Wheel Axle

Abstract

Railway axles are ranked as the most important security parts because their fractures directly cause derailment of vehicles. However, press-fitted seats with wheels are necessary in axles due to the needs for structural function. Damages due to fretting fatigue occasionally occur on the seats in axles. Thus induction hardening and improvement of shape of press-fitted part have been adopted in axles for vehicles. In the present paper, a prediction method for fretting fatigue strength using fracture mechanics approach is constructed and validated. Moreover, full-scale induction hardened axles are fatigue-tested under 1.5 times higher stress than the allowable stress for design. Neither fracture nor magnetic particle flaws are indicated after the test.

Introduction

Among the many parts that make up a railway vehicle, axles are considered the most important safety-related items because a broken axle can directly lead to derailment. The fatigue damage of axles has long been studied since A. Wöhler1) worked out the Wohler diagram (S-N diagram) in the 19th century. Securing sufficient strength reliability of axles is still an important challenge for mechanical engineers.

Because of their construction, axles are provided with press-fit-ted seats with wheels; these seats are subject to fretting fatigue under certain circumstances. Therefore, studies on axle fatigue have focused on the phenomenon of axle fatigue due to the fretting of press-fitted seats.

This technical report first outlines the axles for railway vehicles and describes the salient characteristics of fretting damage—a phenomenon that often occurs with axles. Then, concerning the fatigue properties of axles, especially the fretting fatigue property, the report explains the prediction of axle fatigue strength made by one researcher by applying fracture mechanics. Finally, it presents the results of our recent fatigue test using full-scale axles.

Components 1. Wheel 2. Axle 3. Sprocket 4. Dc Motor 5. Chain 6. Frame 7. Battery

A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail tracks. A rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on a rail car or locomotive or indirectly on a bogie, also called a truck. Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a specific hardness. New wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles need to be periodically monitored to ensure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre) around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated and pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Mono block wheels do not have encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between the wheel and tire. Most train wheels have a conical geometry, which is the primary means of keeping the train's motion aligned with the track. Train wheels have a flange on one side to keep the wheels, and hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry based alignment are reached, e.g. due to some emergency or defect. See Hunting oscillation. Some wheels have a cylindrical geometry, where flanges are essential to keep the train on the rail track.

Solid wheels for railway need to have several characteristics such as enough strength, anti wear, anti thermal damage and noise / vibration characteristics. A solid wheel consists of three portions, that is, hub, web and rim. The characteristics for each portion are different each other. The web portion has to have enough mechanical strength against the loads caused by vehicle mass, and at the same time, its configuration is designed from the view point of thermal stress distribution. For the rim portion, steel grade is to be considered from the view points of anti wear and anti thermal characteristics each of which has different dependence on carbon content of the material. The material specification of wheels for domestic service was determined according to a series of research on wear characteristics of wheels and rails.

Introduction To wheel

A railway wheel, together with an axle, is one of the crucial parts that support the safe operation of railway vehicles. Wheels support the entire weight of cars; however, they cannot be designed as a failsafe structure where a backup system by other parts can be applied in case of a serious problem. Therefore, absolutely high reliability is demanded in terms of strength. Accordingly, the most important and fundamental characteristic in designing wheels is strength.

However, since “being unbreakable” is a significant wheel characteristic, from the viewpoint of advantageous performance, characteristics other than strength, such as wear resistance, thermal crack resistance, and noise/vibration, are often focused. In particular, since wheels are expendable parts, their life plays a significant role in saving the maintenance cost.

In order to improve these characteristics, up to now, various studies have been conducted and technological developments have been made. There are mainly two approaches to improve

the wheel performance: material designing and configuration designing. This paper shows the outlines of the various characteristics required for wheels, and introduces the results of research and development of the particularly important characteristics. Finally, after summing up the current issues to be discussed, the future prospect is considered. Tired wheels are ones that consist of a tire and wheel center; however, in this paper, only solid wheels are discussed because they are most widely used at present.

Structure of Wheels and Required Characteristics

Structure of wheels and terms of parts

A solid wheel of a railway vehicle (hereinafter “wheel”) consists of three parts, as shown in Fig. 1. They include a hub, wherein an axle is inserted, a rim that contacts the rail, and a web that unites the two parts. The outer circumferential surface of the rim, which contacts the rail, is tread, and the projected part is flange.

Characteristics required for wheels

Following are the characteristics required for wheels:

(1) Weight: Wheels are unsprang parts; therefore lightweight is preferable from the viewpoints of their influence over riding comfort and bogie parts. This characteristic is especially im-portant when designing high-speed vehicles.

(2) Web fatigue strength: A web must have sufficient fatigue strength to withstand cyclic mechanical stress caused by the weight of the car body.

(3) Rolling contact fatigue strength of tread: Sufficient fatigue strength to withstand the rolling contact stress (Hertz stress) between the tread and rail is necessary.1)

(4) Characteristics of stress alternation caused by thermal attach: When a rim expands because of thermal input caused by tread braking, thermal stress is developed at the web and rim areas. Sometimes the excessive thermal input changes the normal stress distribution given by the production stage into an abnormal situation.

(5) Thermal crack and fracture resistance: This is the characteristic relating to thermal cracks initiated on a rim by the frictional heat generated by tread brake and their propagation. In worst case, wheel fracture takes place.

(6) Wear resistance: Abrasion/wear is developed on a tread when it is in contact with a rail. In case of a tread brake wheel, it is also developed by the friction between brake shoes and the tread. This is the characteristic directly related to wheel life. In some cases, non-uniform wear becomes problematic rather than the wear amount itself.

