Environment and Sustainable Development Nexus

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Environment and Sustainable Development

Chapter 1 Environment and Sustainable

Development Nexus

Fuchak« Waswa, Sail/lie! Oior and Daniel Mllgelldi

1.1 Background

~ appreciate the link between theenvironment and sustainable development, one needs to understand the basic concepts within ecology. While numerous literatures exists on this subject, ecology generally refers to the scientific study of the inter-relationships between living things and their biotic and abiotic environment, which determines the distribution and abundance of organisms in an environment (Krebs, 1985). On the other hand, the environment according to Kenya's Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) 1999 includes the physical factors of the surroundings of human beings including land, water, atmosphere, climate, sound, odour, taste, the biological factors of animals and plants, and the social factor of aesthetics, and includes both the natural and the built environment. In essence the environment may be viewed as the totality of nature and its components.

Current thinking no longer views ecology as a subdivision of biology, but acknowledges that it has emerged from its roots in biology to become a separate discipline that integrates organisms, the physical environment, and humans on the premise that everything on earth operates in cycles, and all life is connected (Odum, 1996).Various specializations in ecology have emerged and will continue to emerge as humans continue to discover new areas in the environment for utilization. As an emerging specialisation, and based on the role of humans as the greatest force in shaping and being shaped by the environment, human ecology is the study of humans as they relate to the environment. It includes the study of the impact of humans on the environment and vice versa, as a basis for informed and accountable decision-making about resource use and development towards sustainable societies.

Prior to the development of ecological thinking, science had been reductionist and concerned with compartmentalizing things in order to understand them. To the contrary, ecology is holistic and requires a study of the whole, which is often more than the sum of the parts. Ecology thus involves many branches of science and must inevitably adopt an interdisciplinary and integrated approach, which in essence simulates diversity and the inter-dependence of nature and its components. It is on this basis that mainstreaming sustainability thinking in

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education has gained momentum within the international community (UNEP, 2006).

Some landmarks

that point to the increasing importance

of ecological and

sustainability consideration in development policy include:

• UN Conference on the Environment in Stockholm, leading to the establishment of UNEP in Nairobi, Kenya (1972)

• Sahelian drought and Ethiopian famine in Africa that shocked the world (1974) • UN Conference on Desertification in Nairobi, Kenya (1977)

• Bruntland Report - Our common earth (1987) • The Montreal Protocol on Ozone and CFCs (1989)

• UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992). • World Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa

(2002)

• Increasing importance of Environmental Impact Assessment and Auditing around the world.

• UNEP's Education for Sustainable Development (EfSD) programme (2006) i) The Biotic Component

The biotic (organic) component is the living part of the environment and consists of flora (higher and lower plants) and fauna (all animals including micro-organisms). Included in this category is the social environment which refers to the functional, organisational and interactive characteristics of all the organisms.

ii) The Abiotic (Physical or Inorganic) Component

This is the non-living part of the environment. It is made of three main parts namely atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Constituent parts of the lithosphere include soil-land system, mineral elements, rock systems, and landforms. Hydrosphere is composed of the waters of the earth, while the atmosphere is comprised of various gases and vapours.

iii) Biosphere

The biosphere represents the interface of air, water and land, forming the life-supporting layer of the environment. It constitutes all of the earth's ecosystems functioning together on a global scale. As an open system, its main components are mutually inter-dependent and are inter-related through a series of cyclic mechanisms, which make the input-output mechanisms effective. Biospheric equilibrium is however constantly disrupted through anthropogenic forces, which often result into severe ecological repercussion.

iv) Ecosystems

An ecosystem is conventionally defined as a self-supporting unit of life, with all organisms therein interacting with one another and with the abiotic environment, and to a certain limit capable of self-regulation (Likens, 1992; Odum, 1996.). The World Resources Institute (2000-2001) views ecosystems as the productive engines

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of planet earth because of the goods and services they provide to humans. In essence they are the planet's life support systems. Every hectare of the planet is therefore part of an ecosystem. Landscapes on the other hand are a group of ecosystems along with human artefacts. Anthropogenic pressures that lead to their quantitative and qualitative losses are however increasingly threatening these ecosystems, and hence the goods and services they give to humans and other biotic entities. This has implications on human well-being and hence sustainable development, as has been articulately illustrated in the millennium ecosystem assessment framework (Alcamo et al., '2003). Within ecosystems, organisms interact along trophic relationships best described by food chains and food webs. An important consideration in energy transfer is the phenomenon of biological concentration or magnification (i.e. concentration or accumulation of certain elements in fatty tissues of living organisms, with subsequent serious health risks). All known ecosystems are powered singly or in combination by solar energy, gravity, geothermal, wind, water, fossil fuels, and natural gas. To access and utilise these energy forms entails use of various kinds of technologies, which often have diverse and adverse socio-economic and environmental implications. Ecosystems can therefore be classified based on the sources of energy that power them, which also illustrates the conventional traditional - modernity transformation and associated environmental implications (Figure 1.1).

