CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
A textual and image analysis of the selected newspapers was employed to examine the amount of coverage female and male sport athletes receive respectively. The categories for this study represent articles (textual), photographs (visual) and content analysis about female and male athletes. The numbers of articles and photographs and section prominence (front page of the newspaper, front page of the sport section, the sport section and other sections) were coded, as were their sizes in terms of small, medium and large. In the content analysis, which is a systematic method for examining the message or content of the print media in order to draw inferences about the communication system (Budd, Thorp and Donohew, 1967), possible inferences about newspaper coverage of female and male sport athletes were drawn. In this study the measurement of analysis for all print and photograph spacing were measured in centimetres and simple number counts. The articles and photographs were coded into mutually exclusive, predetermined categories generated after the extensive study of literature.
To reduce researcher bias, two coders were used. Intercoder reliability was 95% for articles and 100% for photographs. As a measure of association between categorical variables, for a large number of factors from moderately large and large data sets, Cramers’ V statistical, as well as the percentage within a measure was used. The results are presented with basic descriptive statistics and, where appropriate, chi-square tests were used to determine statistical significance. An alpha level of 0.05 was selected to determine statistical significance.
4.2 Research design
through the media constructions and the ‘output’ of publications (Hartmann-Tews and Rulofs, 2003).
In previous studies (Alexander, 1994; Harris, 1997; Pirinen, 1997) attention was given to the ‘input’ and ‘output’ component in media construction. The ‘input’ component consisted of the sources of information available to the journalists, as well as events and the performance of athletes. Examples would include media processing in press departments of different sporting organisations and information about major sporting events such as the Olympic Games, the World Cup Soccer, Wimbledon and gendered ideology from which media formulation stems. The tapping into diverse conceptual frameworks and sociological and theoretical explorations within a post-modernist framework, contributed to the understanding of gender constructions. Feminist paradigms were also utilised to reflect on the ‘input’ of the model.
The ‘through-put’ of the research methodological model consisted of the mechanisms of media production which involved the process by which journalists go about covering sport news, or the ‘writing up’ of an article about a particular athlete through their use of various images and styles of writing (Hartman-Tews and Rulofs, 2003; Knoppers and Elling, 2004).
The ‘out-put’ relates to the component which represented the printed material and is quantifiable in terms of coverage, the depiction of athletes, the photographs and results printed.
4.3 Methodology and sampling
4.3.1 Quantitative data analysis
The following quantitative data was examined from the model:
• The extent of the coverage (refer to chapter one) entails five thousand three hundred (n=5300) articles that were coded as well as two thousand three hundred and fifty four (n=2354) photographs that were also coded.
newspaper. The sizes of the articles, as well as the photographs were measured using pre-sized templates (see figure 1.1). Templates were designed by analysing sizes of both articles and photographs from the three different newspapers. The most frequent sizes were taken into account and categorized into average range measurements, making up three different sizes.
• Small - [7cm x 7cm -15cm x 9cm]
• Medium - [20cm X 8cm - 30cm x 40cm] • Large - [34cm x 45cm – 40xcm x 60 cm]
The small size occupies twenty percent (χ<20%) or less of a standard newspaper’s page size, a medium size representation covers between twenty to forty five percent (20<χ>45%) of a standard newspaper’s page, and the large size occupies anything between fifty percent (50%) to a complete standard page.
4.3.2 Qualitative data analysis
The following qualitative data was examined from the model.
• The textual and image coverage (content analysis) present the nature or way in which the coverage was portrayed both visually and linguistically (text), excluding advertisements of any nature.
Figure 1.1 Pre-sized article and photo templates
4.3.3 Sample
Newspapers were selected from three major publishing houses. Not only were these newspapers’ profiles taken into account (circulation figures, readers’ profiles, ethnic representation and socio-economic status), but also the thematic analysis of newspapers via a pilot study. All newspapers in the country were analyzed via S.A. Media’s electronic database. Newspapers which contained the largest frequency of sport coverage as well as sport-gender related articles were chosen. The pilot study established the newspapers mentioned below as having the highest numbers of sport-gender related articles:
• Die Beeld • The Sowetan • The Star
All these newspapers are daily newspapers and the period of analysis was six months, being from April 2004 to September 2004. A total of two hundred and sixteen (n=216) newspapers was collected. This included 72 copies of each newspaper. A total of two thousand three hundred and fifty four (n=2354) pictures or images and five thousand three hundred (n=5300) articles were collected for analysis which constituted the following spread:
• ninety nine (n=99) photos and one hundred and seventy (n=170) articles from Die Beeld.