(7) Running performance: Running stability on a straight track and curving performance are to be evaluated basically from the viewpoint of the whole performance of a bogie. However, the tread profile is one of those factors.

(8) Acoustic characteristics: Reduction of wheel running noise is required from the viewpoint of environmental demand. There are several approaches such as improvement of bogie structure or oil lubrication on rails. As for the countermeasures taken for wheels, noise dumping wheels fitted with sound absorbers are generally employed.

(9) Vibration: Vibration caused by a wheel is basically classified as the one caused by damages on a tread and the other caused by imbalance of a wheel. The former is influenced by the abovementioned rolling contact fatigue strength and the wear resistance of the tread. The latter, balance characteristic, gen-erally depends on the machining accuracies at manufacture and/or maintenance. This characteristic is important for wheels of high-speed vehicles in particular.

(10) Axle gripping force: This is a characteristic to fix a wheel onto an axle firmly. However, there is no problem in general when interference and press-fitting force are properly controlled as per regulations.

Designing of Web

Among the characteristics listed above, particularly important designing technologies are described in detail hereunder. However, as for the hub, as already mentioned, there is almost no variation in designing. Therefore, description will be focused on major characteristics of the web and rim.

In the first place, following characteristics with respect to the web are addressed to in the order listed.

(1) Designing of web configuration under the mechanical loads (2) Fatigue strength of web material

(3) Relationship between web configuration and thermal stress distribution caused by braking

Designing of web configuration under the mechanical loads

Kinds of mechanical loads

There are two kinds of mechanical load exerted onto a wheel: vertical load and horizontal load. As shown in Fig. 2, vertical load is one produced by supporting the car weight in the vertical direction. Regarding the horizontal load, there are two kinds: lateral load and back load. The lateral load is acting onto the flange fillet of the outer wheel from the outer side of the curved track to the inner side. The back load is acting in the opposite direction of the lateral load onto the back surface of the inner wheel’s flange. Since the lateral load is continuously produced when passing the curved track, it is the most critical load in designing the strength of the web. On the other hand, the back load is only produced by the contact between the backside of a wheel and a guard rail, mainly when passing a

switch. This means that the back load takes place far less frequently than the lateral load. Therefore, in some standards, the back load is not considered in designing the strength of the web.

Types of web configuration

The web configuration of the wheels for domestic services is classified into three types—Type A, Type B, and Type C—as shown in Fig. 3. Type A wheel has a concaved web as shown in a); on the other hand, Type B wheel has a convex web, as shown in b). Type C wheel has a straight web that is perpendicular to the axle, as shown in c).2)

As mentioned above, a wheel is subjected to the vertical load P and lateral load Q whenever a car passes on a curved track. Accordingly, as shown in Fig. 4, the composite force of the two forces acts in an upward direction at the contact point with the rail, inclining toward the inside of the wheel set. The maximum stress in the web is generated at the hub fillet. However, as shown in the figures, since the the arm length of Type A (La in the figure) is shorter than that of Type B (Lb), the bending moment of Type A is less than that of Type B even when the loading conditions are the same. In other words, the web configuration of Type A is superior with respect to strength. Therefore, Type A configuration is most widely employed, regardless of whether domestically or overseas, unless restricted otherwise.

Configuration of Type B is designed for creating a space inside of a driven wheel set for installation of a driving gear unit in narrow gage service. Since this web design is inferior to Type A web with

Comparison of bending moments

respect to strength, the web thickness of Type B must be more than that of Type A.

Configuration of Type C is designed generally for a wheel equipped with disc brakes on both sides of the web. It has a flat shape usually.

However, these designations of Type A, Type B, and Type C are only used in Japan, and not accepted globally. As long as the author knows, there is no specific term in English that is commonly used worldwide. Sometimes, Type B wheel is called “Reversed web wheel” and Type A wheel is called “Normal web wheel.”

Stress cycle

Stress in the web area is estimated on the basis of the static axle load (the maximum load on a wheel set when the vehicle is stopping) and the additional loads caused by dynamic vibration, passing a curved track, and so on. However, the additional factors differ depending on the standard of the respective country (region).

In Japan, “JRIS J 0405: Rolling Stock - Verification of the fatigue strength of the solid wheel web (JRIS: Japan Association of Rolling Stock Industries Standard)” is specified for wheels for local line service.3) According to this standard, an example of stress cycle that is evaluated on a typical Type A solid wheel for domestic local service is shown in Fig. 5. Since this standard does not specify the back load, the figure shows three kinds of stress caused by vertical load P, lateral load Q, and a combination of these two loads. Stress measurements are made on each side of the web, and the figure shows the stress at the outer hub fillet, where the maximum stress takes place. Since this figure shows half of a complete cycle, matching with another half cycle produces complete one cycle. According to this figure, it is clear that the influence of lateral load is relatively large. Furthermore, in the case of Type A wheel, stress due to vertical load and that due to lateral load have opposite

signs; therefore, the absolute value of the total stress becomes smaller than the sole value caused by lateral load alone.

Although thicker web naturally reduces stress, web stress varies depending on the web offset, too (Refer to clause 3.3.1). Therefore, optimum configuration is always studied considering the thermal stress characteristic, which is described later.

3.1.4 Corrugated wheel

Corrugated wheel is one of the notable wheels when discussing the web design.4) As Fig. 6 shows, since the circumferentially corrugated web improves rigidity against lateral load, web thickness can be reduced, which means less weight of a wheel. The web thickness of the corrugated wheel is approximately 30% less than that of a usual web wheel.

