Polity

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Srila Roy

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IN MEMORIAM IN MEMORIAM

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POLITY POLITY

Vol. 6 No. 1 & 2

May-August 2011

Edi Editortorss Jayadeva Uyangoda Jayadeva Uyangoda Kumari Jayawardena Kumari Jayawardena Executi

Executive ve Editor Editor and and Circulation Manager Circulation Manager

Rasika Chandrasekera Rasika Chandrasekera

Editor

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COMMENTARY

S

ri Lanka’s political debate on the ethnicri Lanka’s political debate on the ethnic questions seems to continue with no questions seems to continue with no consensus among political forces as to the consensus among political forces as to the nature of the post-civil war state. It appears nature of the post-civil war state. It appears that history is repeating itself, with old that history is repeating itself, with old prejudices, mistrust and ideologies prejudices, mistrust and ideologies re-emerging and shaping how ethnic elites emerging and shaping how ethnic elites approach the questions of political

approach the questions of political reform.reform. Two key ideas seem to frame the terms of Two key ideas seem to frame the terms of the debate. The UPFA government and the the debate. The UPFA government and the TNA are the protagonists of these ideas TNA are the protagonists of these ideas that have shaped two contending that have shaped two contending perspectives.According to the perspectives.According to the governme-nt’s understanding, Sri Lanka’s ethnic nt’s understanding, Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict no longer exists. With the military conflict no longer exists. With the military defeat of the LTTE in May 2009, the defeat of the LTTE in May 2009, the ‘terrorism’ problem has been resolved. The ‘terrorism’ problem has been resolved. The task now is to focus on economic and task now is to focus on economic and infrastructure development in the North infrastructure development in the North and East. The government’s strategy for and East. The government’s strategy for nation-building in the post-war context is nation-building in the post-war context is to give priority to economic integration of to give priority to economic integration of the North with the rest

the North with the rest of the country.of the country. The TNA, in contrast, gives primacy to The TNA, in contrast, gives primacy to thethe politics of the ethnic conflict. It wants the politics of the ethnic conflict. It wants the government to recognize the centrality of government to recognize the centrality of political demands of Tamils for regional political demands of Tamils for regional autonomy. Expanding the existing autonomy. Expanding the existing devolution framework through giving more devolution framework through giving more powers to provincial councils – as powers to provincial councils – as envisaged in the formula called ‘Thirteenth envisaged in the formula called ‘Thirteenth Amendment plus’ – is the core demand of Amendment plus’ – is the core demand of the TNA.

the TNA.

In recent months, there have been talks In recent months, there have been talks between the UPFA government and the between the UPFA government and the TNA to arrive at a compromise on the TNA to arrive at a compromise on the question of how Sri Lanka’s post-civil war question of how Sri Lanka’s post-civil war political trajectory should be mapped out. political trajectory should be mapped out. Not surprisingly, talks have not produced Not surprisingly, talks have not produced any positive outcome. As repeatedly any positive outcome. As repeatedly happened in past negotiations, too, the two happened in past negotiations, too, the two

POLITICAL REFORM AFTER WAR

sides have only discovered in talks how sides have only discovered in talks how sharp and perhaps unbridgeable their sharp and perhaps unbridgeable their differences are.

differences are.

The government is also under continuing The government is also under continuing international pressure to work out a political international pressure to work out a political settlement in cooperation with the TNA. settlement in cooperation with the TNA. India, the USA and the EU countries are India, the USA and the EU countries are the source of this international pressure. the source of this international pressure. Issues of accountability and investigations Issues of accountability and investigations into human rights and humanitarian issues into human rights and humanitarian issues occurred during the last months of the war occurred during the last months of the war is also another key area of continuing is also another key area of continuing international concern. The government’s international concern. The government’s initial strategy of ignoring this largely initial strategy of ignoring this largely W

Western pressure seems to estern pressure seems to have exhaustedhave exhausted its efficacy. Although the West may be its efficacy. Although the West may be getting increasingly preoccupied with Libya getting increasingly preoccupied with Libya and Syria, Sri Lanka may not disappear from and Syria, Sri Lanka may not disappear from its agenda of concerns.

its agenda of concerns.

The prudent option for the UPFA The prudent option for the UPFA government is to work on the reform front government is to work on the reform front through stages. The withdrawal of the through stages. The withdrawal of the Emergency is, to use a cliché, a step in the Emergency is, to use a cliché, a step in the right direction. The government would of right direction. The government would of course be ill-advised if it tries to bring course be ill-advised if it tries to bring through the backdoor into normal law some through the backdoor into normal law some of the emergency provisions. Eventual of the emergency provisions. Eventual relaxati

relaxation and withdrawaon and withdrawal of the PTl of the PTA A wouldwould also help the government to restore also help the government to restore democratic normalcy in the

democratic normalcy in the countrycountry.. Balancing democracy and national security Balancing democracy and national security may be a difficult challenge. Yet, the may be a difficult challenge. Yet, the credibility of the government will largely credibility of the government will largely depend on its capacity and

depend on its capacity and willingness forwillingness for democratic normalization in the post-civil democratic normalization in the post-civil war transition to peace.

war transition to peace.

It is in this context that the question of It is in this context that the question of political reform assumes greater salience. political reform assumes greater salience. Past experience shows that the incapacity Past experience shows that the incapacity of regimes to reform the state has led to a of regimes to reform the state has led to a

continuing crisis of the state, ultimately continuing crisis of the state, ultimately leading to the separatist civil war. There leading to the separatist civil war. There were excuses before and durin

were excuses before and during the war notg the war not to reform the Sri Lankan state to address to reform the Sri Lankan state to address minority political demands. If new excuses minority political demands. If new excuses are produced in the absence of the LTTE are produced in the absence of the LTTE and the civil war threat to the state, it is and the civil war threat to the state, it is likely that history will repeat itself in that likely that history will repeat itself in that sphere as well, in some

sphere as well, in some new forms.new forms.

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he Centre for Policy Alternatives (CPA) welcomes thehe Centre for Policy Alternatives (CPA) welcomes the announcement made by the President to Parliament on announcement made by the President to Parliament on 25th August 2011 that the government will not be seeking 25th August 2011 that the government will not be seeking anan extension to the state of emergency when it lapses by extension to the state of emergency when it lapses by operation of law in September. Since the end of the war in operation of law in September. Since the end of the war in 2009, the need for an expeditious termination of the state of 2009, the need for an expeditious termination of the state of emergency has been a key concern of civil society. For a emergency has been a key concern of civil society. For a generation of Sri Lankans, the state of emergency has been generation of Sri Lankans, the state of emergency has been the norm rather than the exception, and this has had a the norm rather than the exception, and this has had a debilitating impact on democracy, governance and the debilitating impact on democracy, governance and the enjoyment of freedom.

enjoyment of freedom.