• one hundred and forty six (n=146) photos and two thousand six hundred and seven (n=2607) articles from The Sowetan.
The period of analysis was chosen specifically due to the staging of the Olympic as well as Para-Olympic Games held in Athens during the months of June 2004 to August 2004. In addition to the Olympic Games and Para-Olympic Games, other big sporting events that transpired during this period included Wimbledon, the European Soccer Championships held every four years, the Tri-Nations Rugby, the winning of the 2010 Soccer World Cup Bid as well as the Women’s Soccer African Cup of Nations also held every four years.
Table1.1: Demographic of newspapers Readers Race (%) Age (%) Gender (%) Socio- Economic Status (%) Language Preference (%) Sport Preference Die Beeld 167374 Readers Black (13%) White (52%) Coloured (25%) Indian (10%) 16-24 yrs (17%) 25-34 yrs (34%) 35-49 yrs (32%) 50+ yrs (17%) Male (65%) Female (35%) FT (55%) PT (12%) H (9%) ST (11%) RET (8%) UnE (5%) English (10%) Afrikaans (77%) Sotho (7%) Zulu (3%) Nguni (3%) Rugby Cricket The Sowetan 123590 Readers Black (92%) White (1%) Coloured (5%) Indian (2%) 16-24 yrs (24%) 25-34 yrs (33%) 35-49 yrs (32%) 50+ yrs (11%) Male (65%) Female (35%) FT (27%) PT (17%) H (3%) ST (47%) RET (3%) UnE (3%) English (4%) Afrikaans (2%) Sotho (34%) Zulu (35%) Nguni (25%) Soccer Boxing The Star 171336 Readers Black (62%) White (30%) Coloured (4%) Indian (4%) 16-24 yrs (19%) 25-34 yrs (32%) 35-49 yrs (30%) 50+ yrs (19%) Male (51%) Female (49%) FT (50%) PT (9%) H (7%) ST (11%) RET (7%) UnE (16%) English (33%) Afrikaans (9%) Sotho (25%) Zulu (17%) Nguni (16%) Rugby Cricket Soccer
Keys for Socio- Economic Status FT (Working Full Time) PT (Working Part Time) H (Housewives) ST (Students) RET (Retired) UnE (Unemployed)
Other characteristics of the readership of the different newspapers relate to circulation figures, culture, demographic information and sports-related preferences.
Die Beeld
Die Beeld has a readership of 167374 daily readers. The readers’ demographics are that of a market sector consisting of white, coloured, black and Indian readers. The readership offers a distorted distribution with most of its readers falling in the older age group. This market sector is predominantly Afrikaans speaking, and is very much from a relatively conservative background. These readers prefer rugby and cricket as sport codes.
The Sowetan
The Sowetan has a daily readership of 123590. The Sowetan is distributed nationally with the largest proportion of its readers being located within Gauteng, the economic powerhouse of South Africa. Its readers’ market is that of predominantly black readers. The Sowetan’s readership is slightly skewed towards male readers probably as a result of its abundant sport coverage. This imbalance is however being addressed with the introduction of lifestyle supplements such as The Good and Travel sections. With regards to socio-economic status, less than half of The Sowetan’s readers are employed. The percentage of students reading the newspaper is higher for Time Out and Education Supplements, given the nature of their content. The Sowetan’s readers are ‘die hard’ fans of soccer, thus making soccer their main sport feature.
The Star
such as snowboarding and kite surfing, and liberal topics feature in this newspaper.
4.4 Type of article
Under the heading of ‘type of article’, three types of categories were coded:
The first category identified who the protagonist of the story was, such as being an individual player or a whole team. Secondly, whether it was presented as a main feature, sideline feature or a brief overview known as an editorial.
The third category that was investigated was that of the nature of the sport in terms of its coverage (international or local). All events that involved South African teams playing abroad or international counterparts were classified as international or global. Events or stories that occurred in South Africa at regional or provincial level were classified as national or non-global.
The last category that emerged because of the timing of the study was the coverage of the Olympic and Para-Olympic Games. Hence, articles that reported on the different Games were thematically coded as respectively Olympics or Para-Olympics.
4.4.1 Articles and their protagonists
sports found in other articles is low. Consequently, the number of sport editorials allocated to women athletes (5.5%) is higher compared to that given to male athletes (2.9%).