3.2 Fatigue strength of web

As mentioned above, cyclic mechanical stress is exerted on the web; therefore, the web material must have sufficient fatigue strength to withstand the stress cycle.

As for the web fatigue strength of wheels for domestic service, the Railway Technical Research Institute, JNR, reported the result of a fatigue test conducted in 1958.5) According to the results, the allowable stress 157 MPa (16 kgf/mm2) has been applied to the web

Fig. 7 Fatigue test results of the domestic wheels

design. In 1972, Hirakawa et al. reported fatigue test results using full size wheels.6) However, since then, no systematic fatigue tests have been conducted. Therefore, the author conducted investigations from 2004 to 2006. Figure 7 shows the results of the study on typical wheels for domestic local services. As shown in the figure, the fatigue strength was found to be approximately 240 MPa.

In the abovementioned JRIS J 0450, a standard for designing domestic wheels, it is specified that the allowable design stress is 160 MPa. This value was determined on the basis of the value of 157 MPa, which has been applied for many years. Because the actually measured value of 240 MPa is 1.5 times of this value, in other words, it can be said that the above allowable designing stress has a safety factor of 1.5.

Note that the results in this figure were obtained under a web surface condition of shot peening without machining. Studies on the effect of the machining condition on the fatigue strength were also conducted. Although, the details of the study are not mentioned in this paper, the results show that the residual

stress of the machined surface influences the fatigue strength considerably.

Relationship between web configuration and thermal stress distribution caused by braking

3.3.1 Reversal change of the residual stress due to thermal input by braking

When braking is applied via brake shoes pressed onto a wheel tread, temperature of the tread increases because of friction. Normal braking for the usual stop operation has almost no influence on the performance of the wheel. However, drag braking when running a long downhill or a stuck brake shoe due to malfunction of a braking system heats the whole rim section to a high temperature. Because of the thermal expansion of the rim, the rim pulls the web outward, and then tensile radial stress is generated in the web area.

When this thermal radial stress exceeds the yield stress of the web material, outward plastic deformation of the web takes place. After the brake shoe is released and the wheel is cooled, the rim tends to shrink; however, the expanded web disturbs the rim to shrink. As a result, the web pushes the rim outwardly, and then causes the tensile stress in the rim. When manufacturing the wheels, compressive residual stress is originally given by heat treatment. However, in the case as mentioned above, this initial residual stress changes from the compression side to the tension side. This is the “reversal change in the rim residual stress.” Once this happens, small thermal cracks on the tread surface start to propagate and re-sult in a brittle fracture of a wheel in the worst case. Accordingly, stress in this situation is very dangerous. Figure 8 shows the above

Thermal stress of web depending on web offset

process graphically.

However, according to studies conducted in 1970s, it was found that this change in residual stress can be controlled by improving the web configuration.7) The key parameter is the web offset, as shown in the upper part of Fig. 9. As clear from the graph in the figure, when the web offset is increased, thermal stress of the web is decreased. This means that the web offset can reduce the plastic deformation of the web because of yielding. Therefore, the shrinking of

Fig. 10 High toughness corrugated wheel

the rim is not disturbed by the web when cooling, and consequently, the reversal change in the residual stress in the rim does not occur. A wheel developed on the basis of this concept was named High Toughness (HT) wheel by the then Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd.

In 1970s, several hundred cases of fracture of freight car wheel due to severe braking were reported in U.S.A., and HT wheels were developed as a countermeasure against this trouble.

Application of HT wheels drastically reduced the number of fac-ture, and later, for U.S. freight cars, it became mandatory to use wheels having web configuration like HT wheels.

Service condition of domestic wheels is not so difficult as com-pared with the freight car wheels in U.S.A. However, in order to give the wheels higher safety, a new wheel has been developed on the basis of the same concept of HT configuration. It is a new Type A corrugated wheel that has improved thermal resistance, as shown in Fig. 10.

4. Designing of Rim

Next, the following characteristics of the rim are described: (1) Wear characteristic of tread

(2) Thermal crack and fracture resistance of rim (3) Rolling contact fatigue strength of tread 4.1 Wear characteristic of tread

4.1.1 History of wheel materials in Japan

Wear characteristic of tread directly influences the life of a wheel; therefore, it is a very important characteristic from the viewpoint of economy, namely maintenance cost. The major factor that influences the wear characteristic is the carbon content. The higher the carbon content, the higher the wear resistance. However, higher carbon content tends to increase thermal damage; therefore, overseas standards of wheel materials generally specify several steel grades from lower to higher carbon content.There is a historical background as mentioned below.