Unsubsidized natural-powered ec

osysterns

(Sun as main energy source)

Naturally subsidized solar powered ecosystems (e.g.Tropical rain forest)

Man-subsidized solar-powered ecosystems (e.g.Agricultural eco-systems)

Fuel-powered urban-industrial systems (e.g. A city)

Figure1.1. Classification of ecosystems based on energy source. (The line arrows indicate the direction of change from traditional to modern societies and also indicate

increasing population pressure, risk of environmental degradation and pollution)

v) Habitat and Ecological Niche

A habitat is the characteristic place a species inhabits or actually occupies. It is thus the smallest ecosystem known. An ecological niche describes the extension

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Environment andSustainable Development

(range) of the variation of an er-vironmental factor or resource within which an organism can survive, grow, reproduce and maintain a viable population. Common examples of environmental factors include temperature, relative humidity, pH, speed ofcurrents (water and air), irradiation, salinity and sodicity, nutrient levels, concentration of toxic substances (pollutants) and level of tolerance from neighbouring organisms. Since organisms require more than one environmental factor to survive, a true niche of a given species 1S multi-factorial and by extension a multi-dimensional hyper-volume by shape. In theory, a species can exist in a place that provides all the requirements of its niche. In practice, the species may be excluded by competition or predation from other species, or may not arrive in that niche due to its low dispersion capacity or remote location. Hence the concept of realized versus fundamental niche.

vi) Populations and Communities

A population is a group of individuals of the same species that occupy a given area and can normally interbreed with each other to produce fertile progeny. Communities are made up of several populations occupying the same spatial environment. The human population is the most advanced and sophisticated of all. Besides being able to manipulate their own biotic potential (ability of a population to reproduce itself at certain rates under optimal conditions) and the environmental resistance (biotic and abiotic factors which limit or oppose reproduction, growth and development), humans have significant control over the population dynamics of other organisms and by extension their habitats. The relationship between populations and the environment is important because the environment has a limit to the population it can adequately support.

At thecarrying capacity (equilibrium phase) birth rate (natality) is assumed to be in balance with the death rate (mortality). Equilibrium in this case does not suggest a fixed number of individuals but rather a dynamic state where the population oscillates around a mean, in which the environmental resistance keeps the population regulated. Biological population regulation is more natural and pronounced in all other living things with the exception of humans and occurs through a myriad of intra and inter-specific relations that include mutualism, parasitism, predation, competition commensalisms and neutralism among others (Figure 1.2).

In competition both, populations or parties inhibit or have some kind of negative effect on each other. As Darwin would put it, the fittest will survive, while the weakest will be selected against in the long run. In predation, the interaction is positive for the predator (stronger organism) but negative for the prey (weaker organism) as is exemplified by life in the wild. In parasitism, the host (stronger organism) loses while the parasite (weaker organism) gains. By virtue of itssmall size, the parasite may seem insignificant in the short term, but if left uncontrolled,

A Guide for Tertiary Education in Kenya

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Environment and Sustainable Development

it could destroy the host. This imagery can be used to illustrate human being (parasite)-environment (host) relationship. Finally when degraded and polluted environment can no loner supply necessities for life, the very parasitic man's

livelihood and existence becomes threa tened.

+

o

Strong organism/nation/political system etc

Weak Organism/ NationIPolitical system. etc.

-Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism

,

+ (+ +) (+

0 )

(+ -)

-Neutralism

0 (0

+)

(

0 0

)

(

0

-)

--Predation Arncnsalism Competition

-

(- +) (-

0)

(- -)

-Figure 1.2. Illustration of inter-organisms/ systems/ nations/ relationships

In symbiosis, both the stronger and weaker organisms benefit from each other.

The interaction may be optional (cooperation) or essential for the survival of both partners (mutualism). Globally, nations relate with each other along similar patterns. Occurrence of conflicts between nations and people is for instance

indicative of skewed distribution of resources and commensurate benefits. Odum (1996) has suggested that a "parasite-host" model for man and the biosphere is a

basis for turning from exploiting the earth to taking care of it. Symbiosis is thus

the ecological equivalent of resource stewardship and hence the basis for

sustainability. Pursuing the parasite-host model and or the predator-prey model are in a way re5""ponsible for increasing global development challenges (costs) as

summarised in Box 1.1.