4.4.2 Global and non-global events
Graph 3.1 Global/Non-global articles Graph 3.2 Global/Non-global articles
on men in the S.A. newspapers reporting on women in the S.A. newspapers
In analysing local and international sport, it was evident that regardless the nature of the coverage of the event, women’s sport coverage is significantly under-represented (n=728, 13.9%) compared to (n=4515, 86.1%) that of men (see graphs 3.1 and 3.2). Preference was given to international sport (n=3240, 61.8%) compared to South African sport (n=2003, 38.2%) across the sexes. This difference was less evident for male sports, where international stories (n=2705, 61.6%) took a slight edge over local stories (n=1810, 48.4%). In reports on women’s sports, international stories (n=535, 73.5%) were prioritized compared to (n=193, 26.5%) local stories, (See graphs 3.1 and 3.2).
4.4.3 Summer Olympics Games and Para-Olympics
Graph 3.3 Male and female articles reporting on the Olympic and Para-Olympic Games
Global/non-global - Male
International National
Global/non global - Female
Due to the period over which this study was conducted (April 2004 – September
2004), the opportunity arose to analyse the gender coverage of the Olympics as
well as the Para-Olympic Games. Relatively little coverage was given to both Games with media coverage of the Olympic Games totalling (n=594, 88%) articles compared to (n=81, 12%) of the Para-Olympics (see graph 3.3). In examining the male and female presentation of both Games, there was not a distinctive difference. Female Olympic articles were coded as (n=224, 42.2%), compared to that of (n=370, 58.8%) male Olympic articles. In comparing the Para-Olympic coverage of gender, male athletes measured (n=48, 61.9%) compared to female athletes (n=33, 38.1%). It is thus conclusive that in the Olympic and Para-Olympic Games, a biased coverage of male athletes took place compared to women’s sport.
4.5 Placement of article
The placement of the article is the positional placing of the article in the newspaper. All three newspapers have different sections and in turn the placements of their articles are different.
4.5.1 Layout of Die Beeld
Die Beeld newspaper is divided into three main sections, the front section, the middle section and the back section. The main section of Die Beeld usually consists of about 17 pages. In this section, international stories are mostly reported on. Political features, both international and national, are published here.
makes up the mid section of this newspaper is called Boeke-Beeld. This is where one would find the latest reviews on books.
The last section of Die Beeld is called Sake-Beeld and contains all the latest news on the stock markets, worldwide economies, inflations and interest rates. Closer to the end, the classifieds are found running over to the sport which is the last part of this section.
4.5.2 The Sowetan’s layout
The Sowetan is not physically divided into different sections as Die Beeld or The Star is. Nevertheless, one can distinguish different sections when reading it. General news on a global and national scale can be found in the first 17 pages. From pages 18 to 22 reports on entertainment such as daily horoscopes, celebrities, books and movie reviews are given.
The next section to be distinguished is that of business. Here insight on the current trends and workings of the ‘money world’ can be read, taking up pages 23 to about 26. The classifieds or job market section is the next to follow. This section informs readers on available employment opportunities as well as miscellaneous information in the classifieds (± pages 28 to 35).
The final section of the newspaper reports on sport (± pages 36 to 50), where all news on athletes, events and results are found.
4.5.3 The Star’s layout
This layout is very similar to that of Die Beeld. It contains six loose sections. The first loose section, which happens to be the main section (± pages one to 17), informs the readers of all general news such as worldwide events, local and political stories and news on natural disasters.
newspaper and not the middle. This ‘sport pullout’ usually reports on weekend sport events and athlete performances.
The remaining four loose sections are those of the business times (economy, investments, stock markets), the classifieds (job opportunities and/or vacancies, houses on sale, miscellaneous offers), the motoring section (insight into the car market, car accessories), and the tonight section (movie and book reviews, celebrity news, horoscopes, movie and theatre information, crosswords and puzzles). The motoring section not only contains insight into the motoring world, but also results and updates on motor sports such as Formula One, Rally Racing, Bike Racing and Motor Grand Prix.
4.5.4 Results on layout of articles
When thinking about the most prominent position for a sport article, one would expect the front page of the newspaper or at least, the front-page of the sport section. This is where the attention is received and therefore the best place for important stories to be read. Since the sample size of articles was large, Cramer’s V test was used. Cramer’s V test measurement was calculated to .085, which indicates that a relatively high bias is evident in the placement of either male or female stories.