It is pertinent to recall here the deeper political problems that It is pertinent to recall here the deeper political problems that resulted in extra-institutional and armed challenges to the resulted in extra-institutional and armed challenges to the authority of the state since the 1970s, which in turn authority of the state since the 1970s, which in turn necessitated the use of these powers for protracted periods. necessitated the use of these powers for protracted periods. T

Terrorism and other violent methods, while wholerrorism and other violent methods, while wholly deplorable,ly deplorable, need to be understood in the context of their causes, and in need to be understood in the context of their causes, and in post-war Sri Lanka we are yet to overcome the political post-war Sri Lanka we are yet to overcome the political challenges of securing peace, unity and diversity through a challenges of securing peace, unity and diversity through a more equitable sharing of power and through a consolidation more equitable sharing of power and through a consolidation of democracy under the rule of law. We are firmly of the of democracy under the rule of law. We are firmly of the view that without addressing these underlying issues relating view that without addressing these underlying issues relating directly to the democratic legitimacy of the state, conflicts directly to the democratic legitimacy of the state, conflicts necessitating the reintroduction of states of emergency are necessitating the reintroduction of states of emergency are likely to arise again. The positive aspects of the termination likely to arise again. The positive aspects of the termination of the state of emergency therefore need to be viewed against of the state of emergency therefore need to be viewed against a broader historical, political and constitutional context, and a broader historical, political and constitutional context, and of particular importance in this regard is the urgent need for of particular importance in this regard is the urgent need for a new post-war constitutional sett

a new post-war constitutional settlement that can ensure thatlement that can ensure that the causes of past conflict are not reproduced in the future. the causes of past conflict are not reproduced in the future. We call upon the government to approach this fundamental We call upon the government to approach this fundamental challenge with sincerity, magnanimity and seriousness of challenge with sincerity, magnanimity and seriousness of purpose, and with a more tolerant appreciation of Sri

purpose, and with a more tolerant appreciation of Sri Lanka’Lanka’ss plural society than has characterized its efforts in this regard plural society than has characterized its efforts in this regard so far.

so far.

The relaxation of the state of emergency is also an opportunit The relaxation of the state of emergency is also an opportunityy to revisit the serious deficiencies of the constitutional and to revisit the serious deficiencies of the constitutional and legal framework in relation to emergency and anti-terrorism legal framework in relation to emergency and anti-terrorism

powers that we have experienced in the last four decades. powers that we have experienced in the last four decades. The present procedural and substantive framework of The present procedural and substantive framework of emergency powers is set out in Chapter XVIII of the emergency powers is set out in Chapter XVIII of the Constitution and in the Public Security Ordinance. This Constitution and in the Public Security Ordinance. This framework fails to meet contemporary international standards framework fails to meet contemporary international standards and fundamental principles of democracy and the rule of law and fundamental principles of democracy and the rule of law in a number of respects. These include: the undefined nature in a number of respects. These include: the undefined nature of a state of emergency; the lack of legally established of a state of emergency; the lack of legally established preconditions for a declaration of an emergency; the preconditions for a declaration of an emergency; the preclusion of judicial review over several aspects of preclusion of judicial review over several aspects of emergency decision-making and executive action; the emergency decision-making and executive action; the absence of statutory substantive controls such as absence of statutory substantive controls such as proportionality on the exercise of emergency powers proportionality on the exercise of emergency powers (including Emergency Regulations which override all law (including Emergency Regulations which override all law except the constitution); the weaknesses of the procedure except the constitution); the weaknesses of the procedure for extension of a state of emergency and the general failure for extension of a state of emergency and the general failure of parliamentary and judicial oversight; and the weaknesses of parliamentary and judicial oversight; and the weaknesses of the constitutional bill of rights which allow restrictions on of the constitutional bill of rights which allow restrictions on fundamental rights without adequate safeguards consistent fundamental rights without adequate safeguards consistent with democratic standards. All these specific deficiencies in with democratic standards. All these specific deficiencies in relation to the legal regime of emergency powers need also relation to the legal regime of emergency powers need also to be understood in the broader context of the present to be understood in the broader context of the present constitution and culture of governance, in which the executive constitution and culture of governance, in which the executive presidency is given a constitutional pre-eminence at the cost presidency is given a constitutional pre-eminence at the cost of the separation of powers and checks and balances. of the separation of powers and checks and balances. Successive parliamentary oppositions have also failed to Successive parliamentary oppositions have also failed to exercise their role of scrutiny

exercise their role of scrutiny and accountability, and this hasand accountability, and this has contributed to the erosion of the regulatory framework. contributed to the erosion of the regulatory framework.

In addition, the Prevention of Terrorism Act (PTA), which In addition, the Prevention of Terrorism Act (PTA), which has been an instrument of repression ever since it was has been an instrument of repression ever since it was enacted, continues to be in force. It not only fails to meet enacted, continues to be in force. It not only fails to meet even basic standards of procedural protection for the individual even basic standards of procedural protection for the individual in relation to criminal responsibility through its provisions on in relation to criminal responsibility through its provisions on extended detention and admissibility of evidence, but also extended detention and admissibility of evidence, but also empowers restrictions on a wide number of

empowers restrictions on a wide number of other democraticother democratic liberties including the freedom of expression. It has been liberties including the freedom of expression. It has been empirically establis

empirically established that the PTA hed that the PTA directly facilitates tdirectly facilitates tortureorture and other abusive practices in Sri Lanka. The PTA has no and other abusive practices in Sri Lanka. The PTA has no place in a democrati

place in a democratic society, and CPc society, and CPA reiterates the call forA reiterates the call for its repeal and replacement with legislation that balances its repeal and replacement with legislation that balances

anti-ON THE TERMINATIanti-ON OF THE STATE OF

ON THE TERMINATION OF THE STATE OF

EMERGENCY

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terrorism powers with democratic freedoms more consistently terrorism powers with democratic freedoms more consistently with established standards, including our own constitutional with established standards, including our own constitutional values.

values.

