THE$RELATIONSHIP$BETWEEN$PSYCHOLOGICAL$
CAPITAL$AND$PSYCHOLOGICAL$WELL3BEING$
$
Ruaan$Kriel$de$Andrade$
202$310$159$
Dr$J.D.$Schoeman$
Supervisor$
$
Submitted)in)fulfilment)of)the)requirements)for)
the)degree)
MASTERS$INDUSTRIAL$&$
ORGANISATIONAL$PSYCHOLOGY
)of)the)
NELSON$
MANDELA$METROPOLITAN$UNIVERSITY$
$
November$2013$
$
$ $ $ $ $ $ $$ PERMISSION$TO$SUBMIT$FINAL$COPIES$ OF$TREATISE/DISSERTATION/THESIS$TO$THE$EXAMINATION$OFFICE!! Please!type!or!complete!in!black!ink)) Department:$Department)of)Industrial)&)Organisational)Psychology) I,)(surname)and)initials)of)supervisor/promoter))Schoeman,)J) the)supervisor/promoter)for)(surname)and)initials)of)candidate))Kriel)de)Andrade,)R)(student)number)) 202310159)a)candidate)for)the)(full)description)of)qualification))) Masters)in)Industrial)&)Organisational)Psychology)) with)a)treatise/dissertation/thesis)entitled)(full)title)of)treatise/dissertation/thesis):)) The)relationship)of)Psychological)Capital)to)Psychological)WellQBeing) hereby)certify)that)the)proposed)amendments)to)the)treatise/dissertation/thesis)have)been)effected)
and)that)we$give$the$candidate$permission$to$submit)the)final)bound)copies)of)his/her)
treatise/dissertation/thesis)to)the)examination)office.) We)also)declare)that)in)the)case)of)a)submission$from$a$doctoral$candidate,$that$we$have$received$an$ article)based)on)the)research)for)the)thesis,)in)accordance)with)regulation)G4.6.7)from)the)General) Prospectus.))) ) ) $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
DECLARATION$ ) I,)Ruaan)Kriel)de)Andrade,)hereby)certify)that:) • The)contents)of)this)treatise)is)my)own)original)work) • Sources)used)have)been)acknowledged)and)documented)by)means)of)complete)references,) and) • That)the)treatise)has)not)been)previously)submitted)for)a)degree)at)any)other)tertiary) institution.) ) ) ) ) ) Ruaan$Kriel$de$Andrade$$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
$ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS$ $ As)with)all)things)in)life,)completing)this)treatise)could)not)have)been)done)in)isolation)and)I)would) thus)like)to)make)use)of)this)opportunity)to)thank)a)few)special)people)who)contributed)towards) completing)it.$ • Firstly,)I)would)like)to)thank)my)Supervisor,)Dr)Johan)Schoeman)for)his)guidance,)dedication,) patience,)support)and)expertise)throughout)this)study.)
• I) would) like) to) extend) my) thanks) to) Dr) Jacques) Petersen) with) his) assistance) in) the) data) analysis) and) the) data) processing,) and) for) his) expertise) and) patience) in) many) visits) to) his) office)for)statistical)guidance.))
• A) special) mention) to) the) main) man) himself,) the) guy) with) the) golden) smile,) Mr) Vuyani) Mhlontlo,)from)the)NMMU)South)Campus)Library,)who)went)out)his)way)to)assist)me)finding) relevant)and)current)articles.))
• To)my)family,)especially)my)mom,)grandmother)and)brothers:)thank)you)for)believing)in)me)
and)for)your)constant)love)and)support)during)this)time.)
• To) my) friends,) thank) you) for) your) understanding) and) support) during) this) time) and) for) allowing)me)to)be)a)“DebbieQdowner”)when)I)needed)to)head)home)early,)or)not)being)able) to)come)over)at)all.))
• A)special)thanks)to)a)dear)friend)Kelly)Galloway,)for)your)continuous)support)and)faith)in)me.)
Thank) you) for) helping) me) set) up) a) time) frame,) because) as) you) call) it,) “structure) relieves) stress”.) Your) continuous) reminders) that) this) is) a) process) to) be) taken) oneQstepQatQaQtime,) were)a)source)of)encouragement)that)you)will)never)understand.)Thank)you)for)helping)me) capture)questionnaires)on)a)Sunday!)You)are)a)special)kind)of)person)and)I)am)blessed)to)call) you)my)friend.)) • To)the)love)of)my)life,)my)husband,)Leonard)Kriel)de)Andrade,)and)our)‘kids’,)Digit,)Decimal,) Dyad)and)Dalton:)you)are)my)rock,)support)and)source)of)encouragement)and)happiness)the) past)couple)of)years.)Thank)you)for)helping)me)to)achieve)my)dreams)–)I)am)nothing)without) you.) ! $ $ $
TABLE$OF$CONTENTS$
$ $ $$$$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ Page$ PERMISSION$TO$SUBMIT$FINAL$COPIES$$ ii$ DECLARATION$$ iii$ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS$ iv$ TABLE$OF$CONTENTS$ viii$ LIST$OF$FIGURES$ ix$ LIST$OF$TABLES$ x) $ ABSTRACT$ $ xiii$ $ $ $ CHAPTER$1$ INTRODUCTION$AND$BACKGROUND$TO$THE$STUDY$ $ 1.1) ) INTRODUCTION)TO)THE)STUDY)) 1) 1.2) ) BACKGROUND)TO)THE)STUDY)) 1) 1.3) BRIEF)LITERATURE)OVERVIEW) 2) 1.4) ) ORIGIN)AND)DEFINITION)OF)POSITIVE)ORGINISATIONAL)SCHOLARSHIP) 2) 1.5$ $ ORIGIN)AND)DEFINITION)OF)POSITIVE)ORGINISATIONAL)BEHAVIOUR$ 3) 1.6) ) CONSTRUCTS)AND)VARIABLES)INCLUDED)IN)THE)STUDY) 3) 1.7)))) ) PSYCHOLOGICAL)WELLQBEING) 4) 1.8)))))) ) ORIGIN)OF)PSYCHOLOGICAL)CAPITAL)(PsyCap)) 5) 1.8.1) ) Psychological)Capital)Variable)of)Hope) 5) 1.8.2) ) Psychological)Capital)variable)of)SelfQEfficacy) 5) 1.8.3) ) Psychological)Capital)variable)of)Resilience) 6) 1.8.4) ) Psychological)Capital)variable)of)Optimism) 6))) 1.9) ) AIM)OF)THE)PRESENT)RESEARCH) 6) 1.10) ) RESEARCH)PROBLEM) 7) 1.11) ) RESEARCH)SETTINGS) 7) 1.12) ) THE)OUTLINE)OF)THE)PROPOSED)STUDY) 7) 1.13) ) METHODOLOGY)OF)THE)STUDY) 7) 1.13.1) ) Survey)Research) 8) 1.13.2) ) Positivistic)Paradigm) 8) 1.13.3) ) Quantitative)Research)Approach) 8) 1.14) ) SUMMARY) 8)) $ $ $ $CHAPTER$2$ LITERATURE$REVIEW$ ) 2.1) ) INTRODUCTION) 9) 2.2) ) WELLQBEING)IN)PERSPECTIVE) 9) 2.2.1) ) A)overview)of)Eudaimonic)WellQBeing) 10) 2.2.2) ) Variables)of)Psychological)WellQBeing)Researched)in)this)Study) 10) 2.3) ) THE)PSYCHOLOGICAL)WELLQBEING)DIMENSIONS) 11) 2.3.1) ) Autonomy) 11) 2.3.2) ) Environmental)Mastery) 12) 2.3.3) ) Personal)Growth) 14) ) 2.3.4) ) Positive)Relations)with)others)in)the)Workplace) 14) 2.3.5) ) Purpose)in)Worklife) 15) 2.3.6) ) SelfQAcceptance) 16) 2.4) ) WELLQBEING)AMONGST)NURSING)STAFF)IN)SOUTH)AFRICA) 18) 2.5) ) THE)INDEPENDENT)VARIABLE:)PSYCHOLOGICAAL)CAPITAL)(PsyCap)) 20) 2.5.1) ) Introduction) 20) 2.5.2) ) What)is)Psychological)Capital?) 21) 2.5.3) ) PsyCap)Research)in)South)Africa) 21) 2.5.4) ) PsyCap)amongst)Nurses)in)Hospitals) 22) 2.6) ) PSYCAP:)THE)FOUR)PILLARS) 23) 2.6.1) ) Hope) ) 24) 2.6.2) ) What)is)Hope?) 25) 2.6.3) ) Characteristics)of)Leaders)with)high)levels)of)Hope) 25) 2.7) ) SELFQEFFICACY) 27) 2.7.1) ) Definition)of)SelfQEfficacy) 28) 2.7.2) ) Characteristics)of)Highly)Efficacious)People) 28) 2.7.3) ) The)Sources)of)SelfQEfficacy) 29) 2.8) ) RESILIENCE) 30) 2.8.1) ) How)can)Hospitals)make)Nurses)Resilient?) 30) 2.9) ) OPTIMISM) 35) 2.9.1) ) Definition)of)Optimism) 36) 2.9.2) ) High)and)Low)Levels)of)Optimism) 36) 2.10) ) SUMMARY) 37) 2.10.1) ) Theoretical)Support)sourced)from)the)Literature) 37) 2.10.2) ) Reasons)for)doing)the)Study) 38) 2.10.3) ) Research)Questions)and)Propositions) 38) ) ) )
$ CHAPTER$3$ RESEARCH$METHODOLOGY$ $ 3.1) ) ) INTRODUCTION)) 40) 3.2) ) ) OVERVIEW)OF)THE)REASEARCH)DESIGN) 40) 3.3) ) ) THE)SAMPLE)SIZE)AND)RESEARCH)PARTICIPANTS))) 41) 3.4) ) ) MEASURING)INSTRUMENTS)) 41) 3.4.1)) ))))))The)Psychological)WellQBeing)Questionnaire)designed)by)Carol)Ryff) 41) 3.4.1.1)))))))Methodology)Employed)by)Carol)Ryff)(1989)) 42) 3.4.1.2)))))))Research)Results)of)the)Carol)Ryff)Study)(1989)) 43) 3.4.1.3)))))))Summary)of)the)Psychological)WellQBeing)Questionnaire) 44) 3.4.2)) ))))))The)Current)Study:)The)factor)Structure)of)the)Psychological)WellQBeing) ) ) ) Questionnaire)(Ryff)2000)) 45) 3.4.2.1)))))))Summary) 58) 3.4.3)) ) The)Psychological)Capital)Questionnaire)designed)by)Luthans)(2007).) 59) 3.4.3.1)) Research)used)to)Validate)the)PSYCAP)measuring)instrument)(PCQQ24)) 60) 3.4.3.2)) A)South)African)study)that)has)used)the)PsyCap)measuring)instrument) 62) 3.4.3.3)) Current)Study’s)variables)) 65) 3.4.3.3.1) Factor)Structure)of)the)PsyCap)questionnaire)(PCQQ24)) 65) 3.4.3.3.2) Summary)of)the)PsyCapQ24)measuring)instrument) 71) 3.5) ) ) DATA)GATHERING) 72) 3.5.1)) ) Research)Data)Collection) 72) 3.5.2)) ) The)Analysis)of)Data) 73) 3.6) ) ) SUMMARY) 74) ) ) CHAPTER$4$ PRESENTATION$OF$RESULTS$ $ 4.1)) ANALYSIS)OF)DATA) 75) 4.2)) DEMOGRAPHICAL)DATA)) 75) 4.3)) CONTENTS)AND)DESCRIPTIVE)STATISTICS)FOR)REVISED)FACTORS) ) FOR)THE)QUESTIONNAIRES) 78) ) 4.3.1)) PsyCap)Descriptive)Statistics)Explained)) 79) 4.3.2)) Nursing)Psychological)WellQBeing’s)descriptive)statistics)explained) 81) 4.4)) RESEARCH)QUESTIONS)AND)SUPPORTING)PROPOSITIONS)FORMULATED) ) FOR)THE)STUDY) 82)