Taking the actual count of articles found in the front section of the newspaper into consideration, the outcome pointed towards male bias (n=1294, 24.2%) compared to female coverage (n=245, 4.6%). Yet, when taking the percentage within gender measurement, it was the opposite, showing that female stories (32.3%) had a slight edge over male stories (28.2%) placed in the front section of the newspaper.
to those of women (n=239, 4.5%) stories. The percentage within gender confirms the above trend, being (43.3%) and (31.5%) respectively.
It can thus be concluded that the layout of the newspapers concerning sport coverage is biased toward male sport. The most prominent sections of a newspaper are the front page and the back section, and these have male sports being reported, with women’s sport featuring in the middle section, which is the less prominent section of the newspapers.
4.6 Size of articles
The articles were categorised into three different sizes. Small ranging from [7cm x 7cm -15cm x 9cm] and anything smaller. Medium dimensions were [20cm X 8cm - 30cm x 40cm] and the large size ranged between [34cm x 45cm – 40xcm x 60 cm] and anything bigger. The researcher by means of content analysis determined these sizes prior to six months of coding, where a trend of sizes emerged. Pre-set size templates were then made to aid the researcher with future article and photo size coding.
4.6.1 Results of the size of articles
When it came to ranges or dimension, the bigger article size would inevitably draw the readers’ attention, and it thus seemed apparent that only the most important or interesting stories, events and/or athletes would ‘earn’ bigger coverage in size. More important and interesting stories were allocated a bigger space compared to less prominent ones.
No major statistical significance was reported with Kramer’s V test measuring at .044, signifying that gender had little to do with the representations of sizes. However, when analysing the count and percentage within the gender measurements, it was evident that male sports were allocated comparatively larger space (20.9%) than female sports (16.3%).
Concerning article placement and size, the hypothesis of trivializations of female sport achievements being evident in S.A. media became vivid and holds true. Women’s achievements are placed in the least prominent section of the newspapers and allocated the least amount of space compared to their male counterparts highlighting the marginalization and trivialization of women’s sport.
4.7 Visual constructions
Sport photographs represent an account of how the world is viewed through the eyes of the newspaper photographers. Photographs are composed and placed in such a way that they present a subjective message with a ‘facade’ of objectivity in a vivid, memorable, easy to decipher, format (Duncan, 1990).
4.7.1 Type of photo
Similar, but different qualitative categories were devised for the analysis and coding of newspaper photographs of male and female sport athletes, similar to those of articles. Once again, the subject of the photo was taken into account, having either an individual athlete or a team being photographed. It is to be noted that a photo consisting of more than one individual was coded automatically as a team or group photo.
Type of photo 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Individual Team Female Male
Graph 3.4 Photo type of individual and/or team athletes according to gender
4.7.1.1 Results of the type of photos
In analysing graph 3.4, it is clear that more photos of individual athletes (n=1825, 76.4%) were taken compared to team or group photos (n=564, 23.6%). In analysing the gender representation of photos, due to the extensive number in our data set, the Kramer’s V test, symmetric measure was used. According to Kramer’s V test measure of photo types, little effect exists between the categories of type and gender (Kramer’s V test = .007). This finding corresponds with the percentage within gender measurements. However, female athletes (77.1%) tended to be photographed more as individuals than their male counterparts (76.3%). This took the reverse role with team photos where male teams are slightly more prominent (23.7%) compared to female sport teams (22.9%).
4.7.2 Photo setting
In photographs of male athletes or teams, it was noted that in marginally more (64.5%) of the cases, male athletes were photographed during their active play than their female counterparts (59.6%).
4.7.3 Olympics and Para-Olympics photo representation
Gender representation in Olympic photos 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Male Female
Graph 3.5 A comparative gender analysis of Olympic photos in S.A. newspapers
Gender representation in Para-Olympics photos 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Male Female
Graph 3.6 A comparative gender analysis of Para-Olympic photos in S.A. newspapers
In analysing the gender depiction of the Para-Olympic Games, it was found that there tended to be a bias towards female athletes (n=34,10.2%), compared to male athletes (n=22, 6.6%) (see graph 3.6). Once again, the percentage within gender measure confirmed a bias towards female athletes with (23.9%) of photos given to female athletes compared to (11.5%) given to their male counterparts.
4.8 Placement of photos
The explanation of photo placement is similar to that of the articles. To explain on this, see section Placement of article (paragraph 4.5, p.55).