The continuation in force of the state of emergency for The continuation in force of the state of emergency for extended periods of time during the past four decades, as extended periods of time during the past four decades, as well as conflict conditions necessitating extensive recourse well as conflict conditions necessitating extensive recourse to the PTA and Emerge

to the PTA and Emergency Regulations, have had ncy Regulations, have had a pervasivea pervasive influence on the practices and culture of governance in Sri influence on the practices and culture of governance in Sri Lanka. It is not only the executive, but also Parliament, the Lanka. It is not only the executive, but also Parliament, the courts, and indeed society as a whole, that have become courts, and indeed society as a whole, that have become accustomed to being governed under extraordinary powers, accustomed to being governed under extraordinary powers, and without legal restraints that are central to constitutional and without legal restraints that are central to constitutional democracy. Notwithstanding the welcome relaxation of the democracy. Notwithstanding the welcome relaxation of the state of emergency, therefore, the reversion of our cultu state of emergency, therefore, the reversion of our culture of re of government to a more democratic mode will require continued government to a more democratic mode will require continued commitment. Unfortunately, however, recent actions of the commitment. Unfortunately, however, recent actions of the government such as the Eighteenth Amendment to the government such as the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution and the post-war expansion of the role of the Constitution and the post-war expansion of the role of the military and defence establishment into civilian life and civil military and defence establishment into civilian life and civil administration, especially in the North and East, give rise to administration, especially in the North and East, give rise to serious concerns and belie the rhetoric of the President’s serious concerns and belie the rhetoric of the President’s statement to Parliament.

statement to Parliament.

CP

CPA also notes that thA also notes that the President’s parliamentary statemente President’s parliamentary statement did not

did not include details about the include details about the alternative arrangemalternative arrangements thatents that are contemplated by the government in relation

are contemplated by the government in relation to the mattersto the matters hitherto regulated by Emergency Regulations, which will lapse hitherto regulated by Emergency Regulations, which will lapse together with the state of emergency. These include the together with the state of emergency. These include the detention of alleged LTTE ‘surrendees’, the framework for detention of alleged LTTE ‘surrendees’, the framework for their rehabilitation, aspects of high security zones still in their rehabilitation, aspects of high security zones still in existence, and other matters. In view of the implications for existence, and other matters. In view of the implications for post-war reconciliation of many of these matters, it is post-war reconciliation of many of these matters, it is imperative that the measures the government intends taking imperative that the measures the government intends taking are made public. More generally, we would also call upon are made public. More generally, we would also call upon the government to adopt a transparent and consultative the government to adopt a transparent and consultative approach to any legislation it may

approach to any legislation it may bring in relation to nationalbring in relation to national security and terrorism in the future.

security and terrorism in the future.

While welcoming the long overdue termination of the state While welcoming the long overdue termination of the state of emergency, therefore, CPA would strongly reiterate the of emergency, therefore, CPA would strongly reiterate the critical need for continued commitment on the part of the critical need for continued commitment on the part of the government to legal and constitutional reforms that are government to legal and constitutional reforms that are imperative if, in addition to the government’s priorities of imperative if, in addition to the government’s priorities of economic development, democracy, peace, order and good economic development, democracy, peace, order and good government are to form the basis of Sri Lanka’s post-war government are to form the basis of Sri Lanka’s post-war future.

future.

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LEFT PARTIES OF UPFA FOR DEVOLUTION

Sandun

A. Jayaseker

a

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he combined Socialist Alliance (SA) yesterday stronglyhe combined Socialist Alliance (SA) yesterday strongly supported the appointment of a Parliamentary Select supported the appointment of a Parliamentary Select Committee (PSC) as a means of finding a lasting solution to Committee (PSC) as a means of finding a lasting solution to the North-East conflict and sai

the North-East conflict and said the All Party Representatived the All Party Representative Committee (APRC) report could be used as a launching pad Committee (APRC) report could be used as a launching pad to start talks.

to start talks.

Lanka Sama Samaja Party leader and senior minister Tissa Lanka Sama Samaja Party leader and senior minister Tissa Vitharana told a media conference that it was sad to see Vitharana told a media conference that it was sad to see some members of the government and the opposition having some members of the government and the opposition having a misconception that development alone could resolve the a misconception that development alone could resolve the longstanding ethnic conflict.

longstanding ethnic conflict.

“They think an ethnic conflict does not exist in post war Sri “They think an ethnic conflict does not exist in post war Sri Lanka and the problems of Tamil-speaking people, can be Lanka and the problems of Tamil-speaking people, can be resolved by constructing a road or a culvert,” the minister resolved by constructing a road or a culvert,” the minister said.

said.

He said no country could achieve sustainable development He said no country could achieve sustainable development without peace and harmony among the people and where Sri without peace and harmony among the people and where Sri Lanka was concerned peace and harmony among all ethnic Lanka was concerned peace and harmony among all ethnic groups would come only through genuine power devolution. groups would come only through genuine power devolution. “The T

“The Tamil people must be coamil people must be convinced that they are nvinced that they are part andpart and parcel of good governance,” the minister said.

parcel of good governance,” the minister said.

He said the alliance expected to talk to the constituent parties He said the alliance expected to talk to the constituent parties of the government and the opposition about the PSC and of the government and the opposition about the PSC and urged them to take part in the PSC.

urged them to take part in the PSC.

“Especially the United National Party (UNP) has a big role “Especially the United National Party (UNP) has a big role to play in this exercise.

to play in this exercise. All parties must take part in All parties must take part in the PSCthe PSC discussions and they can leave if they feel it is a futile discussions and they can leave if they feel it is a futile endeavour,” he added.

endeavour,” he added.

The minister warned that extremists both in the government The minister warned that extremists both in the government and the opposition may attempt to disrupt the functioning of and the opposition may attempt to disrupt the functioning of the PSC and added that administrative, financial and political the PSC and added that administrative, financial and political power must be devolved to the grassroots level using the power must be devolved to the grassroots level using the ‘Gam Saba’ as the base.

‘Gam Saba’ as the base.

He said the Tamil National Alliance (TNA) has received an He said the Tamil National Alliance (TNA) has received an overwhelming mandate from the Tamil-speaking people and overwhelming mandate from the Tamil-speaking people and should participate in PSC discussions with an open

should participate in PSC discussions with an open mind nowmind now that it was not a proxy of the LTTE.

that it was not a proxy of the LTTE.

Communist Party General Secretary and senior minister Communist Party General Secretary and senior minister D.E.W. Gunasekara said President Mahinda Rajapaksa had D.E.W. Gunasekara said President Mahinda Rajapaksa had gone on record saying he would accept whatever gone on record saying he would accept whatever recommendations suggested by the PSC and as such the recommendations suggested by the PSC and as such the devolving of police and land powers would not be a stumbling devolving of police and land powers would not be a stumbling block to the PSC.

block to the PSC.