Around 90 years ago, there was a significant problem of short life of railway wheels*1 because of excessive wear in Japan. Because the railway technologies of Japan have been imported from Europe, wheel material at that time was low carbon steel (carbon content of Wheels at that time were not of solid type, but of built-up type, wherein a tire was shrink-fitted to the

wheel center. However, the material for the tire was also applied to the wheel later; therefore, they are treated as an identical type in this paper.

around 0.5%), which was generally used in Europe at that time. It was estimated that increase in carbon content would be effective to give the wheel a longer life; however, it might shorten the rail life. Then, a joint project by government and a civilian sector was organized to find the optimum combination of the wheel and rail materials. Dr. Saito et al. built a circular track having a diameter of 24.4 m in the premise of the then Sumitomo Metal Industries, and ran a miniature car equipped with wheels of approximately one third in scale. They measured the amounts of wear of rails and wheels for various combinations of materials.

around 0.5%), which was generally used in Europe at that time. It was estimated that increase in carbon content would be effective to give the wheel a longer life; however, it might shorten the rail life. Then, a joint project by government and a civilian sector was organized to find the optimum combination of the wheel and rail materials. Dr. Saito et al. built a circular track having a diameter of 24.4 m in the premise of the then Sumitomo Metal Industries, and ran a miniature car equipped with wheels of approximately one third in scale. They measured the amounts of wear of rails and wheels for various combinations of materials. around 0.5%), which was generally used in Europe at that time. It was estimated that increase in carbon content would be effective to give the wheel a longer life; however, it might shorten the rail life. Then, a joint project by government and a civilian sector was organized to find the optimum combination of the wheel and rail materials. Dr. Saito et al. built a circular track having a diameter of 24.4 m in the premise of the then Sumitomo Metal Industries, and ran a miniature car equipped with wheels of approximately one third in scale. They measured the amounts of wear of rails and wheels for various combinations of materials. After around seven years of investigation, they reached an unexpected

conclusion. That is, increase in the carbon content of a wheel reduces not only the wheel wear but also the rail wear.For each combination, the wheel material was selected among three levels of carbon contents, and the rail material was selected among the three levels. The reason why this conclusion was obtained can be explained as follows. Since the fine particles that were removed from the wheel and/or rail surface works as abrasive material between the tread and rail, they promote the wear both of wheel and rail. This means that the lesser wear of a wheel reduces the amount of abrasive material thereby reducing the wear of a rail. Then, it was concluded that even if the carbon content of a wheel is increased, the rail life would never be shortened, but rather may become longer.

In general, a test piece for the wear test has a cylindrical figure with a diameter of several tens of millimeters, which is rotated under some contact pressure with a certain slippage between the wheel specimen and rail specimen. In this method, since the particle removed from the test specimen scatters, no influence by this dropped particle is observed. This is why the conclusion of the above test was quite different from other past test results.

Later, on the basis of this result of investigation, the specified value of the carbon content of the wheel material has been gradually increased and has finally reached the present level of JIS Standard (0.60%– 0.75%).

Battery

The storage battery is the heart of the charging circuit (fig. 2-2). It is an electrochemical device for producing and storing electricity. A vehicle battery has several important functions, which are as follows:

It must operate the starting motor, ignition system, electronic fuel injection system, and other electrical devices for the engine during engine cranking and starting.

It must supply ALL of the electrical power for the vehicle when the engine is not running. It must help the charging system provide electricity when current demands are above the output limit of the charging system.

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

The lead-acid cell-type storage battery is built to withstand severe vibration, cold weather, engine heat, corrosive

chemicals, high current discharge, and prolonged periods without use. To test and service batteries properly, you must understand battery construction. The construction of a basic lead-acid cell-type battery is as follows:

 Battery case, cover, and caps

 Electrolyte

 Battery terminals

BATTERY ELEMENT.-

The battery element is made up of negative plates, positive plates, separators, and straps (fig. 2-3). The element fits into a cell compartment in the battery case. Most automotive batteries have six elements.

Each cell compartment contains two kinds of chemically active lead plates, known as positive and negative plates. The battery plates are made of GRID (stiff mesh framework) coated with porous lead. These plates are insulated from each other by suitable separators and are submerged in a sulfuric acid solution (electrolyte).

Charged negative plates contain spongy (porous) lead (Pb) which is gray in color. Charged positive plates contain lead peroxide (PbO2 ) which has a chocolate brown color. These substances are known as the active materials of the plates. Calcium or antimony is normally added to the lead to increase battery performance and to decrease gassing (acid fumes formed during chemical reaction). Since the lead on the plates

is porous like a sponge, the battery acid easily penetrates into the material. This aids the chemical reaction and the production of electricity. Lead battery straps or connectors run along the upper portion of the case to connect the plates. The battery terminals (post or side terminals) are constructed as part of one end of each strap. To prevent the plates from touching each other and causing a short circuit, sheets of insulating material (microporous rubber, fibrous glass, or plastic-impregnated material), called separators, are inserted between the plates. These separators are thin and porous so the electrolyte will flow easily between the plates. The side of the separator that is placed against the positive plate is grooved so the gas that forms during charging will rise to the surface more readily. These grooves also provide room for any material that flakes from the plates to drop to the sediment space below.

BATTERY CASE, COYER, AND CAPS.

The battery case is made of hard rubber or a high- quality plastic. The case must

withstand extreme vibration, temperature change, and the corrosive action of the

electrolyte. The dividers in the case form individual containers for each element. A container with its element is one cell.

Stiff ridges or ribs are moulded in the bottom of the case to form a support for the plates and a sediment recess for the flakes of active material that drop off the plates during the life of the battery. The sediment is thus kept clear of the plates so it will not cause a short circuit across them.

The battery cover is made of the same material as the container and is bonded to and seals the container. The cover provides openings for the two battery posts and a cap for each cell.

Battery caps either screw or snap into the openings in the battery cover. The battery caps (vent plugs) allow gas to escape and prevent the electrolyte from splashing outside the battery. They also serve as spark arresters (keep sparks or flames from igniting the gases inside the battery). The battery is filled through the vent plug openings. Maintenance-free batteries have a large cover that is not removed during normal service.

CAUTION

Hydrogen gas can collect at the top of a battery. If this gas is exposed to a flame or spark, it can explode.