As environmental stakeholders, we need to ask ourselves whether our decisions

will imply relating with nature and with each other as parasites or predators, and take deliberate steps to shift promote relations that enhance the common good. Another pressing question that remains to be answered is who will ensure that appropriate tradeoffs arc set and adhered to in pursuit of survival and sustainable development, both at individual, national and global levels? Further,

human existence has been preoccupied with the production and consumption of wealth, the desire of which seems to arise from human's basic impulse to increase their welfare. The concept of wealth and welfare therefore stand at the heart of environmental resources utilisation and development.

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Ernnronrnent and Sustainable Development

Box 1.1. Critical global environmental challenges

Food insecurity, Environmental Disasters and Habitat land degradation pollution and extreme events destruction and

and desertification _hum_a_n _h_ea_lth loss of biodiversity

Global warming Stratospheric Unsustainable use Persistent Organic

and climate _ozo_ne _d_e_pl_e_ti_o_n of renewable Pollutants and

change resources like Hazardous

water and forests Material

Loss of cultures Research, Depletion of non- Population

and indigenous SCience, renewable pressure and knowledge technology and resources settlement in

ethics especially fossil Urban and Rural

fuels areas

International Politics and bad Conflicts, Poverty and trade disputes governance terrorism and unsustainable

and finances environmen tal livelihoods

insecurity

6 A Guide for Tertiary Education in Kenya

By the year 2020 for instance, the world population will be approximately 7.5 billion, with developing countries and Africa acco~ting for 97.5% and 26.7%

respectively (Pinstrup-Andersen et aI., 1999). Kenya's population estimated at 30 million depends on approximately 20% of its land areas that is arable. The

likely result will be environmental degradation risks, food security challenges, mushrooming of slums in urban centres, and high numbers of economic and ecological refugees. This last factor has potentially severe socio-economic and political consequences in recipient regions or countries. Since the impact of society on the environment isdepended on population size and impact per capita (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1972) population size per se may not constitute an environmental problem. Individual action is what is critical. Recently, Tiffen et al (1996) have shocked conventional thinking about population-degradation nexus in their book entitled /IMore People LessErosion" based on an environmental recovery study in

Machakos, Kenya. Whether their findings can be replicated elsewhere remains an open question. Suffice is to state that population functions present specific entry points of intervention to balance between resource availability and demand pressure.

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Environment and Sustainable Development

understand and enhance the complex interaction between the environment and themselves towards mutual gains.

vii) Levels of Organisation and the Systems Concept

Environmental components tend to assume some hierarchical organisation such that what happens at each level (hierarchy) influences what occurs and/ or goes on at adjacent levels reaffirming the need to respect the common good because all things are interconnected in some way (Table 1.1). This concept illustrates that to achieve sustainability governments and communities must look at their geographic units as integral parts of the globe, which belongs to all of us. This gives credence to development concepts like participatory decision-making, partnership, and thinking globally but acting locally.

A system in ecological perspective is a group of inter-linked elements that is characterised by self-control and self-regulation, as each element functions to enhance the Ifcommon good". Elements therein thus relate in some kind of synergistic partnership. Systems have boundaries, which could be dear-cut or difficult to delineate. From a thermodynamic point of view, matter flows in, out and within a system, resulting in work being done and heat being transferred. These dynamics of systems can result into positive and/ or negative consequences, hence the need to understand the nature and limits of systems in pursuit of goods and services essential for life. The system concept thus emphasises inclusiveness, networking, muIti-lateralism and partnerships in development policy and research. Unilateralism thrives on a false hope of independency by individuals, nations and continents. The importance of the systems approach in environmental management can also be deduced from the Gaia-hypothesis of global homeostasis and from biogeochemical cycles.

Table 1.1 Estimated hierarchical comparisons

Hierarchical levels in descending order

Geographical/ political level Ecologicallevel Illustration

World Biosphere Globe

Continent Bio-geographicregion Africa

Country Biome Kenya

Province Landscape Rift valley

Nation Bioticcommunity People-groups

Village Population Family

Home Habitat You

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Enuironment and Sustainable Development

viii) The Gaia Hypothesis

Gaia hypothesis states that the natural earth (biosphere) is a self-governing or regulating entity with the capacity to keep itself healthy by controlling the chemical and physical environment and keeping matter and processes within naturally acceptable limits. The earth is thus a super-ecosystem with numerous interacting functions and feedback loops that moderate extremes of temperature and keep the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans relatively constant e.g. maintenance of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels in the atmosphere at 21, 0.03, and 78% respectively. Similarly, there are many ecosystem processes that cybernetically regulate conditions for life.