“It is extremely dangerous, a suppression of reality and “It is extremely dangerous, a suppression of reality and anti-progressive if anyone thinks that the war is over and there is progressive if anyone thinks that the war is over and there is no ethnic problem and development can bring solutions to all no ethnic problem and development can bring solutions to all national problems,” the minister said.

national problems,” the minister said.

“Economic development is extremely vital but it will not fulfill “Economic development is extremely vital but it will not fulfill the aspirations of ethnic communities. All left parties from the aspirations of ethnic communities. All left parties from the 50s kept saying that the grievances of minorities have to the 50s kept saying that the grievances of minorities have to be addressed and the ‘Sinhala on

be addressed and the ‘Sinhala only’ ly’ Act will bring disastAct will bring disaster toer to the country."

the country."

Courtesy

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A

ccording to accepted historical records Buddhism wasccording to accepted historical records Buddhism was officially introduced into Sri Lanka during the reign of officially introduced into Sri Lanka during the reign of King Devanam Piyatissa, in the third century B.C. It was King Devanam Piyatissa, in the third century B.C. It was brought by the Buddhist mission headed by the Venerable brought by the Buddhist mission headed by the Venerable Thera Mahinda. It may also be noted here that the Buddhist Thera Mahinda. It may also be noted here that the Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka was one of several such missions sent mission to Sri Lanka was one of several such missions sent to different parts of the then known world by the Emperor to different parts of the then known world by the Emperor Asoka, after the conclusion of the third Buddhist Council Asoka, after the conclusion of the third Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra

held at Pataliputra under the guidance under the guidance of the Veof the Venerable Theranerable Thera Moggaliputta Tissa.

Moggaliputta Tissa.

The Buddhism which was thus introduced to Sri Lanka was The Buddhism which was thus introduced to Sri Lanka was the Buddhism of the Pali canon

the Buddhism of the Pali canon, which has been accepted as, which has been accepted as the most authentic of the records of the teachings of the the most authentic of the records of the teachings of the Buddha. The Pali tradition of Buddhism, whi

Buddha. The Pali tradition of Buddhism, which was broughtch was brought down as an oral tradition like many other textual traditions down as an oral tradition like many other textual traditions of of Indian religions, was committed to writing in

Indian religions, was committed to writing in the first centurythe first century B.C. at the Aloka Vihara in Matale during the reign of King B.C. at the Aloka Vihara in Matale during the reign of King Valagambahu and has been available in textual form ever Valagambahu and has been available in textual form ever since.

since.

In spite of the fact that the Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition has In spite of the fact that the Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition has maintained that its tradition of Buddhism is that of the Pali maintained that its tradition of Buddhism is that of the Pali canon, it is becoming increasingly difficult to accept this canon, it is becoming increasingly difficult to accept this insistence because of the gross deviations from the canonical insistence because of the gross deviations from the canonical expectations in the Ritual religion. A clarification is needed expectations in the Ritual religion. A clarification is needed here. It is clear from historical records that from the very here. It is clear from historical records that from the very first few days of the introduction of Buddh

first few days of the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka,ism to Sri Lanka, its teachings had received the attention of two sets of people. its teachings had received the attention of two sets of people. One was those who had grasped the importance of the One was those who had grasped the importance of the teachings of Buddhism and made a bold decision to attain teachings of Buddhism and made a bold decision to attain the emancipation taught by it. According to historical records, the emancipation taught by it. According to historical records, there were large numbers of such followers and the political there were large numbers of such followers and the political authorities of the period had

authorities of the period had made adequate provision to catermade adequate provision to cater to their needs at the monastic centres. It is these followers to their needs at the monastic centres. It is these followers of the path who kept the light burning on Buddhist spiritual of the path who kept the light burning on Buddhist spiritual training. The extent of the impact which this commitment training. The extent of the impact which this commitment had on the religious environment of the day can, I think, be had on the religious environment of the day can, I think, be gauged from the devotion of the famous Buddhist gauged from the devotion of the famous Buddhist commentator’s epoch-making work Visuddhimagga to a commentator’s epoch-making work Visuddhimagga to a

logical and systematic presentation of the canonical logical and systematic presentation of the canonical knowledge on spiritual training. It is pleasant to note that this knowledge on spiritual training. It is pleasant to note that this spiritual tradition is being kept alive even today by the (ranya spiritual tradition is being kept alive even today by the (ranya sen) anas and the meditation centres which have been sen) anas and the meditation centres which have been established throughout the Island, though to cater to small established throughout the Island, though to cater to small numbers.

numbers.

The second are those who

The second are those who were followers of the pre-Buddhistwere followers of the pre-Buddhist tribal religions and were content with the type

tribal religions and were content with the type of ritual-basedof ritual-based religion to which they were used. It is to cater to these that religion to which they were used. It is to cater to these that the V

the Venerable Mahinda sought to enerable Mahinda sought to bring a sapling bring a sapling of the Bodhiof the Bodhi tree and also got down relics of the Buddha which were tree and also got down relics of the Buddha which were enshrined in the stupas erected for the purpose.

enshrined in the stupas erected for the purpose.

It is difficult to und

It is difficult to understand why the Venerable Thera Mahindaerstand why the Venerable Thera Mahinda introduced ritual practices to Sri Lankan Buddhists when such introduced ritual practices to Sri Lankan Buddhists when such practices did not form part of the Pali canonical texts, the practices did not form part of the Pali canonical texts, the teachings of which his tradition claimed it adhered to. It is teachings of which his tradition claimed it adhered to. It is not difficult to find the answer to this question if we take a not difficult to find the answer to this question if we take a close look at the massive religio-ritualistic syncretism which close look at the massive religio-ritualistic syncretism which was taking place in and around the border regions of the was taking place in and around the border regions of the Mauryan empire in India at the time. Such understanding Mauryan empire in India at the time. Such understanding becomes important and highly relevant because it was able becomes important and highly relevant because it was able to bring about a complete change in the traditional Brahmanic to bring about a complete change in the traditional Brahmanic religion and in its claim of Aryanness. With the stability of religion and in its claim of Aryanness. With the stability of the central political machinery of the Mauryan Empire, there the central political machinery of the Mauryan Empire, there were no more powerful enough tribes who could be were no more powerful enough tribes who could be considered a threat to the central state. This, in other words, considered a threat to the central state. This, in other words, meant that the thousands of smaller tribal groups who lived meant that the thousands of smaller tribal groups who lived scattered in the border areas of the massive empire were scattered in the border areas of the massive empire were under no threat from the central state either, unlike the smaller under no threat from the central state either, unlike the smaller tribes of the Buddha’s day who were under threat from the tribes of the Buddha’s day who were under threat from the Kosalan or the Magadhan empires. Although the tribal lands Kosalan or the Magadhan empires. Although the tribal lands across the border regions of the empire were not in demand across the border regions of the empire were not in demand for the further expansion of the central state, the peace and for the further expansion of the central state, the peace and lack of suspicion which ensued assisted the peaceful lack of suspicion which ensued assisted the peaceful integration of the tribal peoples with the major community integration of the tribal peoples with the major community living adjacent to their lands. But, though political power or living adjacent to their lands. But, though political power or force was not used, nor needed, the expansion of the borders force was not used, nor needed, the expansion of the borders of the central state continued unhindered through peaceful of the central state continued unhindered through peaceful

SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM: MAHINDIAN HYBRID OF

PRE-BUDDHIST RELIGION

M.M.J. Marasinghe

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means, bringing with it massive transformati

means, bringing with it massive transformations, as we shallons, as we shall see.

see.

It was pioneered by the Brahmin priest who by this ti

It was pioneered by the Brahmin priest who by this time hadme had considerably declined from his sixth century B.C. prestigious considerably declined from his sixth century B.C. prestigious social position. According to Kosambi, “The Brahmins social position. According to Kosambi, “The Brahmins gradually penetrated whatever tribes and guild castes gradually penetrated whatever tribes and guild castes remained; a process that continues to this day. This meant remained; a process that continues to this day. This meant the worship of new gods, including Krishna who had driven the worship of new gods, including Krishna who had driven Indra out of the Panjab plains before Alexander’s invasion. Indra out of the Panjab plains before Alexander’s invasion. But the exclusive nature of tribal ritual and tribal cults was But the exclusive nature of tribal ritual and tribal cults was modified, the tribal deities being equated to standard Brahmin modified, the tribal deities being equated to standard Brahmin gods, or new Brahmin scriptures written for making gods, or new Brahmin scriptures written for making unassimilable gods respectable. With these new deities or unassimilable gods respectable. With these new deities or fresh identifications came new rituals as well and special fresh identifications came new rituals as well and special dates of the lunar calendar for particular observances. New dates of the lunar calendar for particular observances. New places of pilgrimage were also introduced, with suitable myths places of pilgrimage were also introduced, with suitable myths to make them respectable, though they could only h

to make them respectable, though they could only have beenave been savage, pre-Brahmin cult-spots.The Mahabharata, savage, pre-Brahmin cult-spots.The Mahabharata, Ramayana, and especially the Puranas are full of such Ramayana, and especially the Puranas are full of such material. The mechanism of the assimilation is particularly material. The mechanism of the assimilation is particularly interesting. Not only Krishna, but the Buddha himself and interesting. Not only Krishna, but the Buddha himself and some totemic deities incl

some totemic deities including the primeval Fish, Tortoise anduding the primeval Fish, Tortoise and the Boar were made into incarnations of Vishnu-Narayana. the Boar were made into incarnations of Vishnu-Narayana. The monkey-faced Hanuman, so popular with the cultivators The monkey-faced Hanuman, so popular with the cultivators as to be a peculiar god of the peasantry with an independent as to be a peculiar god of the peasantry with an independent cult of his own, becomes the faithful companion -servant of cult of his own, becomes the faithful companion -servant of Rama, another incarnation

Rama, another incarnation of Vishnu. Vof Vishnu. Vishnu-Narayana usesishnu-Narayana uses the great earth-bearing Cobra as his canopied bed to sleep the great earth-bearing Cobra as his canopied bed to sleep upon the waters; at the same time, the same cobra is Siva’s upon the waters; at the same time, the same cobra is Siva’s garland and a weapon of Ganesha. The elephant-headed garland and a weapon of Ganesha. The elephant-headed Ganesha is son to Siva or rather of Siva’s wife. Siva himself Ganesha is son to Siva or rather of Siva’s wife. Siva himself is lord of the goblins and demons, of whom many like the is lord of the goblins and demons, of whom many like the cacodemon V

cacodemon Vetala are again independenetala are again independent and highly primitt and highly primitiveive gods, still in popular, village worship. Siva’s bull Nandi was gods, still in popular, village worship. Siva’s bull Nandi was worshipped in the south Indian Neolithic age without any worshipped in the south Indian Neolithic age without any human or divine master to ride him; he appears independ human or divine master to ride him; he appears independentlyently on innumerable seals

on innumerable seals of the Indus of the Indus culture...”(D.D. Kosambi,culture...”(D.D. Kosambi,

Culture and Civilization of Ancient India,

Culture and Civilization of Ancient India,168f.).168f.).

One very important outcome of this religio-ritualistic One very important outcome of this religio-ritualistic syncretism was the emergence of Siva and Vishnu into syncretism was the emergence of Siva and Vishnu into Brahmin acceptance. It must be noted here that none of these Brahmin acceptance. It must be noted here that none of these two gods is found mentioned either in the Brahmanic or the two gods is found mentioned either in the Brahmanic or the Buddhist literature prior to the time of the Mauryan empire. Buddhist literature prior to the time of the Mauryan empire. Of these two, not only does Siva enter the Brahmanic Of these two, not only does Siva enter the Brahmanic pantheon, he becomes its chief god which is a remarkable pantheon, he becomes its chief god which is a remarkable promotion for a non-Aryan god under the hands of the promotion for a non-Aryan god under the hands of the Brahmins who were very proud of their Aryanness. Sir Brahmins who were very proud of their Aryanness. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, commenting on Siva’s ascension to the Mortimer Wheeler, commenting on Siva’s ascension to the

position of chief god of th

position of chief god of the Aryan pantheon remarks, "Indrae Aryan pantheon remarks, "Indra had won the battle, but Siva won the war”(Wheeler, had won the battle, but Siva won the war”(Wheeler,FiveFive Thousand Years of Pakistan

Thousand Years of Pakistan,33).,33).