BATTERY TERMINALS.- Battery terminals provide a means of connecting the battery plates to the electrical system of the vehicle. Either two round post or two side terminals can be used.

Battery terminals are round metal posts extending through the top of the battery cover. They serve as connections for battery cable ends. Positive post will be larger than the negative post. It may be marked with red paint and a positive (+) symbol. Negative post is smaller, may be marked with black or green paint, and has a negative (-) symbol on or near it.

Side terminals are electrical connections located on the side of the battery. They have internal threads that accept a special bolt on the battery cable end. Side terminal polarity is identified by positive and negative symbols marked on the case.

ELECTROLYTE. -The electrolyte solution in a fully charged battery is a solution of concentrated sulphuric acid in water. This solution is about 60 percent water and about 40 percent sulphuric acid. The electrolyte in the lead-acid storage battery has a specific gravity of 1.28, which means that it is 1.28 times as heavy as water. The amount of sulphuric acid in the electrolyte changes with the amount of electrical charge; also the specific gravity of the electrolyte changes with the amount of electrical charge. A fully charged battery will have a specific gravity of 1.28 at 80° F. The figure will go higher with a temperature decrease and lower with a temperature increase.

electrolyte changes with the amount of electrical charge; also the specific gravity of the electrolyte changes with the amount of electrical charge. A fully charged battery will have a specific gravity of 1.28 at 80° F. The figure will go higher with a temperature decrease and lower with a temperature increase.

As a storage battery discharges, the sulphuric acid is depleted and the electrolyte is gradually converted into water. This action provides a guide in determining the state of discharge of the lead-acid cell. The electrolyte that is placed in a lead-acid battery has a specific gravity of 1.280.

The specific gravity of an electrolyte is actually the measure of its density. The

electrolyte becomes less dense as its temperature rises, and a low temperature means a high specific gravity. The hydrometer that you use is marked to read specific gravity at 80° F only. Under normal conditions, the temperature of your electrolyte will not vary much from this mark. However, large changes in temperature require a correction in your reading.

For EVERY 10-degree change in temperature ABOVE 80° F, you must ADD 0.004 to your specific gravity reading. For EVERY 10-degree change in temperature BELOW 80° F, you must SUBTRACT 0.004 from your specific gravity reading. Suppose you have just taken the gravity reading of a cell. The hydrometer reads 1.280. A thermometer in the cell indicates an electrolyte temperature of 60° F. That is a normal difference of 20 degrees from the normal of 80° F. To get the true gravity reading, you must subtract 0.008 from 1.280. Thus the specific gravity of the cell is actually 1.272. A hydrometer conversion chart similar to the one shown in figure 2-4 is usually found on the hydrometer. From it, you can obtain the specific gravity correction for temperature changes above or below 80° F.

Figure 2-4.- Hydrometer conversion chart. BATTERY CAPACITY

The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hours. The ampere-hour capacity is equal to the product of the current in amperes and the time in hours during which the battery is supplying current. The ampere-hour capacity varies inversely with the discharge current. The size of a cell is determined generally by its ampere-hour capacity. The capacity of a cell depends upon many factors, the most important of which are as follows:

1. The area of the plates in contact with the electrolyte 2. The quantity and specific gravity of the electrolyte 3. The type of separators

4. The general condition of the battery (degree of sulfating, plates buckled, separators warped, sediment in bottom of cells, etc.)

5. The final limiting voltage Battery Ratings

Battery ratings were developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the Battery Council International (BCI). They are set according to national test standards for battery performance. They let the mechanic compare the cranking power of one battery to another. The two methods of rating lead-acid storage batteries are the cold cranking rating and the reserve capacity rating.

COLD-CRANKING RATING.- The cold-cranking rating determines how much current in amperes the battery can deliver for thirty seconds at 0° F while maintaining terminal voltage of 7.2 volts or 1.2 volts per cell. This rating indicates the ability of the battery to crank a specific engine (based on starter current draw) at a specified temperature.

For example, one manufacturer recommends a battery with 305 cold-cranking amps for a small four-cylinder engine but a 450 cold-cranking amp battery for a larger V-8 engine. A more powerful battery is needed to handle the heavier starter current draw of the larger engine.

\

RESERVE CAPACITY RATING.- The reserve capacity rating is the time needed to lower battery terminal voltage below 10.2 V (1.7 V per cell) at a discharge rate of 25 amps. This is with the

battery fully charged and at 80° F. Reserve capacity will appear on the battery as a time interval in minutes.

For example, if a battery is rated at 90 minutes and the charging system fails, the operator has approximately 90 minutes (1 1/ 2 hours) of driving time under minimum electrical load before the battery goes completely dead.

BATTERY CHARGING

Under normal conditions, a hydrometer reading below 1.240 specific gravity at 80° F is a warning signal that the battery should be removed and charged. Except in extremely warm climates, never allow the specific gravity to drop below 1.225 in tropical climates. This reading indicates a fully charged battery. When a rundown battery is brought into the shop, you should recharge it immediately.

There are several methods for charging batteries; only direct current is used with each method. If only alternating current is available, a rectifier or motor generator must be used to convert to direct current. The two principal methods of charging are (1) constant current and (2) constant voltage (constant potential). Constant current charging is be used on a single battery or a number of batteries in series. Constant voltage charging is used with batteries connected in parallel. (A parallel circuit has more than one path between the two source terminals; a series circuit is a one-path circuit). You should know both methods, although the latter is most often used.