4.4.1)) The)first)research)question) 82) 4.4.1.1)) Psychological)WellQBeing)Questionnaire)(PWBQQ31)) 83) 4.4.1.2) Psychological)Capital)Questionnaire)(PCQQ24)) 83) 4.4.2) The)Second)Research)Question) 83) 4.4.3) The)Third)Research)Question) 87) 4.4.3) The)Fourth)Research)Question) 87) ) CHAPTER$5$ CONCLUSIONS,$CONTRIBUTIONS,$LIMITATIONS$$ AND$RECOMMENDATIONS$ $ 5.1)))))))))))INTRODUCTION) 88) 5.2)))))))))))CONCLUSIONS)AND)MAIN)FINDINGS)) 88) 5.2.1))))))))Findings) 88) 5.2.2) Research$Question$#1:)) What)is)the)content)of)the)constructs)and)to)what)extent)can)the)measuring)instrument)and) the)statistical)outcome)be)transferred)to)a)cultural)environment)different)form)the)original) where)it)was)developed?) 88) 5.2.2.1) PsyCap)QuestionnaireQ24) 90) 5.2.2.2) Psychological)WellQBeingQ54) 90) 5.2.3) Research$question$#2:)) PsyCap)is)positively)related)to)Psychological)WellQBeing) 91) 5.2.4) Research$Question$#3:$$ Resilience)is)positively)related)to)Psychological)WellQBeing) 91) 5.2.5) Research$Question$#4:$$ PsyCap)is)positively)related)to)Psychological)WellQBeing)Amongst)the)demographical)job) function)of)Registered)Nurse.) 92) 5.3)))))))))MAIN)CONTRIBUTIONS) 92) 5.4)))))))))LIMITATIONS)OF)THE)STUDY) 95) 5.5)))))))))RECOMMENDATIONS)AND)CONCLUSIONS) 96) )))))))))))))) ) ))))))))))))))Bibliography) 99) ))))))))))))))) ))))))))))))))Appendix)A)–)Questionnaire)used)in)this)study) 106) ) ) ) )
) LIST$OF$FIGURES$ Page$ $ $ Figure)2.1:) Core)dimensions)of)WellQBeing)and)their)theoretical)foundation) ) ) 11) ) Figure)2.2:) The)Four)Pillars)of)PsyCap)(Luthans)&)Youssef,)2004))))) ) ) ) 24) ) Figure)2.3:)) Framework)for)facilitating)and)enhancing)resilience)and)PsychoQsocial)WellQBeing)of) Professional)Nurses)in)South)Africa)(Koen,)2010)) ) ) ) ) 31) ) Figure)4.1:) Descriptive)Statistics:)Hope/Optimism.) ))) ) ) ) ) 78) ) Figure)4.2:) Descriptive)Statistics:)Efficacy) ) ) ) ) ) ) 79) ) Figure)4.3:) Descriptive)Statistics:)Resilience) ) ) ) ) ) ) 79) ) Figure4.4:) Descriptive)Statistics:)Total)PsyCap) ) ) ) ) ) ) 80) ) Figure)4.5:)) Descriptive)Statistics:)Total)Nursing)Psychological)WellQBeing) ) ) ) 80) ) Figure)5.1:) Highly)correlated)relationship)of)PsyCap)&)its)3)factors) ) ) ) 92) ) Figure)5.2:) Moderate)relationship)of)PsyCap)variables)to)Nursing)Psychological) ) ) WellQBeing) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 93) ) Figure)5.3:) Moderate)relationship)of)seven)NPWB)factors)to)PsyCap) ) ) ) 93) ) Figure)5.4:) Moderate)correlation)illustrating)that)PsyCap)is)positively)related)to)PWB) ) ) (r)=)0.500)) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 94) ) ) $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
LIST$OF$TABLES$ Page$ $ Table)1.1:) Research)variables)(Dependant)and)independent)) ) ) ) ) 4) ) Table)2.1:) Definitions)of)theoryQguided)dimensions)of)WellQBeing.)(Ryff,)1995)) ) ) 18) ) Table)2.2:)) A)Checklist)for)Leaders.) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 27) ) Table)2.3:) Five)characteristics)of)highly)efficacious)people.) ) ) ) ) 29) ) Table)2.4:) Strategies)for)improving)resilience)amongst)nursing)staff)in)SA)) ) ) 31) ) Table)2.5:) High)and)low)levels)of)optimism) ) ) ) ) ) ) 37) ) Table)3.1:) The)9Qitem)scale)indicative)of)high)correlation)with)20Qitem)questionnaire) ) 41) ) Table)3.2:) Intercorrelation)of)the)WellQBeing)Measure) ) ) ) ) ) 42) ) Table)3.3:) Factor)analysis)of)the)new)Psychological)WellQBeing)measure) ) ) ) 43) ) Table)3.4:) Acceptable)ranges)for)some)of)the)important)fit)indexes) ) ) ) 45) ) Table)3.5:) The)CFA)fit)indices)obtained)from)the)original)psychological)wellQ)being)) ) ) Structure)(n=152))) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 45) ) Table)3.6:) The)Eigenvalues)obtained)from)the)responses)to)the)original)Psychological) ) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(nQ152)) ) ) ) ) ) ) 47) ) Table)3.7:) Results)of)EFA)obtained)from)the)original)responses)to)the)psychological) ) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152):)Seven)factor)solution) ) ) ) 47) ) Table)3.8:))) Seven)factor)matrix)performed)on)the)responses)of)the)original)Psychological) ) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(nQ152)) ) ) ) ) ) ) 48) ) Table)3.9) Results)of)EFA)obtained)from)the)original)responses)to)the)psychological) ) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152):)Seven)factor)solution)with)9)item)excluded) ) 49) ) Table)3.10:) Seven)factor)correlation)matrix)performed)on)the)responses)of)the)original)) Psychological)WellQBeing)questionnaire)(nQ152))with)items)6,)7,8,15,23,28,33,) 34,)41)being)excluded) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 50) ) Table)3.11) Results)of)EFA)obtained)from)the)original)responses)to)the)psychological) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152):)Seven)factor)solution)with)16)items)excluded)) 51) ) Table)3.12) Seven)factor)correlation)matrix)performed)on)the)responses)of)the)original)) Psychological)WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152))with)16)items)being)excluded)))))))) 52) ) ) Table)3.13:) Results)of)EFA)obtained)from)the)original)responses)to)the)psychological) ) WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152):)Seven)factor)solution)with)20)items)excluded)) 53) ) Table)3.14(a):)Original)Ryff)(2000))Questions)and)factors)vs)new)factor)structure) ) ) 54) ) Table)3.14(b):)Original)Ryff)(2000))Questions)and)factors)vs)new)factor)structure) ) ) 56)
) Table)3.15:) SevenQfactor)correlation)matrix)performed)on)the)responses)of)the)original)) Psychological)WellQBeing)questionnaire)(n=152))20)items)excluded) ) ) 56) ) ) Table)3.16:) Results)of)confirmatory)factor)analysis)(CFA))on)the)sevenQfactor)solution)) Of)the)54)item)Ryff)Psychological)WellQBeing)questionnaire)with)20)items)) Eliminated.)(n=152)) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 57) ) ) Table)3.17:))))Two)studies)designed)by)Luthans)et)el)(2007))to)analyze)the)measure)of)PsyCap)) 59) ) Table)3.18:) Results)of)the)CFA)conducted)on)the)two)USAQbased)studies.) ) ) ) 60) ) Table)3.19:) Two)Cronbach)Alphas)–)Reliability)of)measures)of)the)PCQQ24) ) ) ) 60) ) Table)3.20:) Demographical)profile)of)the)South)African)PSYCAP)study)(n=131)) ) ) 61) ) Table)3.21:) Eigenvalues)results)in)the)Du)Plessis)and)Barkhuizen)(2012))study)(n=131)) ) 62) ) Table)3.22:) The)Orthogonal)transformation)matrix)of)the)Du)Plessis)and)Barkhuizen) ) 2012)study)(n=131)) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 63) ) Table)3.23:) Factor)Loading)of)Confirmatory)Factor)Analysis)(CFA))of)the)PCQQ24)in)current)study)) 64) ) Table)3.24:) CFA)Noncentrality)fit)Indices)and)single)Sample)Fit)Indices) ) ))))))))))))) ) 65 ) ) ) ) Table)3.25:) Eigenvalues)of)the)PsyCap)Questionnaire)in)the)current)study) ) ) ) 66) ) Table)3.26:) Exploratory)Factor)Analysis)(EFA))obtained)on)the)responses)on)the)PCQQ24) ) (n=152):)Four)Factor)Solution)with)no)items)out.) ) ) ) ) 67) ) Table)3.27:) Exploratory)Factor)Analysis)(EFA))obtained)on)the)responses)on)the)) PCQQ24)(n=152):)Four)Factor)Solutions)with)Items)A4,)A7)and)A17)out.) ) ) 68) ) Table)3.28:) Factor)Correlation)Matrix)of)the)Four)factor)Solution) ) ) ) ) 68) ) Table)3.29:) Exploratory)Factor)Analysis)(EFA))obtained)on)the)responses)on)the)) PCQ)(n=152):)Three)Factor)Solutions)with)six)items)out.) ) ) ) 69) ) Table)3.30:) Factor)Correlation)Matrix) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 69) ) Table)3.31:) The)Confirmatory)Factor)Analysis)(CFA))on)the)3)Factor)Solution)with)) ) ) ) ) 6)items)eliminated)(n=152):)Psychological)Capital) ) ) ) ) 70) ) Table)4.1:) Demographic)Characteristics)of)the)research)sample) ) ) ) ) 74) ) Table)4.2:) Responses)received)from)the)sample) ) ) ) ) ) 76) ) Table)4.3:) Nursing)department)functions)and)respondents) ) ) ) ) 77) ) Table)4.4:) Age)Levels) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 77) ) Table)4.5:) Descriptive)Statistics)scores)of)the)measuring)instruments) ) ) ) 78) ) Table)4.6(a):)New)factor)Structure)of)the)proposed)Nursing)Psychological)WellQBeing) ) ) Questionnaire) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 81) )
Table)4.6(b):)New)factor)structure)of)the)proposed)new)PsyCap)questionnaire) ) ) 82) ) Table)4.7:) Intercorrelations)of)scales)and)sub)scales)in)the)new)factor)structure)(n=152)) ) 83) ) ) ) )) Table)4.8:) The)GuilfordQscale)for)interpreting)correlations)coefficients) ) ) ) 83) ) Table)4.9:) Identification)of)new)factors)used)in)the)CorrelationQMatrix) ) ) ) 84) ) Table)4.10:) Level)of)usefulness)of)correlations)between)the)individual)variables)offered) ) ) By)the)GuilfordQscale)of)Correlation)Significance)(n=152)) ) ) ) 84) ) Table)4.11:) Correlations)between)the)Nursing)PWB)and)PsyCap)factors)) ) ) ) 86) ) ) $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
ABSTRACT$
$