The Aryans were patriarchs and they had only male gods in The Aryans were patriarchs and they had only male gods in their pantheon, while the non-Aryan indigenous Indians were their pantheon, while the non-Aryan indigenous Indians were matriarchs who worshipped female deities. Therefore, matriarchs who worshipped female deities. Therefore, another important change which Brahmanism adopted during another important change which Brahmanism adopted during this phase of religious syncretism was the acceptance of the this phase of religious syncretism was the acceptance of the marriage of male and female deities. While the marriage of marriage of male and female deities. While the marriage of the male

the male and female and female deities implies deities implies the recognition of the recognition of marriage as a social institution in so

marriage as a social institution in society, here these marriagesciety, here these marriages imply the intermixing of two or more hi

imply the intermixing of two or more hitherto separate tribestherto separate tribes while these at the same time gained membersh

while these at the same time gained membership of the mainip of the main society. Thus, the marriage of Siva and Parvathi implied the society. Thus, the marriage of Siva and Parvathi implied the coming together of the former worshippers of Siva with the coming together of the former worshippers of Siva with the worshippers of Parvathi while both groups at the same time worshippers of Parvathi while both groups at the same time became members of the Mauryan state, but retaining their became members of the Mauryan state, but retaining their separate traditions in endogamy and commensality t

separate traditions in endogamy and commensality to a certaino a certain extent.

extent.

These new gods of the Mauryan religio-ritualistic syncretism, These new gods of the Mauryan religio-ritualistic syncretism, though conceived of as having the shape and form of human though conceived of as having the shape and form of human beings, were given as many heads and hands as were beings, were given as many heads and hands as were required to bear or hold the totemic symbols of the tribes required to bear or hold the totemic symbols of the tribes they represented. As a result, Siva is depicted as having they represented. As a result, Siva is depicted as having several heads and as many hands as were required to several heads and as many hands as were required to represent the tribes which gathered round his leadership. represent the tribes which gathered round his leadership. Therefore, the increase in the number of the implements borne Therefore, the increase in the number of the implements borne or held by Siva, Vishnu or by any other god or goddess or held by Siva, Vishnu or by any other god or goddess indicated the number as well as the identities of the tribes indicated the number as well as the identities of the tribes which were thus mixed with the larger society.

which were thus mixed with the larger society.

It must be noted that the principal factor which was made It must be noted that the principal factor which was made use of by the Brahmin priesthood to bring

use of by the Brahmin priesthood to bring together the peopletogether the people of the tribe and the people of the main society was the of the tribe and the people of the main society was the accommodation given to the ancestral worship of the

accommodation given to the ancestral worship of the tribe(s).tribe(s). This contributed in large measure to the peaceful integrati This contributed in large measure to the peaceful integrationon of the tribal peoples with the people of the principal society of the tribal peoples with the people of the principal society who were themselves god worshippers. What was required who were themselves god worshippers. What was required was only a redesigning of the tribal worship to make it was only a redesigning of the tribal worship to make it acceptable to the principal society or a redesigning of the acceptable to the principal society or a redesigning of the worship of the principal society to make it acceptable to the worship of the principal society to make it acceptable to the tribal peoples. A perusal of what really happened shows that tribal peoples. A perusal of what really happened shows that the process has worked both ways, as the principal god who the process has worked both ways, as the principal god who surfaced as the chief god after the integration was an surfaced as the chief god after the integration was an un-Aryan indigenous god who came to be accepted by the Aryan indigenous god who came to be accepted by the principal society. At the same time he combined in himself principal society. At the same time he combined in himself the forms of worship of all the tribes which were brought the forms of worship of all the tribes which were brought together. The main point however is that the process d together. The main point however is that the process did notid not

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cause any problems because both or all parties to the process cause any problems because both or all parties to the process were god worshippers or those who were recently elevated were god worshippers or those who were recently elevated thereto and as a result there was no conceptual conflict. thereto and as a result there was no conceptual conflict.

It seems that the religio-ritualistic syncretism which resulted It seems that the religio-ritualistic syncretism which resulted in breaking down the isolation of the tribes of the forestlands in breaking down the isolation of the tribes of the forestlands adjacent to the borders of the empire did influence the entire adjacent to the borders of the empire did influence the entire social structure as it resulted in the adoption of new gods, social structure as it resulted in the adoption of new gods, new forms of worship and new rites to be performed for new forms of worship and new rites to be performed for these gods. These gods could only

these gods. These gods could only have been those who werehave been those who were elevated into the rank of the gods recently, or were those elevated into the rank of the gods recently, or were those who were the totems of the

who were the totems of the tribe, now transformed into divinetribe, now transformed into divine rank like Siva’s bull Nandi. At the social level this swelling of rank like Siva’s bull Nandi. At the social level this swelling of the former Brahmanic pantheon meant the amalgamation of the former Brahmanic pantheon meant the amalgamation of innumerable small as well as big tribal communities with the innumerable small as well as big tribal communities with the accounted population of the central political State.

accounted population of the central political State.

It is relevant to ask how this sweeping wave of reforms It is relevant to ask how this sweeping wave of reforms affected the other religions in India, as Brahmanism was not affected the other religions in India, as Brahmanism was not the only religion which prevail

the only religion which prevailed in India at the time. Let used in India at the time. Let us take the case of Buddhism. Unfortu

take the case of Buddhism. Unfortunately, there are no writtennately, there are no written records of what really happened to Buddhism at the social records of what really happened to Buddhism at the social and religious level, though we have some records of divisions and religious level, though we have some records of divisions among the members of the Order of disciples on matters of among the members of the Order of disciples on matters of doctrine. The more important matters relating to how the doctrine. The more important matters relating to how the Buddhists were affected by the reforms which swept over Buddhists were affected by the reforms which swept over Hinduism have not been written upon or been taken up for Hinduism have not been written upon or been taken up for discussion or debate in any Buddhist forum as the Councils discussion or debate in any Buddhist forum as the Councils of the period. But it can be gathered that

of the period. But it can be gathered that by the time Emperorby the time Emperor Asoka was converted to Buddhism, the Buddhists seem to Asoka was converted to Buddhism, the Buddhists seem to have accepted rituals and rites as essential components of have accepted rituals and rites as essential components of the practice of the religion, in spite of the fact that rit

the practice of the religion, in spite of the fact that ritual andual and rites are totally absent from the texts of the Pali canon. rites are totally absent from the texts of the Pali canon.

Here, a clarification has to be made regarding the use of the Here, a clarification has to be made regarding the use of the term ‘Pali Canon’. It refers to the t

term ‘Pali Canon’. It refers to the texts of the four Pali Nikayasexts of the four Pali Nikayas which belong to the earliest part of the Pali canon. The famous which belong to the earliest part of the Pali canon. The famous commentator Buddhaghosa too has accepted that the texts commentator Buddhaghosa too has accepted that the texts of the fifth Nikaya are post-canonical but his view seems to of the fifth Nikaya are post-canonical but his view seems to have been overruled, apparently by the Mahavihara sector. have been overruled, apparently by the Mahavihara sector. the differences, it must be noted are ideological because the the differences, it must be noted are ideological because the later texts support practices which are either absent from later texts support practices which are either absent from the early texts or more importantly go counter t

the early texts or more importantly go counter to the cardinalo the cardinal teachings of the Buddha.

teachings of the Buddha.