CONSTANT CURRENT CHARGING.-

With the constant current method, the battery is connected to a charging device that supplies a steady flow of current. The charging device has a rectifier (a gas-filled bulb or a series of chemical disks); thus, the alternating current is changed into direct current. A rheostat (resistor for regulating current) of some kind is usually built into the charger so that you can adjust the amount of current flow to the battery. Once the rheostat is set, the amount of current remains constant. The usual charging rate is 1 amp per positive cell. Thus a 21-plate battery (which has 10 positive plates per cell) should have a charging rate no greater than 10 amps. When using this method of charging a battery, you should check the battery frequently, particularly near the end of the charging period. When the battery is gassing freely and the specific gravity remains constant for 2 hours, you can assume that the battery will take no more charge.

The primary disadvantage of constant current charging is that THE CHARGING CURRENT REMAINS AT A STEADY VALUE UNLESS YOU CHANGE IT. A battery charged with too high current rate would overheat and damage the plates, making the battery useless. Do NOT allow the battery temperature to exceed 110° while charging.

CONSTANT VOLTAGE

constant potential charging, is usually done with a motor generator set. The motor drives a generator (similar to a generator on a vehicle); this generator produces current to charge the battery. The voltage in this type of system is usually held constant. With a constant voltage, the charging rate to a low battery will be high. But as the battery approaches full charge, the opposing voltage of the battery goes up so it more strongly opposes the charging current. This opposition to the charging current indicates that a smaller charge is needed. As the battery approaches full charge, the charging voltage decreases. This condition decreases the ability to maintain a charging current to the battery. As a result, the charging current tapers off to a very low value by the time the

battery is fully charged. This principle of operation is the same as that of the voltage regulator on a vehicle.

CHARGING

It is easy to connect the battery to the charger, turn the charging

current on, and, after a normal charging period, turn the charging current off and remove the battery. Certain precautions however are necessary both BEFORE and DURING the charging period. These practices are as follows: 1. Clean and inspect the battery thoroughly before placing it on charge. Use a solution of baking soda and water for cleaning; and inspect for cracks or breaks in the container.

PLACING NEW BATTERIES IN SERVICE

New batteries may come to you full of electrolyte and fully charged. In this case, that is necessary is to install the batteries properly in the piece of equipment. Most batteries shipped to NCF units are received charged and dry.

Charged and dry batteries will retain their state of full charge indefinitely so long as moisture is not allowed to enter the cells. Therefore, batteries should be stored in a dry place. Moisture and air entering the cells will allow the negative plates to oxidize. The oxidation causes the battery to lose its charge. To activate a dry battery, remove the restrictors from the vents and remove the vent caps. Then fill all the cells to the proper level with electrolyte. The best results are obtained when the temperature of the battery and electrolyte is within the range of 60° F to 80° F.

Some gassing will occur while you are filling the battery due to the release of carbon dioxide that is a product of the drying process of the hydrogen sulfide produced by the presence of free sulphur. Therefore, the filling operations should be in a well-ventilated area. These gases and odours are normal and are no cause for alarm.

Approximately 5 minutes after adding electrolyte, the battery should be checked for voltage and electrolyte strength. More than 6 volts or more than 12 volts, depending upon the rated voltage of the battery, indicates the battery is ready for service. From 5 to 6 volts or from 10 to 12 volts indicate oxidized negative plates, and the battery should be charged before use. Less than 5 or less than 10 volts, depending upon the rated voltage, indicates a bad battery, which should not be placed in service.

If, before placing the battery in service, the specific gravity, when corrected to 80° F, is more than .030 points lower than it was at the time of initial filling or if one or more cells gas

violently after adding the electrolyte, the battery should be fully charged before use. If the electrolyte reading fails to rise during charging, discard the battery. If, before placing the battery in service, the specific gravity, when corrected to 80° F, is more than .030 points lower than it was at the time of initial filling or if one or more cells gas violently after adding the electrolyte, the battery should be fully charged before use. If the electrolyte reading fails to rise during charging, discard the battery.

Most shops receive ready-mixed electrolyte. Some units may still get concentrated sulphuric acid that must be mixed with distilled water to get the proper specific gravity for electrolyte. MIXING ELECTROLYTE is a dangerous job. You have probably seen holes appear in a uniform for no apparent reason. Later you remembered replacing a storage battery and having carelessly brushed against the battery the water slowly, stirring gently but thoroughly all the time. Large quantities of acid

may require hours of safe dilution.

Figure 2-5 shows you how much water and acid to mix for obtaining a certain specific gravity. For example, mixing 5 parts of water to 2 parts of acid produces an electrolyte of 1.300, when starting with 1.835 specific gravity acid. If you use 1.400 specific gravity acid, 2 parts water and 5 parts acid will give the same results.

Let the mixed electrolyte cool down to room temperature before adding it to the

battery cells. Hot electrolyte will eat up the cell plates rapidly. To be on the safe side, do not add the electrolyte if its temperature is above 90° F. After filling the battery cells, let the

electrolyte cool again because more heat is generated by its contact with the battery plates. Next, take hydrometer readings. The specific gravity of the electrolyte will correspond quite closely to the values on the mixing chart if the parts of water and acid are mixed correctly.

BATTERY MAINTENANCE

If a battery is not properly maintained, its service life will be drastically reduced. Battery maintenance should be done during every PM cycle. Complete battery maintenance includes the following:

Visually checking the battery.

Checking the electrolyte level in cells on batteries with caps. Adding water if the electrolyte level is low.