A)study)of)the)available)literature)on)Psychological)WellQBeing)and)Positive)Organisational)Scholarship) revealed) that) enormous) potential) existed) for) further) research.) This) is) a) relatively) new) field) with) limited)literature)and)research)evidence)available.)It)became)very)clear)from)the)beginning)that)the) relationships)between)these)constructs)could)successfully)be)researched.)) ) It)was)therefore)decided)to)embark)on)an)academic)research)journey)in)order)to)contribute)to)the) existing)knowledge)available)on)these)constructs)within)the)South)African)Private)Healthcare)Industry.) This)quantitative)research)was)used)to)obtain)more)clarity)about)the)relationships)between)the)two) constructs)and)to)gather)the)responses)from)the)research)population.)The)research)sample)consisted) of)152)nursing)staff.) ) Two)questionnaires)were)integrated)to)develop)the)Nursing)Psychological)WellQBeing)Questionnaire) and) consisted) of) i)) PsyCap) Questionnaire) developed) by) Luthans,) Youssef) and) Avolio) (2007),) and) ii)) Psychological) WellQBeing) Questionnaire) developed) by) Ryff) (2000).) A) total) of) 152) nursing) staff) responded)to)an)87–item)paperQbased)questionnaire.)) ) Four)research)questions)were)formulated)and)covered)the)following:)) •)The)content,)validity)and)portability)of)the)measuring)instruments)) •)The)configuration)of)the)various)constructs)) •)Relationships)between)some)of)the)variables)) ) The)content)and)the)structure)of)the)measuring)instruments)were)assessed)by)means)of)Confirmatory) Factor) Analysis) (CFA)) and) Exploratory) Factor) Analyses) (EFA).) These) assessments) showed) that) the) original)measuring)instruments)are)not)portable)to)a)culture)which)is)different)to)the)one)where)they) were)originally)developed.)
)
The)relationship)between)dimensions)of)Psychological)WellQBeing)and)PsyCap)(sense)of)achievement) and) optimism)) is) a) significant) finding.) The) significance) of) the) findings) of) this) study) and) the) contribution) that) it) makes) to) the) existing) theory) is) seen) in) the) importance) of) the) portability) of) measuring) instruments.) Recommendations) in) this) regard) have) been) made) in) Chapter) 5.) Various) findings) have) also) highlighted) the) relationships) between) Psychological) WellQBeing) and) PsyCap.) The) importance)of)future)research)topics)has)been)recommended.)
) ) )
CHAPTER(1(
THE(PROBLEM(AND(ITS(SETTING(
1.1Introduction((This% chapter% provides% the% background% to% the% proposed% study,% which% includes% a% summary% of% the% research% constructs% of% Psychological% Well<Being% (PWB)% and% Psychological%Capital%(PsyCap).%
It%provides%a%general%introduction%to%the%context%of%the%research%study,%exploring%the% postulated% relationships% between% the% independent% construct% of% PsyCap% and% the% dependent%construct%of%Psychological%Well<Being.%The%chapter%begins%by%providing%an% overview% of% these% constructs.% There% is% an% exploration% of% the% field% of% positive% psychology,%which%includes%a%summary%of%positive%organisational%scholarship%(POS),% positive% organisational% behaviour% (POB)% and% the% independent% construct% of% PsyCap.% Furthermore,%the%chapter%also%provides%an%overview%of%the%dependent%construct%of% PWB.% This% is% followed% by% the% aims% and% objectives% of% the% study.% Thereafter,% the% benefits%of%the%study%are%identified%as%well%as%the%methodology%employed.%
1.2Problem(statement(and(background(to(the(proposed(study((
Stewart,% Duff,% Wong,% Melancon% &% Cheung% (2001)% believes% that% nursing% staff% does% very%important%work%in%the%South%African%context,%however%they%are%not%always%duly% rewarded% or% recognised% as% such.% (In% general,% nurses’% health% problems% are% more% strongly% associated% with% psychosocial% factors,% including% stress% at% work,% low% autonomy%and%lack%of%respect.)%In%addition,%among%the%employed%population%nurses% are% more% likely% than% other% workers% to% experience% a% high% level% of% job% strain% that%
reduces% their% Well<Being% (Goleman,% 1995)%
%
Positive%psychology%seems%to%have%become%an%umbrella%term%used%to%stimulate%and% organise% research,% application,% and% scholarship% on% strengths,% virtues,% excellence,% thriving,%flourishing,%resilience,%flow,%and%optimal%functioning%in%general.%This%focus% on%strengths,%solutions,%and%what%makes%life%worth%living,%provides%a%new%focal%point% for%developing%a%body%of%scholarship%(Culbertson,%Fullagar,%&%Mills,%2010).%
%
This%new%orientation%to%social%science%seems%complimentary%to%traditional%problem< focused% scholarship,% and% essential% for% understanding% the% full% range% of% human% experience%in%contemporary%times%(Stewart,%2001).%%%%%
%
Psychological%Capital%(PsyCap)%is%identified%as%the%independent%variable%and%can%be% defined% as% a% core% construct% consisting% of% the% positive% psychological% resources% of% efficacy,% hope,% optimism,% and% resilience.% Previous% research% has% consistently% linked% PsyCap% to% workplace% outcomes% including% employee% attitudes,% behaviours,% and% performance%(Hodges,%2010).%
%
A%review%of%the%literature%indicates%that%there%are%limited%research%that%shows%that% the%construct%known%as%PsyCap%plays%an%important%part%in%the%results%of%businesses%
and%its%employees,%but%very%little%research%has%been%done%with%regards%to%whether%or% not%PsyCap%of%employees%has%a%relationship%to%their%psychological%Well<Being.%
%
This% research% is% important% in% that% if% the% researcher% can% establish% a% relationship% between% PsyCap% and% Psychological% Well<Being% of% nursing% staff,% it% will% provide% organisations%with%a%starting%point%for%increasing%Well<Being%levels%at%work.%Another% important% factor% is% that% significant% individual% development% pertaining% to% hope,% efficacy,% optimism% and% resilience% can% ultimately% relate% to% their% overall% increase% in% Well<Being.% % 1.3The(Introduction(of(Positive(Psychology(( Positive%psychology%as%a%discipline%can%largely%be%related%back%to%a%few%psychological% theorists.%The%most%prominent%theory%is%Douglas%McGregor’s%Theory%X%and%Theory%Y.% Theory%X%represents%the%view%that%employees%need%to%be%forced%to%work%and%Theory% Y%represents%the%view%that%employees%are%self<motivated%and%self<directed%to%work.% Positive% psychology% thus% focuses% on% the% Theory% Y% element% orientated% towards% the% positive%side%of%human%behaviour%in%relation%to%work%(Schoeman,%2012).%%
According%to%Yüksel%&%Akdağ%(2011)%positive%psychology%actually%only%began%as%a%new% area%of%psychology%in%1998%with%Martin%Seligman%as%prominent%pioneer%at%the%time.% Practical% applications% of% positive% psychology% include% helping% individuals% and% organisations% identify% their% strengths% and% use% them% to% increase% and% sustain% their% respective% levels% of% Well<Being.% Positive% psychology,% when% applied% correctly% can% provide% employees% with% a% greater% opportunity% to% use% skills% and% vary% work% duties% (Seligman%&%Mihalyi,%2000).%%
Du%Plessis%&%Barkhuizen%(2012)%explains%that%positive%psychology%is%a%wide%term%with% greater% use% and% a% broader% audience.% Given% that% “positive% psychology% revisits% the% ‘average%person’%with%an%interest%in%finding%out%what%works,%what%is%right,%and%what% is%improving”%(Sheldon%&%King,%2001,%p.%216).%
Due% to% the% broad% nature% of% Positive% Psychology,% a% shift% to% grouping% all% those% understandings%and%definitions%together%was%inevitable,%and%the%outcome%is%what%is% known%today%as%Positive%Organisational%Scholarship%(Luthans,%2002).%
1.4Origin(and(Definition(of(Positive(Organisational(Scholarship((POS)((
POS% is% defined% as% the% study% of% positive% outcomes,% organisational% processes,% and% attributes% of% organisations% and% the% employees% (Cameron,% Dutton,% &% Quinn,% 2003).% POS% highlights% the% interactions% and% dynamics% of% positivism% in% the% organisation% amongst% people% that% can% be% described% as% abundance,% resilience,% virtuousness,% excellence,% thriving% and% flourishing.% POS% puts% an% increased% emphasis% on% ideas% of% “goodness”%and%positive%human%potential.%
A% need% existed% to% draw% from% various% theories% of% positivism% in% the% practice% of% psychology%and%group%them%together%to%form%a%“scholarship”.%
Cameron% et% al.% (2003)% state% that% POS% differs% from% the% traditional% organisational% studies% in% that% POS% focuses% on% and% seeks% to% understand% what% represents% the% very% best%of%the%human%condition.%POS%focuses%predominantly%on%the%positive%outcomes% of%human%behaviour%at%the%organisational%level%of%businesses.%
A% great% need% thus% existed% to% understand% and% define% what% Positive% Organisational% Scholarship% is.% As% Psychologists% are% fascinated% with% the% observation% of% human% behaviour,% a% clear% move% was% established% towards% understanding% POS% in% terms% of% Positive%Organisational%Behaviour%(POB)(Luthans,%2002).%
1.5(Origin(and(Definition(of(Positive(Organisational(Behaviour((POB)(%