Cybernetic systems are those in which there is a feedback from the output that influences the input, whether negatively or positively. A negative feedback is one in which the output acts to oppose the tendency for change in order to restore

the original situation. In a positive feedback, change leads to further change away from the original situation or set point. It leads therefore to instability within the

system.

1.2 Biogeochemical

Cycles

Biogeochemical (material) cycles are cyclical movements of chemical elements

(Table 1.2) and also water in the ecosystem. These movements are the basic

mechanisms for making chemicals available to living things. Examples include Water (Hydrologic) cycle, Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, and Phosphorus cycles.

As background knowledge, only the water, carbon and nitrogen cycles are covered in this chapter, by virtue of their significant roles in influencing human well-being in most agrarian societies like Kenya.

Table 1.2 Essential material elements and their sources

Macro-nutrients Micro-nu trients

(Used in relatively large amounts) (Used in relatively small amounts) Mostly from air and water From soil solids From soil solids

Carbon Nitrogen Iron

Hydrogen Phosphorus Manganese

Oxygen Potassium Boron

Calcium Molybdenum Magnesium Copper

Sulphur Zinc

Chlorine Cobalt

(Source: Brady, 1984)

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En cironment and Sustainable Development

Water Cycle

Unlike other material cycles that involve the movement of elements, the hydrologic

cycle involves the movement of a compound, water. It is the circulatory transport

process of the earth's waters (Figure 1.3). The main processes involved are

precipitation, through-fall, infiltration, percolation, lateral flows within soil, surface runoff, capillary rise, vapour diffusion from soil surface, evaporation,

and transpiration. The reservoirs involved include land, atmosphere, water bodies

and vegetation.

The main sources of energy are solar for powering vapour formation and

transportation, and gravitational force for powering various flows of liquids such

as precipitation and percolation in the soil system. Humans have and continue to

interfere with this cycle through such perturbations like vegetative degradation

and water abstraction for various purposes.

Atmosphere

~

.

,

.

t

~

•

• Veg

e

t

a

tio

n

:

-,

S

no

w

pea

ks

&

io

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ap

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lr

-''

'

-

''

'

,•.

L

and s

u

r

f

a

c

e

•

...

Streams,

lakes

•

t

s1Ieams&

Soil

-

~ •

.

..

rrvers

.

n

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lr

_'r

Oc

e

a

n

s

&

Aquifers

.

_...

.

_s

_e

_as

Figure 1.3.TheHydrologic cycle (After Eagleson, 1970).(Students are expected to know the

event or process represented by each arrow).

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Environment and Sustainable Development

The inter-dependence of its reservoirs is well illustrated by the soil water budget

equation, thus:

P-(R+ET+G) = DS;

•

Where: P is precipitation; R is runoff; ET is evapotranspiration; G is losses to

ground water; and DS is the change in soil storage. This equation can be used as

a soil moisture management tool by intervening in any of the output and input

factors in order to satisfy crop water requirements. These interventions equally

have environmental implications such as land surface modifications to control

runoff and salinization due to irrigation technology. Change in soil storage is

critical when it comes to the role of the soil system as the agricultural engine, to

which most African countries depend for their economic development.

Available water for agriculture, industry and domestic purposes is increasingly

becoming scarce, with potentially severe ecological, socio-economic and political

repercussions. As an example a story in the East African Standard of April 22,

2003 read, "A violent struggle over scarce water, resulting from the current drought

has erupted between thirsty baboons and residents of lsiolo District .... The apparently

thirsty baboons (30 In number) wrestled containers from the girls and drunk the water

after chasing them atuay. Till' unusual preSl'nce of lions, hyenas and elephants near the

few [unciioning boreholes in the dry diuision has made it difficult for residents to draw

water for themselres ant! their lioestock:" The need to increase quantities of quality

water and distribute it to meet competing and changing human needs and for

other life forms is a pressing research and policy agenda for Kenya. A commonly

acknowledged global scenario for the future is possibilities of the third world war

being fought on water. Already, water scarcity has been linked to conflicts and

insecurity as discussed in chapter eight.