Now going back to our discussion, that the Buddhists at the Now going back to our discussion, that the Buddhists at the time had accepted the worship of sacred places and time had accepted the worship of sacred places and pilgrimages to such places as part of the practice of their pilgrimages to such places as part of the practice of their religion is confirmed by the fact that Emperor Asoka had religion is confirmed by the fact that Emperor Asoka had

thought his visit to Lumbini important enough to be marked thought his visit to Lumbini important enough to be marked by erecting a commemorative p

by erecting a commemorative pillar.illar.

It can also be deduced that the Buddhists had accepted by It can also be deduced that the Buddhists had accepted by this time, the worship of the Bodhi tree as Asoka honoured this time, the worship of the Bodhi tree as Asoka honoured V

Venerable Mahinda’s request for a saplienerable Mahinda’s request for a sapling of the Bodhi tng of the Bodhi treeree at Buddhagaya. Asoka is reported to have erected stupas at Buddhagaya. Asoka is reported to have erected stupas throughout his empire enshrining the relics he obtained by throughout his empire enshrining the relics he obtained by opening the stupa erected by the Koliyas of Ramagrama opening the stupa erected by the Koliyas of Ramagrama enshrining their share of the Buddha’s relics. This shows enshrining their share of the Buddha’s relics. This shows that relic worship too had been adopted by the Buddhists by that relic worship too had been adopted by the Buddhists by this time.

this time.

There is an interesting legend regarding the relics of the There is an interesting legend regarding the relics of the Ramagrama stupa. When King Dutugemunu wanted relics Ramagrama stupa. When King Dutugemunu wanted relics of the Buddha to be enshrined in the Ruwanweliseya, the of the Buddha to be enshrined in the Ruwanweliseya, the thera Sonuttara was sent to the Nagaloka which according thera Sonuttara was sent to the Nagaloka which according to later Buddhist cosmology was under the ocean bed. The to later Buddhist cosmology was under the ocean bed. The Sri Lankan legend further records a beautiful story to say Sri Lankan legend further records a beautiful story to say how the relics reached the Nagaloka. The stupa in how the relics reached the Nagaloka. The stupa in Ramagrama was washed away by a flood and the casket of Ramagrama was washed away by a flood and the casket of relics was washed away by the flood waters to the sea relics was washed away by the flood waters to the sea whereupon it was recovered by

whereupon it was recovered by the Naga the Naga king. On the groundking. On the ground facts which apparently were not available to the weavers of facts which apparently were not available to the weavers of the legend show that in spite of the fact that a very heavy the legend show that in spite of the fact that a very heavy flood would have been needed to wash away the stupa as flood would have been needed to wash away the stupa as Ramagrama is located to be in the foothills, both Ajatasatthu Ramagrama is located to be in the foothills, both Ajatasatthu and Asoka found it intact,(D.D.Kosambi,

and Asoka found it intact,(D.D.Kosambi, Myth and Myth and reality,reality,

l06f.;M.M.J. Marasinghe,

l06f.;M.M.J. Marasinghe, Gods in BuddhismGods in Buddhism,116).,116).

While rites and rituals thus seem to have been adopted by While rites and rituals thus seem to have been adopted by the Buddhists or for the Buddhists, it is not clear whether the Buddhists or for the Buddhists, it is not clear whether such adoptions had been made only after ensuring that they such adoptions had been made only after ensuring that they did not go counter to the teachings of the Pali canonical texts. did not go counter to the teachings of the Pali canonical texts. The total absence of any discussion or debate on the uses The total absence of any discussion or debate on the uses and relevance of rites and ritual to the practi

and relevance of rites and ritual to the practice of Buddhismce of Buddhism goes to show that it had not attracted the attention of the goes to show that it had not attracted the attention of the authorities of the Sasana and this, with disastrous results for authorities of the Sasana and this, with disastrous results for the important contribution that the proper presentation of the important contribution that the proper presentation of Buddhism should have been capable of making to the present Buddhism should have been capable of making to the present society.

society.

According to the Theravada conception, the Buddha was According to the Theravada conception, the Buddha was the human teacher who attained the highest spiritual the human teacher who attained the highest spiritual attainment capable only by man and devoted his entire life to attainment capable only by man and devoted his entire life to the propagation of his teaching. Therefore, he is revered as the propagation of his teaching. Therefore, he is revered as the great human teacher. His disciples and other followers the great human teacher. His disciples and other followers of his day did not worship

of his day did not worship him, but followed his teaching andhim, but followed his teaching and won liberatio

won liberation or lived as contented members of their society.n or lived as contented members of their society. Today we worship him with all items of offering given to Today we worship him with all items of offering given to

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other gods and pray to him, thus making him an object of other gods and pray to him, thus making him an object of prayer and offering, thereby going against his very teaching prayer and offering, thereby going against his very teaching that there are no gods or other beings who are capable of that there are no gods or other beings who are capable of accepting sacrifice, offering or of responding to prayer or accepting sacrifice, offering or of responding to prayer or supplication. Thus, it is clear how the Buddha has been supplication. Thus, it is clear how the Buddha has been degraded to the level of a tribal or other god and is made degraded to the level of a tribal or other god and is made capable of helping man upon request. The more serious matter capable of helping man upon request. The more serious matter for concern is how such practices have continued without for concern is how such practices have continued without hindrance to the present day.

hindrance to the present day.

Another form of ritual worship which draws our attention is Another form of ritual worship which draws our attention is the worship of the Bodhi tree. The Buddhists venerate the the worship of the Bodhi tree. The Buddhists venerate the Bodhi as the tree under the shelter of which the Buddha Bodhi as the tree under the shelter of which the Buddha attained Buddhahood. When the Bodhi was planted in the attained Buddhahood. When the Bodhi was planted in the Mahameghavana park at Anuradhapura it came to be Mahameghavana park at Anuradhapura it came to be worshipped with great fervor by the people who were up to worshipped with great fervor by the people who were up to that time worshippers of trees like the Banyan and the that time worshippers of trees like the Banyan and the Palmyra. What really happened was that they brought all Palmyra. What really happened was that they brought all their items of worship of the former tree and worshipped the their items of worship of the former tree and worshipped the new tree with perhaps the same ritual. While the Banyan new tree with perhaps the same ritual. While the Banyan and the Palmyra trees were worshipped because they were and the Palmyra trees were worshipped because they were believed to be the habitats of certain spirits, the Bodhi tree is believed to be the habitats of certain spirits, the Bodhi tree is believed to this day to be the habitat of good spirits who are believed to this day to be the habitat of good spirits who are prayed to in addition to invoking th

prayed to in addition to invoking the healing and other powerse healing and other powers of the Bodhi. If

of the Bodhi. If you visit the you visit the Sri Mahabodhi at AnuradhapuraSri Mahabodhi at Anuradhapura,, you cannot fail to brush against the

you cannot fail to brush against the large number of Kapuwaslarge number of Kapuwas who are engaged in a lucrative sale of charms and make who are engaged in a lucrative sale of charms and make blessings for a fee.

blessings for a fee.