POB% is% defined% by% Luthans% (2002)% as% “the% study% of% positively% oriented% human% resources%strengths%and%psychological%capacities%that%can%be%measured,%developed% and%effectively%managed%for%performance%in%contemporary%workplaces”%(p.%59).% Du% Plessis% &% Barkhuizen% (2012)% also% highlighted% that% POB% refers% to% a% positive% approach.%%It%scrutinizes%desired%behaviour%in%the%workplace%and%may%be%considered% to% be% the% first% step% in% building% much<needed% bridges% across% the% divide% between% popular%literature%and%scientific%knowledge%(Luthans,%2002).%This%conduit%in%itself%is%a% challenge% for% social% researchers% and% Human% Resources% (HR)% practitioners% who% are% the%custodians%of%social%issues%and%change%agents%in%organisations.%The%development% of% POB% has% been% demonstrated% to% have% a% significant% impact% on% employee% outputs% and%a%direct%impact%on%organisation’s%bottom%line.%Luthans,%Avolio%and%Avey%(2007)% acknowledge% that% this% performance% orientation% and% its% bottom% line% relevance% warrant%attention%to%it%in%both%public%and%private%organisations.%
It%is%thus%imperative%to%list%and%describe%the%constructs%and%variables%that%will%be%used% in%this%study%to%gain%greater%insight%and%understanding%into%the%constructs%of%PsyCap% and%Psychological%Well<Being.%
1.6Constructs(and(Variables(included(in(this(study(
An% attempt% will% be% made% to% establish% whether% relationships% exist% between% the% dependent%construct%of%Psychological%Well<Being%and%the%independent%construct%of% PsyCap.% One%dependent%construct%(with%6%variables)%and%one%independent%construct%(with%4% variables)%have%been%identified%for%research%purposes%in%the%present%study.%Table%1.1% provides%a%detailed%breakdown%of%the%10%research%variables%in%this%study.% ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! Table!1.1:"Research%Variables%(Dependent%and%Independent)% % 1.%Dependent%Construct% Research%variables% Construct(of(psychological(WellRBeing( (Ryff,%2006)( % 1. Self<acceptance% 2. Purpose%in%life%% 3. Environmental%mastery%% 4. Positive%relationships%% 5. Personal%growth%% 6. Autonomy% % 2.%Independent%Construct% Research%Variables% ( Construct(of(Psychological(Capital( (Luthans,%2002)% % % 1. Hope% 2. Efficacy% 3. Resilience% 4. Optimism% ( 1.7Psychological(WellRBeing((
Well<Being% has% been% defined% as% “the% optimal% psychological% functioning% and% experience”%and%can%be%differentiated%into%hedonic%Well<Being%and%eudaimonic%Well< Being% (Ryff% &% Keyes,% 1995;% Ryan% &% Deci,% 2001).% Hedonic% Well<Being% is% the% more% typical%operationalisation%of%Well<Being,%consisting%of%subjective%happiness%and%the% experience%of%pleasure%(Ryan%&%Deci,%2001).%Together,%these%components%are%often% summarised%as%happiness%(Culbertson,%Fullagar,%&%Mills,%2010).%%
According% to% the% World% Health% Organisation% (1948)% Well<Being% is% a% “state% of% complete%physical,%mental,%and%social%health%and%not%merely%the%absence%of%disease% or%infirmity.%
%
There%has%been%a%move%to%broaden%the%notion%of%Well<Being%to%include%motivational% and% behavioral% components% (Ryff,% 1989;% Ryff% &% Keyes,% 1995).% From% a% motivational% perspective,% eudaimonic% Well<Being% focuses% on% striving% for% self<realisation% (Waterman,%2008).%Behaviorally,%it%includes%optimal%positive%functioning%and%the%act% of%striving%(Ryff,%1989;%Ryff%&%Singer,%1998).%Thus,%eudaimonic%Well<Being%involves%a% sense% of% fulfillment% of% one’s% potential,% aspects% not% subsumed% in% the% conceptualisation% of% happiness.% Furthermore,% eudaimonic% Well<Being% is% more% cognition<based,% meaning% that% an% individual% is% arguably% motivated% to% take% actions% because%of%an%underlying%cognition%regarding%what%would%be%of%greatest%benefit%to% the%individual%and%his%or%her%overall%positive%feelings%and%thoughts%regarding%him%or% herself.% Eudaimonic% Well<Being% is% therefore% thus% commonly% also% referred% to% as% Psychological%Well<Being%(Arafa,%Nazel,%Ibrahim,%&%Attia,%2003).%
acceptance,%purpose%in%life,%environmental%mastery,%positive%relationships,%personal% growth%and%autonomy,%that%forms%part%of%the%dependent%variable%of%psychological% Well<Being.%Each%of%these%dimensions%may%have%their%individual%impact%on%the%level% of%PsyCap%evident%in%the%nursing%staff.%% 1.8Origins(of(Psychological(Capital((PsyCap)( According%to%Luthans%&%Youssef%%(2004),%PsyCap%is%positive%psychological%resources% owned%by%an%individual,%and%is%useful%in%predicting%a%psychological%state%synthesis%of% individual%high<performance%work%and%happiness%index.%These%positive%mental%states% can% ‘lead% to% positive% organisational% behaviour,% make% individuals% diligently% do% the% right%thing%and%obtain%higher%performance%and%job%satisfaction%(Zhao,%2009).%PsyCap% has% significantly% positive% effects% on% employee% performance,% satisfaction,% organisational% commitment,% and% Well<Being% in% the% workplace.% Employees% who% perceive% they% work% for% more% supportive% organisations% may% be% more% likely% to% experience%higher%levels%of%PsyCap,%which%in%turn%has%positive%effects%on%their%work% behaviour% and% job% performance% (Liu,% Hu,% Wang,% Sui,% &% Ma,% 2013).% %
PsyCap%has%four%pillars%consisting%of%confidence%or%self<efficacy,%hope,%optimism%and% resilience.% These% pillars% are% state<like% positive% psychological% forces,% rather% than% tendentious,% relatively% stable% and% trait<like% individual% characteristics.% It% can% be% objectively% measured,% invested% and% developed,% and% effectively% managed% (Zhao,% 2009).%
1.8.1(Psychological(Capital(variable(of(Hope(
Cheavens,%Feldman,%&%Woodward%(2006)%highlighted%that%this%movement%toward%a% "positive%psychology"%is%not%new%and%since%the%1950’s,%physicians%and%psychologists% have%pointed%to%the%role%of%hope%in%health%and%Well<Being%(Frankl,%1963;%Menninger,% 1959;% Schmale,% 1972;% Siegal,% 1986).% For% example,% in% his% 1959% address% to% the% American%Psychiatric%Association,%Karl%Menninger%suggested%that%the%power%of%hope% was%an%untapped%source%of%strength%and%healing%for%patients.%In%this%regard,%these% early%writers%on%this%topic%defined%hope%as%a%positive%expectancy%of%goal%attainment.% Snyder,%Irving%&%Anderson%(1991)%proposed%a%cognitive%model%of%hope%that%similarly% focuses%on%goal%attainment.%Unlike%previous%theories,%however,%Snyder%et%al%(1991)% model% focuses% not% only% on% expectancies,% but% also% on% the% motivation% and% planning% that%are%necessary%to%attain%goals.%Specifically,%Snyder%et%al%(1991)%defines%hope%as%"a% positive% motivational% state% that% is% based% on% an% interactively% derived% sense% of% successful%(a)%agency,%and%(b)%pathways”%(p.%23).%
1.8.2(Psychological(Capital(variable(of(SelfREfficacy((
Maddux% (2002)% explains% that% self<efficacy% is% what% one% believes% one% can% do% with% his/her%skills%under%certain%conditions.%%Another%broader%explanation%of%self<efficacy% is%sometimes%referred%to%as%a%set%of%preferences,%values,%and%beliefs%about%oneself%in% relation% to% their% environment.% Self<efficacy% beliefs% are% cognitive% structures% about% people’s% appraisal% of% their% capacity% to% master% specific% domains% of% actions,% for% example,%the%capacity%to%deal%successfully%with%opportunities%and%challenges%that%are%
associated%with%the%work%role.%
1.8.3(Psychological(Capital(variable(of(Resilience((
Mortazavi% (2012)% defines% resilience% as% people% that% are% recognised% to% have% (a)% a% staunch% acceptance% of% reality,% (b)% a% deep% belief,% often% buttressed% by% strongly% held% values,%that%life%is%meaningful,%and%c)%an%uncanny%ability%to%improvise%and%adapt%to% significant% change.% Optimism% about% the% future% is% backed% up% by% resilience% and% an% unyielding%belief%in%one’s%ability%to%cope%(Vuori%&%Astedt<Kurki,%2009).%
1.8.4(Psychological(Capital(variable(of(Optimism((
Avey% et% al.% (2011)% defines% Optimism% as% making% a% positive% attribution% about% succeeding%now%and%in%the%future.%Carver%and%Scheier%(2002)%define%optimism%as%an% anticipation% that% positive% events% will% occur.% Similarly,% Luthans% (2002)% explains% that% optimism% is% the% element% of% psychological% capital% that% is% associated% with% realistic% positive%outlooks.%
%
Optimism% then% provides% the% capacity% to% conserve% one’s% emotional% resources% and% redirect%them%from%worries%into%opportunities%(Hayek,%Novicevic,%Buckley,%Clayton,%&% Roberts,%2012).%
1.9Aim(of(the(present(research((
The%primary%aim%of%the%study%is%to%investigate%whether%significant%relationships%exist% between% the% Psychological% Well<Being% (self<acceptance,% purpose% in% life,% environmental%mastery,%positive%relationships,%personal%growth%and%autonomy),%and% positive%organisational%behavioural%variables%that%form%PsyCap,%(namely%hope,%self< efficacy,%resilience%and%optimism)%of%nursing%staff%in%the%Private%Healthcare%Industry% in%South%Africa.%%
%