Cleaning off corrosion around the battery and battery terminals.

Figure 2-5.- Electrolyte mixing chart. BATTERY TEST

As a mechanic you will be expected to test batteries for proper operation and

condition. These tests are as follows: Battery leakage test

Battery terminal test Battery voltage test Cell voltage test Battery drain test

Battery load test (battery capacity test) Quick charge test

BATTERY LEAKAGE TEST.- A battery leakage test will determine if current is discharging across the top of the battery. A dirty battery can discharge when not in use. This condition shortens battery life and causes starting problems.

To perform a battery leakage test, set a voltmeter on a low setting. Touch the probes on the battery, as shown in figure 2-6. If any current is registered on the voltmeter, the top of the battery needs to be cleaned.

BATTERY TERMINAL TEST.- The battery terminal test quickly checks for poor electrical connection between the terminals and the battery cables. A voltmeter is used to measure voltage drop across terminals and cables.

To perform a battery terminal test (fig. 2-7), connect the negative voltmeter lead to the battery cable end. Touch the positive lead to the battery terminal. With the ignition or injection system disabled so that the engine will not start, crank the engine while watching the voltmeter reading.

Figure 2-6.- Battery leakage test. Figure 2-7.- Battery terminal test.

BATTERY VOLTAGE TEST.

The battery voltage test is done by measuring total battery voltage with an accurate voltmeter or a special battery tester (fig. 2-8). This test determines the general state of charge and battery condition quickly.

The battery voltage test is used on maintenance-free batteries because these batteries do not have caps that can be removed for testing with a hydrometer. To perform this test, connect the voltmeter or battery tester across the battery terminals. Turn on the vehicle headlights or heater blower to provide a light load. Now read the meter or tester. A well-charged battery should have over 12 volts. If the meter reads approximately 11.5 volts, the battery is not charged adequately, or it may be defective.

CELL VOLTAGE TEST.

The cell voltage test will let you know if the battery is discharged or defective. Like a

hydrometer cell test, if the voltage reading on one or more cells is .2 volts or more lower than the other cells, the battery must be replaced. To perform a cell voltage test (fig. 2-9), use a low voltage reading voltmeter with special cadmium (acid resistant metal) tips. Insert the tips into each cell, starting at one end of the battery and work your way to the other. Test each cell carefully. If the cells are low, but quall recharging usually will restore the battery. If cell voltage readings vary more than .2 volts, the battery is BAD.

Figure 2-8.- Battery voltage test performed with a battery tester.

Figure 2-9.- Cell voltage test.

BATTERY DRAIN TEST.- A battery drain test checks for abnormal current draw

with the ignition off. If a battery goes dead without being used, you need to check for a current drain.

To perform a battery drain test, set up an ammeter, as shown in figure 2-10. Pull the fuse if the vehicle has a dash clock. Close all doors and trunk (if applicable). Then read the ammeter. If everything is off, there should be a zero reading. Any reading indicates a problem. To help pinpoint the problem, pull fuses one at a time until there is a zero reading on the ammeter. This action isolates the circuit that has the problem.

BATTERY CAPACITY TEST.-

A battery load test, also termed a battery capacity test, is the best method to check battery condition. The battery load test measures the current output and performance of the battery under full current load. It is one of the most common and informative battery tests used today.

Before load testing a battery, you must calculate how much current draw should be applied to the battery. If the ampere-hour rating of the battery is given, load the battery to three times its amp-hour rating. For example, if the battery is rated at 60 amp-hours, test the battery at 180 amps (60 x 3 = 180). The majority of the batteries are now rated in SAE cold-cranking amps, instead of amp-hours. To determine the load test for these batteries, divide the cold-crank rating by two. For example, a battery with 400 cold cranking amps rating should be loaded to 200 amps (400 ÷ 2 = 200). Connect the battery load tester, as shown in figure 2-11. Turn the control knob until the ammeter reads the correct load for your battery.

DC Motor

Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an electric motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used to power hundreds of devices we use in everyday life. Motors come in various sizes. Huge motors that can take loads of 1000’s of Horsepower are typically used in the industry. Some examples of large motor applications include elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling mills. Examples of small motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand power tools and food blenders. Micro-machines are electric machines with parts the size of red blood cells, and find many applications in medicine. Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit them well for specific applications. In most cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and arotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through the interaction of magnetic flux and electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct current. There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles. In this chapter, we will study their basic principle of operation and their characteristics. It’s important to understand motor characteristics so. we can choose the right one for our application requirement.

Learning Objectives:

Understand the basic principles of operation of a DC motor. 

Understand the operation and basic characteristics of simple 

DC motors.

Compute electrical and mechanical quantities using the 

Use motor nameplate data. 

Study some applications of DC motors. 

Recommended text for this section of the course:

(i) Allan R. Hambley, Electrical Engineering Principles and Applications, Chapter 16.

(ii) Giorgio Rizzoni, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, Chapter 17

2 DC Motors

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of transfer between an input

side and an output side. Three electrical machines (DC, induction and synchronous) are used extensively for

electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a change in

magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion.

Electric Motor

The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is mechanical energy (to the load).

Electrical Electromechanical Mechanical Energy conversion device energy

Source Motor Load Figure. 1

Electric Generator

The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is electrical energy.

energy conversion device energy Source Generator Load

Figure. 2

Construction

DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set of

permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature, resulting

in motion.

Stator

The

 stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.

The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of 

two or more permanent magnet pole pieces.