Another important form of worship which existed at the time Another important form of worship which existed at the time of the introduction of Buddhism was the worship of individual of the introduction of Buddhism was the worship of individual gods who possessed personal cults of their own. It is recorded gods who possessed personal cults of their own. It is recorded that Venerable Mahinda spent a few months in Vedisagiri, that Venerable Mahinda spent a few months in Vedisagiri, the home town of his mother which was close to the border the home town of his mother which was close to the border regions of the empire which were at the time witnessing the regions of the empire which were at the time witnessing the religio-ritualistic and cultural syncretism which we

religio-ritualistic and cultural syncretism which we describeddescribed above, after he was selected to lead the Buddhist mission to above, after he was selected to lead the Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka. The knowledge he would have gained from this Sri Lanka. The knowledge he would have gained from this exposure seems to have been used to win over the tribal tree exposure seems to have been used to win over the tribal tree worshippers and god worshippers to Buddhism by providin worshippers and god worshippers to Buddhism by providingg them with convenient entry points to gain admission to the them with convenient entry points to gain admission to the new religion. But what really happened was that the expected new religion. But what really happened was that the expected transformation never occurred. Not only has it become clear transformation never occurred. Not only has it become clear that the pre-Buddhist Sri Lankans stubbornly persisted that the pre-Buddhist Sri Lankans stubbornly persisted practicing their pre-Buddhist tree and god worship under the practicing their pre-Buddhist tree and god worship under the protection of the new religion, they have desecrated the purity protection of the new religion, they have desecrated the purity of the Theravada tradition by bringing in superstition and of the Theravada tradition by bringing in superstition and lenience on theism both of which were clearly and lenience on theism both of which were clearly and emphatically rejected by the Buddha. Instead of the emphatically rejected by the Buddha. Instead of the

conversion of ancestor and cultic deity worshippers into conversion of ancestor and cultic deity worshippers into non- non-theistic Buddhism, ancestor and deity worship was made part theistic Buddhism, ancestor and deity worship was made part of the new Sri Lankan version of Buddhism by giving these of the new Sri Lankan version of Buddhism by giving these beliefs prominent placements in its ritual structure.

beliefs prominent placements in its ritual structure.

As these changes seem to have been effected during the As these changes seem to have been effected during the very early days of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, it is quite likely very early days of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, it is quite likely that the Venerable Thera himself authored these adoptions. that the Venerable Thera himself authored these adoptions. The very important question which this raises is whether in The very important question which this raises is whether in fact the Venerable Thera or any other(s) did possess the fact the Venerable Thera or any other(s) did possess the authority to do so. According to the Four Great Authorities authority to do so. According to the Four Great Authorities (cattaro mahpadesa) promulgated by the Buddha in the (cattaro mahpadesa) promulgated by the Buddha in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Dagha Nikaya,it is quite clear Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Dagha Nikaya,it is quite clear thast no individual Thera or a group of Theras whether small thast no individual Thera or a group of Theras whether small or big has the authority to introduce changes to the practices or big has the authority to introduce changes to the practices of the religion or to the interpretations of the teachings, without of the religion or to the interpretations of the teachings, without their being tested as to their conformity to the teachings of their being tested as to their conformity to the teachings of the Pali canonical texts–these meaning the texts of the four the Pali canonical texts–these meaning the texts of the four Nikayas. The fact that both ancestor worship and deity Nikayas. The fact that both ancestor worship and deity worship go directly against the teachings of

worship go directly against the teachings of the Pali canonicalthe Pali canonical texts shows that the Four Guidelines have been totally texts shows that the Four Guidelines have been totally disregarded by the Venerable Thera.

disregarded by the Venerable Thera.

Despite the above very clear promulgations by the Buddha Despite the above very clear promulgations by the Buddha made during the last three months before his parinibbana, it made during the last three months before his parinibbana, it seems that both the political authorities and the members of seems that both the political authorities and the members of the Order have introduced rites and ritual practices into the Order have introduced rites and ritual practices into Buddhism with disastrous results to the purity

Buddhism with disastrous results to the purity of the tradition.of the tradition. We have already noted how the great human teacher had We have already noted how the great human teacher had been degraded by the Sri Lankan Buddhists by making him been degraded by the Sri Lankan Buddhists by making him sit surrounded by vast arrays of offerings usually made to sit surrounded by vast arrays of offerings usually made to the gods in primitive and other theistic religions. According the gods in primitive and other theistic religions. According to our historical records, it was King Sena lll who

to our historical records, it was King Sena lll who introducedintroduced the offering of food and garments to statues of the Buddha the offering of food and garments to statues of the Buddha (Geiger,

(Geiger,CulavamsaCulavamsa, 175). Another instance of unauthorized, 175). Another instance of unauthorized introduction of ritual is the starting of the ritual called introduction of ritual is the starting of the ritual called “Bodhipuja“by a monk called Ariyadeva, which became a “Bodhipuja“by a monk called Ariyadeva, which became a ritual of high popular demand.

ritual of high popular demand.

There are those who argue that as most ritual, in the forms There are those who argue that as most ritual, in the forms that they are used in religious practice today, caters to the that they are used in religious practice today, caters to the religious needs of the uneducated ordinary masses, who call religious needs of the uneducated ordinary masses, who call and believe themselves to be Buddhists but in actual make and believe themselves to be Buddhists but in actual make up and practice are still primitive ancestor and deity up and practice are still primitive ancestor and deity worshippers, to keep them in the fold. It must

worshippers, to keep them in the fold. It must be emphaticallybe emphatically stated here that it is a crime to leave them at th

stated here that it is a crime to leave them at their level withouteir level without any attempt to educate them and

any attempt to educate them and establish them on the establish them on the correctcorrect path of progress to spiritu

path of progress to spiritual maturity. But, if the Buddha tooal maturity. But, if the Buddha too did what our pundits did and are persisting in doing purely did what our pundits did and are persisting in doing purely