In% summary,% the% aim% of% the% proposed% research% study% is% to% investigate% whether% relationships%exist%between%a)%Psychological%Well<Being%and%b)%Psychological%Capital% amongst%nursing%staff%in%the%Private%Healthcare%Industry%in%South%Africa.%% % The%secondary%aims%of%this%research%study%are:% • To%contribute%to%the%knowledge%of%Psychological%Well<Being%amongst%%nursing% staff%in%the%Private%Healthcare%Industry%in%South%Africa.%% % • To%establish%which%PsyCap%variables%are%contributory%factors%to%Psychological%Well< Being%amongst%nursing%staff.%%
• To% identify% the% PsyCap% variables% that% predict% the% Psychological% Well<Being% of%
nursing%staff%and%the%necessary%conditions%required%to%assist%and%develop%nursing% staff%to%become%extraordinary.%%
To%the%knowledge%of%the%researcher,%no%known%research%study%has%investigated%the% relationships% between% PsyCap% and% Psychological% Well<Being% constructs% has% been% conducted% amongst% nursing% staff% in% South% Africa.% Psychological% Capital% constructs% within% the% South% African% nursing% and% healthcare% environment% have% not% yet% been% integrated%into%understanding%Psychological%Well<Being.%
1.10(Research(Problem((
In% the% proposed% study,% the% Psychological% Well<Being% of% nursing% staff% in% the% Private% Healthcare%Industry%in%South%Africa%will%be%researched%in%order%to%investigate,%analyse% and%understand%the%relationship%between%their%level%of%Psychological%Well<Being%and% the%level%of%the%individual%psychological%capital%variables.% % 1.11(Research(settings(( The%research%will%be%conducted%amongst%nursing%staff%in%the%Private%Healthcare% Industry%in%South%Africa.%% % Nursing%staff%represents%the%following%roles:%% 1.%Care%Workers% 2.%Enrolled%Nurse%Auxiliary%% 3.%Enrolled%Nurse%% 4.%Registered/Professional%Nurse.% 1.12(The(Outline(of(the(proposed(study(( Chapter%2%will%be%focusing%on%the%literature%review%and%will%mainly%concentrate%on% the% definition% of% the% constructs% used% in% this% study.% The% strategic% constructs% of% Psychological% Well<Being% and% Psychological% Capital% will% be% explored% and% described.% Previous% research% conducted% on% these% constructs% is% also% discussed.% The% research% propositions%are%then%stated.%%
Chapter% 3% describes% the% research% methodology% used% in% this% study.% These% include% descriptive% statistics,% exploratory% and% confirmatory% factor% analysis,% correlation% analysis%and%regression%analysis.%%
In% Chapter% 4% the% results% of% the% quantitative% data% analysis,% including% the% obtained% factor%structures%for%each%of%the%respective%constructs,%will%be%presented.%Chapter%5% will%present%the%interpretation%and%the%discussion%of%the%research%findings%and%any% linkages%that%might%exist%with%the%research%propositions%stated%in%Chapter%1.%%
The% limitations% of% the% study% and% recommendations% for% future% research% are% also% discussed.%
1.13(Methodology(of(the(study((
This%section%will%provide%an%overview%of%the%methodology%that%has%been%used%to% conduct%the%research.%
1.13.1(Survey(research((
The%empirical%research%was%conducted%on%the%nursing%department’s%structure%in%the% Private%Healthcare%Industry%in%South%Africa.%%
%
The% Researcher% distributed% paper% questionnaires% to% the% Human% Resources% Department.% The% Researcher% with% the% assistance% of% the% HR% Department% then% distributed% the% questionnaires% to% the% various% unit% managers% at% the% hospital.% Upon% completion,% the% questionnaires% were% submitted% back% to% the% Human% Resources% Department% from% the% unit% managers% at% the% hospital.% The% researcher% was% involved% and% present% in% during% this% process% at% all% times.% On% the% deadline% date,% all% the% questionnaires%were%collected%and%captured%into%a%database%for%analyses%purposes.% 1.13.2(Positivistic(Paradigm(
The%research%will%be%conducted%within%the%positivistic%paradigm%as%the%study%can%be% observed% empirically% and% be% explained% with% logical% analysis.% Therefore,% a% scientific% method%will%be%employed%in%an%endeavour%to%seek%the%truth.%
1.13.3(Quantitative(research(approach(
The%over<arching%aim%of%the%study%is%to%ensure%that%accurate%empirical%data%was%to%be% obtained.%This%data%must%be%interpreted%to%establish%whether%the%proposed%research% propositions%established%for%this%study,%could%be%confidently%accepted%or%rejected.% In% order% to% test% these% propositions,% a% quantitative% research% approach% was% utilised,% making%use%of%Questionnaires.%According%to%Avey%et%al.%(2011)%quantitative%research% falls% into% the% category% of% empirical% studies% and% has% been% the% dominant% method% of% research%in%social%science.%
Quantitative% research% describes% group% tendencies% and% what% research% respondents% tend% to% do.% When% a% research% group% is% being% examined% and% researched,% there% will% always%be%reasons%for%their%action%and%behaviour.%At%the%conclusion%of%the%research,% a%single%characteristic%is%being%used%to%describe%what%generally%happens%and%how%the% research% group% typically% responds.% It% is% the% intention% and% aim% of% this% study% to% establish% whether% relationships% exist% between% the% dependent% variable% of% Psychological%Well<Being%and%the%independent%variable%of%PsyCap.%
1.14(Summary((
This% study% aims% to% determine% the% relationship% of% Psychological% Capital% to% Psychological%Well<Being%that%could%be%used%to%assist%hospitals%to%develop%pro<active% strategies%and%interventions%to%assist%them%to%attain%a%positive%organisational%state.% This% can% be% achieved% by% understanding% the% Well<Being% levels% of% their% nursing% staff% and%to%what%extent%their%PsyCap%influences%their%Well<Being%levels.%
PsyCap%has%been%identified%as%an%independent%construct%that%could%possibly%influence% the% Psychological% Well<Being% of% nursing% staff.% The% dependent% Psychological% Well< Being% constructs% include% self<acceptance,% purpose% in% life,% environmental% mastery,%
positive% relationships,% personal% growth% and% autonomy.% This% study% aims% to% explore% and%investigate%the%relationship%between%the%dependent%and%independent%constructs% with% the% view% to% propose% suggestions% to% further% enhance% the% Psychological% Well< Being%of%nursing%staff%in%hospitals.%
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
CHAPTER(2(
(
LITERATURE(REVIEW(
% % 2.1(Introduction( % The%primary%aim%of%this%study%is%to%establish%whether%significant%relationships%exist% between% the% levels% of% Psychological% Capital% (PsyCap)% and% Psychological% Well<Being% (PWB)%of%nursing%staff%in%the%Private%Healthcare%Industry%in%South%Africa.%%
The% literature% review% begins% with% an% overview% of% current% literature% of% Well<Being.% Thereafter% the% construct% of% PsyCap% at% work% will% be% discussed,% followed% by% a% discussion% of% each% of% the% PsyCap% variables,% i.e.% hope,% self<efficacy,% resilience% and% optimism.%The%chapter%will%also%focus%on%the%reasons%for%undertaking%the%study%and% the% importance% of% empirical% studies% of% the% various% constructs% will% be% highlighted.% Lastly,% the% chapter% concludes% with% the% research% propositions% and% the% proposed% theoretical%Workplace%Well<Being%model%designed%for%this%research%study.%
%
2.2(WellRBeing(in(perspective( %
Schoeman,%(2012)%explained%that%the%workplace%is%a%significant%part%of%an%individual’s% life,% which% affects% his% or% her% life% as% well% as% the% Well<Being% of% the% community.% The% average%adult%spends%as%much%as%a%quarter%of%his%or%her%waking%life%at%work.%As%much% as% 20%% –% 25%% of% the% variation% in% adult% life% satisfaction% can% be% accounted% for% by% satisfaction%with%work%(Schoeman,%2012).%
%
The% concept% of% Well<Being% appears% in% several% different% forms% within% the% realm% of% Psychology,% showing% that% the% people% who% study% the% issue% see% it% in% different% ways.% Either%from%a%hedonistic%standpoint%(subjective%Well<Being),%a%view%based%on%intrinsic% potentialities%(psychological%Well<Being),%as%a%vision%based%on%skills%in%relationships% and%social%insertion%(social%Well<Being),%or%seeing%it%as%a%set%of%positive%associations% with% the% work% context% (Well<Being% at% work).% The% proposal% of% the% concept% of% Well< Being% in% the% workplace% opens% a% new% possibility% of% investigation% based% on% Positive% Psychology% and% has% the% main% focus% on% the% positive% aspects% of% individuals% and% also% organisations%(Alves,%Neves,%Coleta,%&%Oliveira,%2012).%
%
The% literature% varies% greatly% in% terms% of% the% different% constructs% or% terms% used% to% define% workplace% Well<Being.% Workplace% Well<Being% is% a% dynamic% concept% that% includes% subjective,% social,% and% psychological% dimensions% as% well% as% health<related% behaviours.%Well<Being%has%been%defined%as%“optimal%psychological%functioning%and% experience”%and%can%be%differentiated%into%hedonic%Well<Being%and%eudaimonic%Well< Being%(Lachman,%Ro,%Rosnick,%&%Ryff,%2008).%