Carbon Cycle

It is the circulatory transport or movement of carbon in the biosphere. The

C-cycle represents virtually all the reservoirs of the biosphere and hence a classical

example of energy flows in ecosystems. The atmosphere is the reservoir for gaseous

carbon, water especially oceans for dissolved carbon dioxide, terrestrial ecosystem

such as solid earth in which carbon is found for instance in the form of limestone,

and living organisms as the pool for organic carbon (Figure 1.4). Oceans are a big

carbon-sink by virtue of their immense sizes (horizontal and vertical) and their

circulatory nature, through which carbon can be deposited very deep in the

waters. Carbon is also translocated via food chains and volcanic fires. Main

sources of carbon Me methane from swamps, mines, ruminants; Carbon dioxide

and carbon monoxide from combustion of fossil fuels in various appliances; Soot

produced from incomplete burning of fossil fuels including coal and wood fuel;

Vegetative degradation through burning; and oxidation of organic matter during

cultivation.

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The reservoir at the greatest risk of depletion in most African countries is carbon in living organisms especially plant matter. Agriculture and settlement pressures have continued to reduce the forest cover of most countries to below the international minimum. Kenya's forest cover is presently estimated at 1.2%,which

is very low compared to the internationally recommended cover of 10% of the total land area. Charcoal burning and demand for wood fuel are having their effect, as biomas remains the main source of energy in rural areas and low income urban households. Making alternative fuel sources such as solar and electricity

more readily available especially for the rural areas remains a critical research and policy agenda for Kenya (Mwikali and Waswa, 2004), and more investment

in its exploration coupled with responsible trade could help save Africa's forest and vegetative cover. The role of carbon dioxide in global climate change and

implicationforAfrica's development will be discussed involume two ofthisseries.

CO2absorption in

photosynthesis

Refractoryorganic

molecules from

wastes,dead organisms

Solid earth (Reservoir for Limestone)

Figure1.4. Carbon Cycle (Modified from Brady, 1984) Atmosphere (Gaseous reservoir)

CO2 release in

respiration and fire

CO2 absorption in

aquatic photosynthesis Living organisms

(Organic carbon)

Erosion _Water

(Reservoir for dissolved CO2)

Limestone formation

The dotted arrow represents CO2 release by respiration in aquatic organisms,

dissolved organic molecules from dead organisms, wastes; CO2 is also released

directly from solid earth to atmosphere by combustion of coal, oil, gas, and or natural releases. Diffusion of CO2 across air-water interface also occurs.

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I

Volcanic action _l_u Atmospheric Nitrogen

I

• I

Bio-fixation

I

Industrial fixation

I

Denitrifying bacteria Electrochemical &

(N03-N2) photochemical

fixation

• "

"

Ammonia (NH4) &Nitrate (N03)

I

t

I

fish, birds

I

Denitrification

bacteria

"

t

(N03-N02)

Assimilation Shallow marine

•

&anabolism sediments

Nitrate

•

bacteria

Deep sediments (N02-N03)

"

A

I

Producers

I

• _I

•

Herbivorous Denitrifying

Bacteria

I

Consumers

I

(N03-NH3)

I

•

Decay, wastes, decomposition

Nitrite bacteria Ammonifying

(NH3-N02) bacteria

•

...•

..•

_(Nl_l_,-_NH₃₎ _...•

...• _{Amino acids, Urea, Uric}

acid, Organic residues

Figure 1.5. Nitrogen cycle (Modified from Kormondy, 1984)

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Nitrogen Cycle

The main processes in the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1.5) are electro-chemical and photochemical fixation, industrial fixation, biological fixation, ammonification, nitrification, denitrification, and assimilation. The largest storage pool of nitrogen is the atmosphere, while the smallest but more active pools are in soils and water of the earth itself. The exchanges in the nitrogen cycle differ in their relative importance. Most plants acquire their nitrogen largely in the form of N03

(assimilation process) and spent considerable energy reducing it into amines, in which form it is used in the biochemical pathway.

Through anthropogenic factors during the last century, the natural annual rate at whichfixednitrogen enters the land-based N-cyclehas doubled. Serious environmental consequences are already apparent and include: GHG of Nitrous oxide, smoke and acid rain formation, and eutrophication of estuaries and coastal waters.

Nitrate leaching through deep percolation is one of the main losses of nitrogen that would be otherwise available to plants. This loss is normally replenished through application of fertilizers, which on the other hand could have deleterious effectson the soil system and water bodies. However, poverty within the rural agro-ecosystems equally limits fertilizer application to few rich farmers, while the rural farms continue to suffer serious nutrient losses, which further undermines food security in the long run, commensurate with increasing population.

