The dangers of an everincreasing nuclear arms race, as well as economic and financial globalization and, paradoxically, the simultaneous development of a politically and culturally ever more fragmented world, once again gave IOs a crucial role as a forum for consultation, mediation, and arbitration. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries not only globalization and fragmentation but also the influence of  more sophisticated means of transportation and communication and the increasingly transnational character of military, political, and environmental conflicts posed entirely new challenges. Despite recurrent bouts of political isolationism, the United States—like most other countries—recognized the impossibility of addressing contemporary problems merely on a nation-state basis. After the end of the East-West conflict and the gradual realignment of  eastern and western Europe, this led to the formation of a host of new international organizations and institutions. Yet in the post –Cold War era the policies of the United States toward international organizations remained ambiguous; a widespread revival of both isolationism and unilateralism could be observed. However, the unprecedented terrorist attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001 had a fundamental impact on American political strategy. In the immediate wake of the attack no one could say whether it would result in the abandonment of unilateralism, but many policy analysts believed that it might well lead to a much greater American reengagement with international organizations to fight global terrorism. Intellectually the development of IOs was rooted in Immanuel Kant's eighteenth-century insight that only the "pacific federation" of liberal democratic, interdependent, and lawful republics could overcome the inherent anarchy of  the international system, as described by Thomas Hobbes, and therefore the permanent danger of the outbreak of war. While Hobbes believed that a strong authoritarian state and the balance of power among the world's greatest powers could rectify this situation and provide lasting international security, Kant was not convinced. He was in favor of the establishment of peace-creating confederations and thus, in effect, of bringing about the interdependence of  nation-states. Over time these insights developed into the contemporary conviction that interdependent democratic states will hardly ever embark on military action against one another. Democracy and cooperative multilateralism within (but also outside) international organizations were thus seen as the best vehicles for the creation of a more stable and peaceful world.

What Are International Organizations?

In general international organizations are based on multilateral treaties between at least two sovereign nation-states. The formation of an initially fairly loose bond among the participants is generally fortified by the development of more or less stringent institutional structures and organs to pursue certain more or less clearly defined common aims in the international arena. IOs can either have

a global or a regional character, with the latter in general displaying a more centralized structure due to the limited number of regional state actors available. While many IOs are singleissue organizations, others focus their attention on a multitude of issues. IOs can either be open to new members or consist of a closed system. On occasion IOs are established for a certain duration as specified in their respective charters, but more often than not no time restriction is applied.

In some of the older literature IOs tend to be subdivided into political and apolitical organizations, the former referring to military and political alliances to further the power of their member states and the latter referring to organizations dealing with mere administrative and technical issues. However, in the last few decades of the twentieth century many of the allegedly technical and "apolitical" suborganizations of the United Nations (for example, the Atomic Energy Commission and the World Health Organization), as well as such wideranging entities as the International Olympic Committee, the International Monetary Fund, and even many large multinational corporations, developed into highly politicized organizations with a multitude of political aims. The differentiation between political and technical IOs is therefore unhelpful. It makes much more sense to differentiate between international governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations, NATO, the IMF, and the World Bank, to name some of the best-known ones, and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) like Amnesty International and the International Red Cross. Although estimates differ profoundly, at the turn of the twenty-first century at least five hundred IGOs and eleven thousand INGOs were in existence. They were organized in the Union of International Organizations (founded 1907), which is based in Brussels and publishes the annual Yearbook of  International Organizations.

While INGOs help to clarify international rules and regulations that enable at least two societal actors (parties, issue groups, unions, associations, international businesses, and corporations) to cooperate in the coordination of  certain specified transnational and cross-border issues, IGOs, with which this essay is mostly concerned, are based on the cooperation of nation-states. An IGO is usually based on a multilateral treaty of two or more sovereign nation-states for the pursuit of certain common aims in the international arena. It is helpful to differentiate between supranational or semi-supranational IGOs, like the European Union, or looser confederations of states and nonsupranational IGOs, like the United Nations and NATO. While the former limit the sovereignty of the participating nations to a lesser or greater degree, the latter normally do not infringe on the sovereignty of their member states; they therefore tend to have only a limited degree of influence over their members. Despite the equality of recognized nation-states in international law, in fact a hierarchy of power and influence exists even within nonsupranational IGOs. The UN Security Council, dominated by its five permanent members, as well as the IMF, the World Bank, and many other IOs, are all dominated by the established great powers, not least on account of their political and military influence and capabilities as well as their financial and economic clout. With the exception of China and Russia, the influential powers of the early twenty-first century all come from the ranks of  the West.