Hedonic% Well<Being% is% the% general% view% of% Well<Being,% consisting% of% subjective% happiness% and% the% experience% of% pleasure% (Urry,% Nitschke,% Dolski,% Jackson,% Dalton,% Mueller% &% Rosenkranz,% 2004).% It% is% typically% assessed% using% subjective% measures% consisting% of% life% satisfaction,% the% presence% of% positive% mood,% and% the% absence% of% negative%mood%(Sridevi%&%Srinivasan,%2012).%Together,%these%components%are%often% summarised%as%happiness%and%therefore%the%literature%commonly%refers%to%hedonic% Well<Being%as%‘happiness’.%%
%
More% recently,% there% has% been% a% move% to% broaden% the% notion% of% Well<Being% to% include% motivational% and% behavioural% components,% which% is% referred% to% as% Eudaimonic%Well<Being.%Eudaimonic%Well<Being%is%lately%quite%the%“buzz%word”%in%the% world%of%workplace%Well<Being%(Ryff%&%Singer,%2006).% % 2.2.1(An(overview(of(Eudaimonic(WellRBeing( % In%an%effort%to%strengthen%conceptual%foundations%of%eudaimonic%Well<Being,%Ryff%&% Singer%(2006)%incorporated%key%messages%from%Aristotle’s%Nichomacean%Ethics.%They% also% examined% ideas% about% positive% human% functioning% from% existential% and% utilitarian% philosophy,% as% well% as% clinical<,% developmental<,% and% humanistic% psychology.% They% then% integrated% these% perspectives% to% create% a% multidimensional% model%of%psychological%Well<Being.%%
%
As%mentioned%earlier,%eudaimonic%Well<Being%includes%both%a%behavioural%as%well%as% a% motivational% construct,% which% is% absent% from% hedonic% Well<Being% or% what% is% referred%to%as%‘happiness’.%From%a%motivational%perspective,%eudaimonic%Well<Being% focuses% on% striving% for% self<realisation% (Waterman,% 2008).% Behaviourally,% it% includes% optimal% positive% functioning% and% the% act% of% striving% (Ryff% &% Singer,% 2000).% Thus,% eudaimonic%well<%being%involves%a%sense%of%fulfilment%of%one’s%potential,%aspects%not% subsumed% in% the% conceptualisation% of% happiness.% Additionally,% eudaimonic% Well< Being% is% more% cognition<based.% An% individual% is% arguably% motivated% to% take% actions% because%of%an%underlying%cognition%regarding%what%would%be%of%greatest%benefit%to% the%individual%and%his%or%her%overall%positive%feelings%and%thoughts%regarding%him%or% herself%(Culbertson%et%al.,%2010).% % % 2.2.2(Variables(of(Psychological(WellRBeing(researched(in(this(study:( %
Key% themes% surrounding% the% different% notions% of% eudaimonic% Well<Being% were% extracted% from% the% work% of% Ryff% &% Singer% (2006).% A% model% was% developed% that% covered%six%different%variables%based%on%various%themes.%It%was%designed%by%aligning% original% themes% of% “Eudaimonia”,% which% refers% to% the% idea% of% striving% towards% excellence%based%on%one’s%unique%potential.%Figure%1%offers%a%visualisation%of%what% resulted% from% this% distillation.% In% the% centre% of% the% figure% there% are% the% six% key% dimensions%of%eudaimonic%Well<Being,%referred%to%henceforth%as%Well<Being,%each%of% which%represent%frequently%endorsed%aspects%of%what%it%means%to%be%healthy,%well,% and% fully% functioning.% Surrounding% the% six% dimensions% are% their% conceptual% underpinnings%that%was%derived%from%Aristotle’s%notion%of%“Eudaimonia”.%In%aiming%
not% to% detract% from% the% 6% dimensions% of% Well<Being% it% is% however% important% to% mention% that% these% dimensions% were% derived% from% prominent% Psychological% Theorists% of% our% time,% such% as% Maslow% and% his% hierarchy% of% needs,% Carl% Jung’s% Individuation% theory% and% Erikson’s% fundamental% personal% development% underpinnings.%Just%how%each%of%the%six%dimensions%grew%out%of%the%integration%of% these%perspectives%is%detailed%below.% % % % % Figure!2.1%Core%dimensions%of%Well<Being%and%their%theoretical%foundations%(Luthans,%Zhu%and%Avolio% 2006)%% % 2.3.(The(Psychological(WellRBeing(dimensions( (
Well<Being% is% a% dynamic% concept% that% includes% subjective,% social,% and% psychological% dimensions% as% well% as% health<related% behaviours.% The% Ryff% Scales% of% Psychological% Well<Being% is% a% theoretically% grounded% instrument% that% specifically% focuses% on% measuring%multiple%facets%of%psychological%Well<Being.%These%dimensions%include%the% following:%A%sense%of%autonomy%in%thought%and%action,%the%ability%to%manage%complex% environments%to%suit%personal%needs%and%values,%the%pursuit%of%meaningful%goals%and% a% sense% of% purpose% in% life,% continued% growth% and% development% as% a% person,% self< acceptance,%and%lastly,%the%establishment%of%quality%ties%to%others.%Workplace%Well< Being% is% sometimes% also% referred% to% as% Job% Satisfaction% within% Industrial% and% Organisational%Psychology%literature%(Seifert,%2005).%
%
Figure% 2.1% above% depicts% the% six% dimensions% of% psychological% Well<Being% as% mentioned.%From%there%it%is%evident%that%the%dimensions%are%linked%to%numerous%well% known%scholars%in%their%specific%field,%for%example,%Autonomy%was%derived%from%the% work%of%Maslow%(1943)%and%his%hierarchy%of%needs.% ( ( (
2.3.1(AUTONOMY( (
Autonomy%is%perhaps%best%defined%by%Culbertson%et%al.%(2010)%describing%it%as%being% self<determined% and% owning% one’s% actions.% Luthans,% Zhu,% &% Avolio% (2006)% showed% that%hopeful%employees%tend%to%be%independent%thinkers.%They%possess%an%internal% locus%of%control.%Thus,%they%need%a%high%degree%of%autonomy%in%order%to%express%and% utilise%their%skills%within%the%workplace.%
%
Ryff% &% Singer% (2006)% explains% that% many% of% the% conceptual% frameworks% underlying% this% multidimensional% model% of% Well<Being% emphasise% qualities% such% as% self< determination,% independence,% and% the% regulation% of% behaviour% from% within.% Self< actualisers,% for% example,% are% described% as% showing% autonomous% functioning% and% a% ‘‘resistance% to% enculturation’’% (Maslow,% 1943).% The% fully% functioning% person% has% an% internal%locus%of%evaluation,%whereby%one%does%not%look%to%others%for%approval,%but% evaluates%oneself%by%personal%standards.%Individuation%is%also%described%as%involving% a%‘‘deliverance%from%convention’’%(Jung,%1933),%in%which%one%no%longer%belongs%to%the% collective%beliefs,%fears,%and%laws%of%the%masses.%%
%
In% addition% to% job% characteristics,% Arafa,% Nazel,% Ibrahim,% &% Attia% (2003)% identified% individual% characteristics% that% have% also% been% related% to% job% satisfaction.% They% discovered% that% nurses,% who% preferred% autonomy% in% their% work% and% sought% distraction%when%they%were%faced%with%problems,%were%less%satisfied%with%their%jobs.% Higher% levels% of% job% satisfaction% were% found% with% schoolteachers% who% enjoyed% greater%autonomy%in%teaching%methods%and%materials,%and%who%had%less%supervision% (Burger,%2009).%%
%
Another%study%worth%noting%is%the%research%conducted%by%Eisele%&%D’amato%(2011)% and%they%established%that%self<efficacy%influences%the%way%people%use%the%autonomy% they% have% in% their% job.% This% is% an% important% construct% to% take% cognisance% of% as% it% relates%well%to%the%variable%of%PsyCap,%which%is%to%be%discussed%later%in%this%chapter.% (
2.3.2(ENVIRONMENTAL(MASTERY( (
Environmental% mastery% refers% to% the% individual’s% ability% to% choose% or% create% environments% suitable% to% his/her% psychic% conditions% and% is% a% key% characteristic% of% mental%health.%Life<span%developmental%theories%also%emphasise%the%importance%of% being%able%to%manipulate%and%control%complex%environments,%particularly%in%midlife,% as%well%as%the%capacity%to%act%on%and%change%the%surrounding%world%through%mental% and%physical%activities.%% % Allport%(1961)%identified%a%criteria%of%maturity%that%included%the%capacity%to%‘‘extend% the%self’’%(p.%12),%by%which%he%meant%being%able%to%participate%in%significant%spheres%of% endeavours%that%go%beyond%the%self.%Together,%these%perspectives%suggest%that%active% participation% in% and% mastery% of% the% environment% are% important% ingredients% of% an% integrated% framework% on% positive% psychological% functioning.% Although% this% area% of% Well<Being% appears% to% have% parallels% with% other% psychological% constructs,% such% as% sense%of%control%and%self<efficacy,%the%emphasis%on%finding%or%creating%a%surrounding%
context% that% suits% one’s% personal% needs% and% capacities% is% unique% to% environmental% mastery%(Ryff%&%Singer,%2006).%
%
Similarly,% Hayek,% Novicevic,% Buckley,% Clayton,% &% Roberts% (2012:310),% suggest% that% “happiness% is% a% function% of% environmental% events% and% circumstances,% stable% tendencies%in%the%person,%and%the%fit%between%the%two.%It%also%contains%the%possibility% of%limited%modification%by%carefully%chosen%and%intentionally%varied%acts.%
%