The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an 

electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil (field

winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.

Rotor

The

 rotor is the inner part which rotates.

The rotor is composed of windings (called armature 

windings) which are connected to the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.

Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. 

The two are separated by air-gap.

Winding

Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is 

applied or induced.

Field winding - The winding through which a current is 

passed to produce flux (for the electromagnet) Windings are usually made of copper.



DC Motors 3

DC Motor Basic Principles Energy Conversion

If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction of

current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and therefore,

mechanical energy).

Value of Mechanical Force

There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The conductor must

be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be

applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic

field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate. The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows.

F = B i l Newton (1)

where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of current flowing in the

conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Figure 3: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes from the North pole to the

South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in the wire (second - current). The thumb

then points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb - torque or thrust).

Principle of operation

Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two ends of the coil are Connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result of the interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the direction of force.

In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience force,

resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic field, the faster the wire

moves because of the greater force created.

At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field. At

different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e = d/dt) as shown in

figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is

referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.

The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its production according to Lenz’s law. It results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually, the rotor slows just enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals the load force applied on the shaft. Then the system moves at constant velocity

The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows.

The force on one coil of wire F =i l x B Newton Note that l and B are vector quantities

Since B = A where A is the area of the coil,

Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:

T = K  Ia

Where  is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant depending on coil geometry, and Ia is the current flowing in the armature winding.

Note: Torque T is a function of force and the distance, equation (2) lumps all the constant parameters (eg.

length, area and distance) in constant K.

The mechanical power generated is the product of the machine torque and the mechanical speed of rotation, m

Or, Pm = m T

= m K  Ia (3)

It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be used either as a motor or as a generator, by reversing

the terminal connection.

Induced Counter-voltage (Back emf):

Due to the rotation of this coil in the magnetic field, the flux linked with it changes at different positions,

The induced emf in a single coil, e = dc /dt Since the flux linking the coil,

c =  Sin wt

Induced voltage : e =  Cos t

As there are several coils wound all around

the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the amount of flux change through it, the total emf can be obtained by summing up the individual emfs.

The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils wound on the rotor can be obtained by integrating

Eb = K  m

where K is an armature constant, and is related to the geometry and magnetic properties of the motor, and  m is the speed of rotation.

The electrical power generated by the machine is given by: Pdev = Eb Ia = K  m Ia

DC Motor Equivalent circuit

The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two distinct circuits: Field circuit and armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, thefield winding is supplied from a separate DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent the resistance and inductance of the field winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the magnetic field necessary for motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied across the motor terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is

the resistance of the armature winding, and Eb isthe total voltage induced in the armature.

Voltage Equation

Applying KVL in the armature circuit of Figure 7: VT = Eb + IaRa

where VT is voltage applied to the armature terminals of the motor and Ra is the resistance of the armature

winding.

Note: The induced voltage is typically represented by symbol e (or E) and the terminal voltage by v (or V).

At standstill, the motor speed is zero, therefore back emf is also zero. The armature current at starting

is thus very large.

Applying KVL in the field circuit of Vf = Rf If

Where Vf is voltage applied to the field winding (to produce the magnetic field), Rf is the resistance of the field winding, and If is the current through the field winding.

Power Transfer Equation

We have earlier obtained the following relationship for torque developed in the motor (from equation 2):

The developed power is the power converted to mechanical form, and is given by (from equation 3):

Pdev = m Tdev

This is the power delivered to the induced armature voltage (counter-voltage) and given by:

EbIa (electrical power) = m Tdev (mechanical power developed)

Note: The speed in revolutions per minute, N, is related to the angular speed (in radians per second) by

= 2 n60

N can be written as r/min or rpm, both mean the same thing. Noting that the flux in the machine is proportional to the current flowing in the field winding (i.e. If), we can

compare induced voltages at two different speeds.

If the induced voltage at the first operating speed N1, and field winding current If1 is given by:

Eb 1 Eb 2 = If 1 If 2 Sprocket Introduction

The name 'sprocket' applies generally to any wheel upon which are radial projections that engage a chain passing over it. It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth (Wikipedia). Sprockets can be supplied in various materials and styles, depending upon the

application and severity of service requirements. Generally there are two major ways of categorising sprockets; by general form and form of the hub. Table 1 and Fig 1 show sprocket classification by general form and their applications while Table 2 shows classification based on hub form. For most applications, fabricated steel sprockets are recommended as offering the best combination of performance, availability, and price. Fabricated steel sprockets can be provided for every chain tooth combination and are readily available (Rexnord, n. d.).

Figure 1: Sprocket Styles

There are several methods that could be used to manufacture sprocket. The methods include milling, hobbing, powder metallurgy, sintering, and steel casting. The selection of a particular process is hinged on the sprocket material, equipment availability and cost. A hobbing machine is a milling variant used to cut sprockets, gears, and splined parts using a specialist cutting tool known as hob. The hob is a cylindrical cutting tool that features a series of helical rows of teeth. The hobbing machine features two spindles, one of which holds the work piece and the other the hob. Both spindles rotate at a set ratio while the hob is advanced into the work piece to cut the teeth. Cutting toothed parts on a hobbing machine is a cheap yet accurate method of production of a wide range of products including worm gears, ratchets, involutes gears, and helical gears.

In most cases, the manufacturing process to be used greatly lies on the facility available. Though, hobbing remains one the best methods that could be used, in this work universal milling machine was used. The operation layout of the manufacturing process is shown in Fig.