1.3 Env

ir

o

nment as an Economic Resourc

e

Development entails manipulation of factors of production to generate wealth (goodsand services) to satisfy human needs and even wants. This is economically represented by the production function thus: Qx

=

f(land, labour, capital). In essence,the four economic factors of production namely land, labour, capital and management are part and parcel of the environment and are captured in the capitalconcept model that distinguishes between five different yet inter-connected and inter-related environmental components critical in economic growth and development (Figure 1.6), thus; SD

=

f(Ne, Fe, He, Se, PC);

Where:SOis sustainable development; Natural capital (NC) comprises nature's "free" goods and services such as land, water and climate). Financial capital (FC)comprises stocks of readily available money for investment. Human capital (HC) includes all that goes into improving the status or-quality of humans such as technical skills, medical care, and education. Social capital (SC) includes all that goes into enhancing peoples' propensity to co-operate, work together and network such as governance, religion, traditions and culture. Physical capital (PC)comprises all forms of infrastructure and technology development by humans in the pursuit of development. Harmonising these capital forms towards sustainable development is still a matter of serious concerns worldwide.

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Sustainable Community Development

Community Capacity Building

Enabling political and economic environment

Figure1.6Environment as the basis for sustainable development

It is clear that to achieve sustainable development, there is need for integrated approaches in order to take advantage of the inter-linkages and inter-dependence of capital forms (as well as ecosystems and their components). On this basis, integrated environmental manag;ement (IEM) would require among others:

• Multi-disciplinary approaches

• Multi-sector approaches • Multi-objective planning • Multiple interventions* \

• Multi-Iateralism as opposed to Unilateralism and • Multi-benefits expectations

As a multi-intervention undertaking, integrated environment management would require among others the following tools and strategies:

• (Science, technology, Policy)

• (Integrated environmental Impact Assessments) • (Awareness, education, legislation)

• (Multi-stakeholder participatory in decision-making) • (Systems/ecosystems theory)

1.4 Conceptualising Sustainable Development

The understanding that no one half of the world can survive without the other half calls for deliberate efforts from all of us to think about and accept our responsibilities to one another and to the environment. This concept of the

1/common good" is the foundation of the new professionalism of sustainable

development. According to WeED (1987) sustainable development is one that

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The reservoir at the greatest risk of depletion in most African countries is carbon

in living organisms especially plant matter. Agriculture and settlement pressures

have continued to reduce the forest cover of most countries to below the

international minimum. Kenya's forest cover is presently estimated at 1.2%,which

is very low compared to the internationally recommended cover of 10% of the

total land area. Charcoal burning and demand for wood fuel are having their

effect, as biomas remains the main source of energy in rural areas and low income

urban households. Making alternative fuel sources such as solar and electricity

more readily available especially for the rural areas remains a critical research and policy agenda for Kenya (Mwikali and Waswa, 2004), and more investment in its exploratilon coupled with responsible trade could help save Africa's forest and vegetative cover. The role of carbon dioxide in global climate change and implication for Africa's development will be discussed in volume two of this series.

Atmosphere (Gaseous reservoir) CO2 absorption in

photosynthesis CO2 release in

respiration and fire

CO2 absorption in

aquatic photosynthesis Living organisms

(Organic carbon) Refractory organic

molecules from wastes, dead organisms

Erosion Solid earth

(Reservoir for Limestone)

Water

(Reservoir for dissolved CO2)

Limestone formation

Figure 1.4. Carbon Cycle (Modified from Brady, 1984)

The dotted arrow represents CO2 release by respiration in aquatic organisms,

dissolved organic molecules from dead organisms, wastes; CO2 is also released

directly from solid earth to atmosphere by combustion of coal, oil, gas, and or

natural releases. Diffusion of CO2 across air-water interface also occurs.

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Volcanic action

I

Atmospheric Nitrogen

I

~

.