When% considering% nursing% staff% and% how% they% master% their% working% environment,% Koen% (2011)% explains% that% the% person<environment% interactional% processes% include% transactional% processes% between% the% nurse% and% the% environment.% This% enables% the% nurse% to% either% passively% or% actively% attempt% to% perceive,% interpret% and% surmount% threats,% challenges% or% difficulties% in% the% working% environment% to% construct% more% protective% environments.% She% further% hypothesised% that% if% nurses% can% learn% to% understand% and% manage% their% environment% by% modifying% it% consciously% or% unconsciously,% they% will% improve% their% Well<Being% and% overall% functioning.% Furthermore,% the% environmental% mastery% of% the% difficult% nursing% context% will% then% develop% naturally.% Koen% (2011)% listed% various% “methods% and% techniques% whereby% a% nurse% or% unit% manager% could% directly% and% indirectly% strive% to% master% their% working% environment:%
%
1. Enhance% positive% appraisals% and% engender% environmental% support,% thereby%
improving%the%nurse<work%interaction.%% %
2. Identify% and% express% three% positive% aspects% about% their% work% each% day% and%
share%this%with%each%other,%e.g.,%that%it%is%an%interesting%job%and%that%there%is% joy% in% caring% for% others,% and% that% there% is% always% something% funny% to% laugh% about.% % 3. Realise%and%learn%to%cope%with%the%fact%that%nursing%is%a%stressful%occupation% and%rather%focus%on%the%positive%side%like%the%reward%in%caring%for%others,%thus% increasing%a%sense%of%meaning%and%purpose.%% %
4. Re<frame% and% realise% they% can% choose% how% they% view% adversities% in% their%
work,% that% they% can% change% the% meaning% ascribed% to% a% painful% event,% re< define% the% events% around% strengths% and% talents% and% turn% it% into% something% meaningful.%
%
5. Identify% their% strengths% in% their% work% by% narrating% or% reframing% their%
professional%story%from%a%strengths%perspective,%seeing%themselves%as%capable% agents% of% care% rather% than% as% victims% and% to% be% reasonable% in% their% expectations.%%
%
6. Identify% with% good% role<models% who% can% teach% and% advise% them% from% their%
experience,% thereby% inspiring% them.% To% develop% mentoring% programs% where% the%more%seasoned%nurses%can%provide%support%to%new%nurses,%can%motivate,%
support%and%inspire%inexperienced%nurses.%Excellence%(high%level%competence)% is%also%transmitted%through%mentorship.%%
%
7. Plan%their%work%and%actively%be%involved%with%caring%for%their%patients,%keep%
an%interest%in%their%work%and%use%opportunities%to%do%new%things%or%move%to%a% different% ward,% keeping% the% work% a% novelty% and% a% challenge,% seek% positive% emotions%which%go%hand<in<hand%with%positive%actions.%
%
8. Discipline% themselves% and% act% responsibly% under% the% provided% supervision,%
adding%to%a%sense%of%self<respect%and%competence”%(p.%13).%( (
2.3.3(PERSONAL(GROWTH( (
Ryff%&%Singer%(2006)%explains%that%out%of%all%the%aspects%of%Well<Being,%it%is%personal% growth% that% comes% closest% in% meaning% to% Eudaimonia,% as% it% is% explicitly% concerned% with% the% self<realisation% of% the% individual.% This% part% of% positive% functioning% is% thus% dynamic,% involving% a% continual% process% of% developing% one’s% potential.% Self< actualisation,% as% formulated% by% Maslow% (1943),% is% centrally% concerned% with% realisation%of%personal%potential.%Maslow%(1943)%conceptualised%self<actualisation%as% the% process% of% developing% personal% potential% upon% satisfying% these% specific% needs.% This%implies%that%we%can%actualise%our%potential%for%personal%growth%only%after%we%are% sufficiently% effective% in% meeting% our% personal,% emotional% and% social% needs% (Bar<On,% 2005).%Similarly,%Culbertson%et%al.%(2010)%explains%that%personal%growth%is%a%belief%that% one’s%skills%and%potential%are%being%realised%and%enhanced.%
%
Another%aspect%to%personal%growth%that%also%appears%as%an%important%fundamental% tool% in% ensuring% higher% levels% of% Well<Being,% is% the% direct% and% indirect% leadership% experienced%at%the%workplace.%It%is%important%for%South%African%leaders%in%particular% to% realise% personal% values% in% all% aspects% of% one’s% own% life.% If% there% is% compatibility% between% personal% ideology% and% work% realisation,% deeper% satisfaction% and% greater% personal%growth%can%be%attained%more%easily%(Van%Zyl%&%Lazenby,%2012).% % Examining%the%Big%Five%personality%traits%commonly%used%nowadays%and%linking%it%to% Well<Being,%Bardi%&%Ryff%(2007)%have%shown%personal%growth%to%be%strongly%positively% associated%with%openness%to%experience.%Personal%growth,%however,%was%found%to%be% both%positively%and%negatively%correlated%with%Neuroticism.%% % Another%study%explored%how%“stressors”%can%lead%to%personal%growth.%Stressors%are% defined% as% challenging% when% potentially% promoting% the% personal% growth% and% achievement% of% the% employee.% Examples% of% challenge% stressors% are% high% levels% of% workload,%time%pressure,%and%responsibility.%These%demands%have%the%potential%to%be% seen% as% rewarding% work% experiences% well% worth% the% discomfort% as% it% leads% to% personal% growth,% which% is% a% core% dimension% within% the% workplace% Well<Being% construct%(Demerouti%&%Bakker,%2011).%
( ( (
2.3.4(POSITIVE(RELATIONS(WITH(OTHERS(IN(THE(WORKPLACE( (
A% frequent% source% of% stress% in% the% workplace% results% from% difficult% interpersonal% relationships%at%the%workplace,%and%amongst%nurses%even%more%so%as%they%play%a%vital% role% in% the% care% and% quality% of% patient% care.% The% quality% of% patient% care% can% sometimes%mean%the%difference%between%life%and%death%(Drozdova%&%Kebza,%2011).%% %
Building% on% the% work% of% Ryan% &% Deci% (2001)% who% are% noteworthy% authors% in% Well< Being,% Gardner,% Avolio,% Luthans,% May,% &% Walumbwa% (2005),% discovered% interesting% research%relating%to%the%management%and%leadership%at%work%and%how%this%impacts% positive% relations% with% others,% and% ultimately% workplace% Well<Being.% Gardner% et% al% (2005)%explains%that%people%do% not%leave% jobs,% they% leave%managers%and% using% this% premise%they%examined%leadership%styles%of%managers%and%how%this%affects%relations% at%work.%It%was%confirmed%that%trustworthiness%at%the%core%of%a%manager’s%identity% was%vital%in%fostering%positive%relations%with%their%followers.%To%gain%credibility,%one’s% actions%must%match%one’s%words.%Good%leaders%gain%and%sustain%credibility%showing% they%possess%the%knowledge%and%expertise%they%say%they%have%to%consistently%deliver% tangible%results.%This%then%illustrates%that%trustworthiness%in%management%alone%will% not%foster%positive%relations%in%the%absence%of%capability%and%competency.%The%last% important% variable% identified% in% their% study% is% the% processes% whereby% leaders% help% followers%to%become%more%self<aware%and%this%in%return%establishes%an%authentic%and% positive%relationship%with%the%leader%and%vice<versa.%%
%
Maslow%(1954)%describes%self<actualisers%as%individuals%who%have%strong%feelings%of% empathy% and% affection% for% all% human% beings% and% the% capacity% for% great% love,% deep% friendship,% and% close% identification% with% others.% Warm% relating% to% others% was% also% posed%as%a%criterion%of%maturity.%Adult%developmental%stage%theories%emphasised%the% achievement%of%close%unions%with%others%(intimacy)%in%ensuring%psychological%Well< Being%(Ryff%&%Singer,%2006).%% % Furthermore,%there%are%a%number%of%elements%focusing%on%a%leadership%style%that%is% positive%and%hopeful.%At%the%centre%of%the%leadership%style,%is%a%positive%correlation%of% positive% relationships% amongst% people% in% the% workplace% to% an% increase% in% job% performance% and% ultimately% employee% Well<Being% (Richardson,% Cook,% &% Hofmeyr,% 2011).%
%
From%the%above%it%is%clear%that%employees%largely%link%their%psychologically%Well<Being% as% a% direct% result% with% the% level% of% positive% relations% they% experience% with% their% colleagues%in%daily%interactions%at%work.%
(
2.3.5(PURPOSE(IN(WORK(LIFE( (
When% one% closely% examines% some% definitions% of% mental% health,% it% explicitly% emphasises%the%importance%of%beliefs%that%give%one%a%sense%of%purpose%and%meaning% in%life.%This%includes%having%a%clear%comprehension%of%life’s%purpose,%which%includes%a% sense%of%directedness%and%intentionality.%Just%as%people%find%meaning%and%purpose%in% their%life%travails%and%suffering,%so%do%they%find%purpose%in%work.%Creating%meaning%
and%direction%in%one’s%life%is%also%the%fundamental%challenge%of%living%authentically,% and% therefore% the% same% requirement% is% needed% to% ensure% a% sustainable% career% at% work.% Having% meaning% and% direction% in% one’s% work% requires% the% individual% to% be% engaged% with% their% day<to<day% work% activities.% It% is,% fundamentally,% about% actively% engaging%in%and%having%a%reflective%stance%toward%life%(Ryff%&%Singer,%2006).% % Weber%(2008)%explains%that%there%is%a%continued%trend%in%large%corporates%to%ensure% that%they%are%aware%of%the%engagement%levels%of%their%staff,%and%that%only%real%social% bonds%are%based%on%free%and%life<affirming%choices.%This%psychosocial%dimension%of% Well<Being%extends%the%conceptualisation%of%mental%health%to%include%positive%factors% such% as% engagement% in% work% and% life% challenges.% For% nurses% in% particular% it% was% proven%that%a%hospital%or%business%unit%must%encourage%the%forming%of%healthy%and% close% patient<nurse% relationships.% This% ultimately% will% increase% the% nurses’% engagement%levels,%thus%improving%their%overall%purpose%and%general%Well<Being%at% work%(Bégat,%Ellefsen,%&%Severinsson,%2005).% ( 2.3.6(SELFRACCEPTANCE( ( Ryff%&%Singer%(2000)%summarised%the%essence%of%self<acceptance,%or%positive%regard,% as%referred%to%by%some%authors,%as%a%central%feature%of%mental%health,%as%well%as%a% characteristic%of%self<actualisation%(Maslow,%1954).%Optimal%functioning%and%maturity% (Allport,%1961)%is%also%important%characteristics%in%the%essence%of%self<acceptance.%% % Life<span%theories%also%emphasised%the%importance%of%acceptance%of%self,%including% one’s% past% life% and% the% process% of% individuation% (Jung,% 1933).% The% concepts% further% underscored% the% need% to% come% to% terms% with% the% dark% side% of% one’s% self% (the% shadow).% Thus,% both% Erikson’s% formulation% of% ego% integrity% and% the% Jungian% individuation% emphasised% a% kind% of% self<acceptance% that% is% notably% richer% than% standard% views% of% self<esteem.% It% is% a% kind% of% self<evaluation% that% is% long<term% and% involves%awareness,%and%acceptance%of,%both%personal%strengths%and%weaknesses.%% % There%is%a%danger%in%the%workplace%where%employees%have%an%incorrect%evaluation%of% the%self,%which%also%could%result%in%their%inability%to%accept%the%self.%This%in%turn%could% have%a%negative%impact%on%their%Well<Being%at%work.%(Lachman%et%al.,%2008)%reported% that%nurses%who%saw%the%past%as%it%was%were%better%adjusted%than%those%who%viewed% the%past%as%better%or%worse%than%it%was.%This%is%consistent%with%the%developmental% task% of% increasing% self<acceptance% in% adulthood.% Although% downgrading% the% past% makes%the%present%seem%better,%this%may%not%be%necessary%for%individuals%who%are% doing%well%in%the%present%and%will%result%in%a%skewed%self<evaluation%and%an%inability% to%accept%oneself.%
%
Matthews% (1993)% explains% that% individuals% cannot% feel% closeness% in% interpersonal% relationships%unless%they%accept%themselves.%People%cannot%accept%themselves%until% they%learn%to%reveal%what%they%think%and%feel%to%others.%He%continues%to%describe%that% a% person% who% learns% self<acceptance,% even% when% there% are% faults,% usually% displays% certain%characteristics%and%behaviours%that%include:%
1.%A%strong%belief%in%certain%values%and%principles%and%is%willing%to%defend%them%even% in% the% face% of% group% opinion;% feels% personally% secure% enough,% however,% to% modify% themselves%if%new%experience%and%evidence%suggest%he/she%is%in%error;%
%
2.% Are% capable% of% acting% on% their% own% best% judgement% without% feeling% excessively% guilty%or%regretting%actions%if%others%disapprove;% % 3.%Does%not%spend%undue%time%worrying%about%tomorrow,%the%past,%or%the%present;% % 4.%Has%confidence%in%their%ability%to%deal%with%problems,%even%in%the%face%of%failure% and%setbacks;% %
5.% Feels% equal% to% others% as% a% person,% not% superior% or% inferior,% regardless% of% the% differences% in% specific% abilities,% family% backgrounds,% or% attitudes% of% others% toward% them;% % 6.%Takes%it%for%granted%that%they%are%people%of%interest%and%value%to%others,%at%least%to% those%with%whom%they%choose%to%associate;% % 7.%Can%accept%praise%without%false%modesty%and%compliments%without%guilt;% % 8.%Inclined%to%resist%the%efforts%of%others%to%dominate%them;% % 9.%Able%to%accept%the%idea%and%admit%to%others%that%they%are%capable%of%feeling%a%wide% range%of%impulses%and%desires,%ranging%from%being%angry%to%being%loving,%from%being% sad%to%being%happy,%from%feeling%deep%resentment%to%feeling%deep%acceptance;% % 10.%Genuinely%enjoys%a%wide%variety%of%activities%involving%work,%play,%creative%self< expression,%companionship,%or%loafing;% % 11.%Is%sensitive%to%the%needs%of%others,%to%accepted%social%customs,%and%particularly%to% the%idea%that%they%can’t%enjoy%themselves%at%the%expense%of%others.% %
Table% 2.1% below% provides% a% detailed% summary% of% the% six% dimensions% that% Ryff% &% Singer% (2000)% outlines% in% their% Well<Being% model% questionnaire.% % This% explicitly% outlines% both% visual% and% measurable% traits% and/or% behaviours% expressed% by% employees,%that%is%an%indication%of%their%level%of%Well<Being%at%work.% % % % % % % % % % %
Table!2.1%Definitions%of%theory<guided%dimensions%of%Well<Being.%(Ryff,%1995)%
%
Dimension( Characteristic(of(a(High(Scorer( Characteristic(of(a(Low(Scorer(
Self<acceptance% Possesses%positive%attitude%toward%self;% acknowledges%and%accepts%multiple% aspects%of%self,%including%good%and%bad% qualities;%feels%positive%about%past%life.% Feels%dissatisfied%with%self;%is%disappointed% with%what%has%occurred%in%past%life;%is%troubled% about%certain%personal%qualities;%wishes%to%be% different%from%what%he%or%she%is.% Positive%relations%
with%other%people% Has%warm,%satisfying,%trusting%relationships%with%others;%is%concerned% about%the%welfare%of%others;%is%capable%of% strong%empathy,%affection,%and%intimacy;% understands%give<and<take%of%human% relationships.% Has%few%close,%trusting%relationships%with% others;%finds%it%difficult%to%be%warm,%open%and% concerned%about%others;%is%isolated%and% frustrated%in%interpersonal%relationships;%is%not% willing%to%make%compromises%to%sustain% important%ties%with%others.% Autonomy% Is%self<determining%and%independent;%is% able%to%resist%social%pressures%to%think%and% act%in%certain%ways;%regulates%behaviour% from%within;%evaluates%self%by%personal% standards.% Is%concerned%about%the%expectations%and% evaluations%of%others;%relies%on%judgements%of% others%to%make%important%decisions;%conforms% to%social%pressures%to%think%and%act%in%certain% ways.% Environmental% Mastery% Has%a%sense%of%mastery%and%competence%in% managing%the%environment;%controls% complex%array%of%external%activities;%makes% effective%use%of%surrounding% opportunities;%is%able%to%choose%or%create% contexts%suitable%to%personal%needs%and% values.% Has%difficulty%managing%everyday%affairs;%feels% unable%to%change%or%improve%surrounding% context;%is%unaware%of%surrounding% opportunities;%lacks%sense%of%control%over% external%world.% Purpose%in%life% Has%goals%in%life%and%a%sense%of% directedness;%feels%there%is%meaning%to% present%and%past%life;%holds%beliefs%that% give%life%purpose;%has%aims%and%objectives% for%living.% Lacks%sense%of%meaning%in%life;%has%few%goals% or%aims;%lacks%sense%of%direction;%does%not%see% purpose%in%past%life;%has%no%outlooks%or%beliefs% that%give%life%meaning.% Personal%Growth% Has%feeling%of%continued%development;% sees%self%as%growing%and%expanding;%is% open%to%new%experiences;%has%sense%of% realising%his%or%her%potential;%sees% improvement%in%self%and%behaviour%over% time;%is%changing%in%ways%that%reflect%more% self<knowledge%and%effectiveness.% Has%sense%of%personal%stagnation;%lacks%sense% of%improvement%or%expansion%over%time;%feels% bored%and%disinterested%in%life;%feels%unable%to% develop%new%attitudes%or%behaviours.% ( ( 2.4(WellRBeing(amongst(nursing(staff(in(South(Africa( %
It% is% the% opinion% of% the% researcher% that% a% lot% of% research% has% been% done% amongst% nurses% relating% to% their% Well<Being,% but% yet% it% seems% there% has% been% very% little% measurable%improvement.%A%major%continued%concern%not%being%addressed%is%that%of% nurses’% emotional% Well<Being% amidst% the% growing% phenomenon% that% they% are% compelled% to% apply% a% multi<skills% approach% in% emotionally% demanding% work% environments.% The% healthcare% industry% in% South% Africa% present% a% challenging% work% environment% for% nurses.% These% challenges% include% staff% shortages,% lack% of% training,% overcrowded%hospitals,%insufficient%health%service%management,%lack%of%support%by% supervisors,% long% work% hours% and% task% overload.% Limited% growth% in% the% number% of% nurses% and% the% simultaneous% increased% number% of% patients% due% to% high% levels% of% poverty% and% the% HIV% and/or% AIDS% pandemic% add% to% these% challenges% and% consequently%put%more%demands%on%nurses%(French,%Du%Plessis,%&%Scrooby,%2011).%