I

Bio-fixation

I

Industrial fixation

I

Denitrifying bacteria Electrochemical&

(N03-N2) photochemical

fixation

• ,

"

Ammonia (NH4) & Nitrate (N03)

I

~~

I

t

I

fish, birds

I

Denitrification

bacteria IF

t

(N03-N02)

Assimilation Shallow marine

•

& anabolism sediments

Nitrate

•

bacteria _{Deep sediments}

(N02-N03)

,IF

~~

I

Producers

I

•

• I

Herbivorous Denitrifying

Bacteria

I

Consumers

I

(N03-NH3)

I

•

Decay, wastes, decomposition

I

Nitrite bacteria Ammonifying

(NH3-N02) bacteria

•

...•

...• ₍_NJ_-_h_- _N_H₃₎ _.._.•

...• _{Amino acids, Urea, Uric}

acid, Organic residues

Figure 1.5.Nitrogen cycle (Modified from Korrnondy, 1984)

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Nitrogen Cycle

The main processes in the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1.5) are electro-chemical and photochemical fixation, industrial fixation, biological fixation, ammonification, nitrification, denitrification, and assimilation. The largest storage pool of nitrogen is the atmosphere, while the smallest but more active pools are in soils and water of the earth itself. The exchanges in the nitrogen cycle differ in their relative importance. Most plants acquire their nitrogen largely in the form of N03

(assimilation process) and spent considerable energy reducing it into amines, in which form it is used in the biochemical pathway.

Through anthropogenic factors during the last century, the natural annual rate at which fixed nitrogen enters the land-based N-cycle has doubled. Serious environmental consequences are already apparent and include: GHG of Nitrous oxide, smoke and acid rain formation, and eutrophication of estuaries and coastal waters.

Nitrate leaching through deep percolation is one of the main losses of nitrogen that would be otherwise available to plants. This loss is normally replenished through application of fertilizers, which on the other hand could have deleterious effects on the soil system and water bodies. However, poverty within the rural agro-ecosystems equally limits fertilizer application to few rich farmers, while the rural farms continue to suffer serious nutrient losses, which further undermines food security in the long run, commensurate with increasing population.

1.3 Environment

as an Economic

Resource

Development entails manipulation of factors of production to generate wealth (goods and services) to satisfy human needs and even wants. This is economically represented by the production function thus: Qx = f(land, labour, capital).

In essence, the four economic factors of production namely land, labour, capital and management are part and parcel of the environment and are captured in the capital concept model that distinguishes between five different yet inter-connected and inter-related environmental components critical in economic growth and development (Figure 1.6), thus; SD = f(Ne, Fe, He,

sc.

PC);

Where: SD is sustainable development; Natural capital (NC) comprises nature's "free" goods and services such as land, water and climate). Financial capital (FC) comprises stocks of readily available money for investment. Human capital (HC) includes all that goes into improving the status or-quality of humans such as technical skills, medical care, and education. Social capital (SC) includes all that goes into enhancing peoples' propensity to co-operate, work together and network such as governance, religion, traditions and culture. Physical capital (PC) comprises all forms of infrastructure and technology development by humans in the pursuit of development. Harmonising these capital forms towards sustainable development is still a matter of serious concerns worldwide.

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Community Capacity Building

Sustainable Community Development

Enabling political and economic environment

Figure 1.6 Environment as the basis for sustainable development

It is clear that to achieve sustainable development, there is need for integrated

approaches in order to take advantage of the inter-linkages and inter-dependence of capital forms (as well as ecosystems and their components). On this basis, integrated environmental management (IEM) would require among others:

• Multi-disciplinary approaches

• Multi-sector approaches

• Multi-objective planning

• Multiple interventions*

• Multi-lateralism as opposed to Unilateralism and

• Multi-benefits expectations

As a multi-intervention undertaking, integrated environment management would

require among others the following tools and strategies:

• (Science, technology, Policy)

• (Integrated environmental Impact Assessments)

• (Awareness, education, legislation)

• (Multi-stakeholder participatory in decision-making)

• (Systems/ecosystems theory)

1 .

4 Conceptualising Sustainable Development

The understanding that no one half of the world can survive without the other

half calls for deliberate efforts from all of us to think about and accept our

responsibilities to one another and to the environment. This concept of the

"common good" is the foundation of the new professionalism of sustainable

development. According to WeED (1987) sustainable development is one that

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Enuironment and Sustainable Development

meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to

meettheir own needs. Sustainable development can also be viewed as development that guarantees inter and intra generation equity with respect to meeting all basic

needs (goods and services). Note the importance of environmental conservation. This definition further emphasises the importance of balance between the spheres of sustainability. By equity, both on-site and off-site effects of resource use on the environment must be kept within required limits. In principle, SD seeks to sustain the integrity of the combined human and natural systems as they interact and condition each other over time. This also explains the emergence of human ecology or physical and social ecology as a discipline.

The conventional wisdom in working with sustainable development is to conceive of three inter-locking and inter-dependent spheres: the environmental (ecological), the social (welfare, people), and the economic. Economic development, social development and environmental protection are thus interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of

so

.

Where:

• Economic dimension is to do with creation of material wealth

• Social dimension encom passes the quality of people's lives and in particular about equity between people, communities and nations.

• Environment as being about protection and conservation of our natural resources

Understanding the nature of interdependence between these spheres and how they sha-pe one another is critical for SO planning. On this basis, three sustainability paradigms can be distinguished:

i). Metaphoric (Conventional) Visualisation, where sustainable development is the hypothetical area of intersection between the economic, social and ecological spheres. Two defects characterise this paradigm:

ii).Literal Visualisation, where the economic sphere lies entirely within the social sphere that in turn lies entirely within the environmental sphere. As such the environment is sovereign.

iii). Cognitive visualisation, where sustainable development is about people (Social dimension) and not about protecting or conserving the environment per se. As

such the social sphere is placed as the outermost ring with both the economic

and environmental spheres incorporated entirely within it. As it were man is sovereign.

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SustainabiIity Indicators

Being a target that should be achieved, indicators become inevitable to assess progress in sustainable development. Indicators help us to know or verify that systems or societies are functioning or operating in a sustainable manner. They show change whether positive or negative in a given parameter/ attribute, which then guides decision-making processes. From an environmental perspective, indicators' main function is to quantify change in environmental parameters. As such indicators could be qualitative (nominal), rank (ordinal) in nature or quantitative variables, and must be established to check on the conditions of all the three spheres of sustainability.

Being important in environmental and development decision-making, indicators have certain universally acknowledged requirements:

• The value of the indicators must be measurable (or at least observable) • Data must be either already available or should be obtainable through

special measuring or monitoring activities

• Methodology for data gathering, processing, and construction must be clear, transparent and standardized.

• Means for building and monitoring the indicators should be available.

This include finances, human and technical capacities • They should be cost effective

• Should be politically appropriate at whichever levels in order to influence decision.

Progress in Sustainable Development

Lessons from the emergence of environmentalism to Agenda 21 and now the World Summit for Sustainable Development indicate that sustainability has often been undermined when private and perhaps politically driven individual interests have tended to override the "common good". The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development pointed out the need for deliberate efforts towards partnership as the way forward in realising global development goals. This approach will also becritical when addressing the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Progress of MDG with respect to Kenya are summarised in Republic of Kenya (2003). Some of them that may have direct bearing on the environment include halving extreme poverty and hunger, promoting gender equality, ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing global partnership for development, with targets for aid, trade and debt relief.

These goals are in principle a reflection of some main problems undermining Africa's development. What remains to be seen is the role Africa will play in addressing them and how far the developed countries will be willing to partner

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Em-ironment and Sustainable Development

with African governments for the same purpose. In addition, addressing these problems will no doubt impact immensely on the environment. Another unique and hitherto ignored requirement for sustainability is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The underlying principle is that because Multi-National Corporations (MNC) use community resources to generate profits, they have an obligation to impact positively to the environment and welfare of people living within their operation areas.

The rather high incidences of environmental pollution and related problems, labour strikes in production and processing firms, and widespread rural poverty around thriving businesses are a pointer for drastic changes in the way environmental resources and human capital are exploited for production and wealth creation. Whether driven by moral or legal forces, ethical businesses (corporate social responsibility) can contribu te significantly to the creation of sustainable societies particularly at community levels if the concept is properly understood. This is one of the development challenges in Kenya's corporate dimension.

This volume has attempted to enlighten readers on critical global environmental challenges but focussing on a local scale (Kenya). Readers are expected to dig out priority research and policy needs in order to inform decision-making towards appropriate response options and strategic interventions towards creating sustainable societies. This volume will have achieved its purpose if readers would be in a position to integrate sustainability thinking in their academic and professional mandates, and be able to adequately address the following issues:

• Ability to show that humans and the environment shape each other and must thus co-exist harmoniously.

• Describe and analyse the ways in which people and or nations relate with the environment and with each other along parasitic tendencies and how to shift this relationships to mutual gains.

• Show that no one half of the world can survive without the other half and the importance of integration and participatory decision-making.

• Apply their knowledge to solving pressing societal problems

1.5 Sample Questions

1. To create sustainable societies, there is need to mainstream sustainability

thinking in all academic and professional disciplines. Critically examine this assertion using relevant examples.

ii. Using the systems concept, critically examine the importance of integration and partnerships in the pursuit of sustainable development.

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iii.Thesingle most important driver for sustainable development isgood political governance. Discuss the merit of this assertion using Kenya as a case study.

IV Critically examine the relationships between ecosystems, their services and

human well-being

1 .

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