4.8.1 Results
It was noted that there was not a significant bias towards any gender concerning the placement of photographs (Kramer’s V test = 0.088). A slight indication showed that more photos of men were found at the end of newspapers (46.6%), compared to those of females (35.5%). The front section placed more photos of women as their subjects (34.6%), compared to men (26.8%). When it came to the middle sections of the newspapers, female photos (29.9%) were more prominent than male photos (26.6%).
4.9 Size of photos
Identical pre-set size templates, as for the articles, were set for photographs. Sizes ranged from small to medium to large (see paragraph 4.3.1, p. 47).
4.9.1 Results
According to Pearson’s Chi Square measure (χ2 = 14.006, df= 2, p=.001), there tends to be a slight connection between gender and the sizes of photos, (Kramer’s V test measure =.076). When comparing the photos of the genders and their respective sizes in units, there is a significant difference. However, taking Kramer’s V test measure into consideration, and due to the large data set (n=2403), the percentage within gender measures was used to identify the relation between the two variables. When coding the photo sizes, it was noted that female athletes were placed in small photos (49.3%), compared to men being placed in medium (38.9%) or large photos (11.8%). If a comparison had to be drawn between female size photos and male size photos, it would be seen that female photos, sized small and medium, are relatively more than those allocated to men (small = 44.1% and medium = 36.5%). The exception exists for the large sized photos, where the percentage within gender measure is higher for men (19.5%) than for women (11.8%).
4.10 Textual construction
textual constructions of realities permeating the dominant discourses (Sparkes, 1992).
Qualitative categories were devised to compare the portrayal of female and male sport athletes. Borrowing from the textual analysis methodology used by Lumpkin and Williams (1991), all headlines, article adjectives descriptors, and metaphors about female or male athletes that related to their physical appearance, as well as their psychological characteristics, were underlined.
Their athleticism, family role, race and class that depicted the athletes in ambivalent, culturally stereotyped, derogatory, or salacious ways, were also underlined. Using an inductive approach, categories, patterns, themes, and their contextual meanings gradually emerged.
4.10.1 Themes
Themes that emerged in articles over the six-month period in the three newspapers, represent the storylines that were written on both sportsmen and sportswomen. A brief overview, in order of frequency, is given about each one below:
ϖ Performance (n=1667): Consisted of any storyline that had to do with the physical performance of the athlete, records, prizes and medals, be it successful or not – (success).
ϖ Report on build up of event (n=1467): This storyline contained any pre-match or pre-event statistics or incident that surrounded a specific event, in general the marketing of the event. In this theme, opinions and insights of players, ex-players and/or specialists were included – (marketing).
the athletes. This was more directed to the physical appearance and/or beauty of the female athlete – (gender stereotyping).
ϖ Resources (n=527): Resources included financial (job status, sponsorships, salaries, rewards) and physical ones (equipment, facilities, and training facilities). Any story that had to do with the hiring or sacking of a manager, coach or player, transfers of a player from one club, or country to another, prize money, salaries of sports people, the latest sponsors of a team, individual as well as the latest equipment or facilities, inaugurated, needed or lacking were accounted for – (economic).
ϖ Results (n=478): This theme merely included all articles that furnished a result of a match, race, competition, medal counts, records and/or league score line – (excellence).
ϖ Non-sport (n=237): A number of sub themes were coded under this theme, namely any private or personal “off the field” happenings. Personal and private events or happenings included things such as accidents, religion, charity work that athletes performed, their latest range of fashion accessories as well as their personal relationships, friendships and lifestyles – (personal stories).
ϖ Rising star/potential (n=232): Future and potential champions were highlighted for their tremendous talent and budding career in this theme – (hero).
ϖ Ethical and deviant behaviour (n=177): Both verbal and physical actions were considered. Actions that were highlighted were behaviour such as fighting, on and off the field, boorish and racist commentary, before, during and after matches or on-the field behaviour – (behaviour).
Main Them es 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 uild up Perform ance Results hysicality esources Non sport Ethical behaviour ising star Sport code B P R R
Male Fem ale
Graph 3.7 Frequency of themes reported in sample of South African newspapers
Graph 3.8 A comparative analysis of male themes covered in S.A. newspapers during the research period Male themes Sport code Rising star Ethical behaviour Nonsport Resources Physicality Results Performance Build up 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Beeld Sowetan Star
Female themes Sport code Rising star Ethical behaviour Non sport Resources Physicality Results Performance Build up 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Beeld Sowetan Star
Graph 3.9 A comparative analysis of female themes covered in S.A. newspapers during the research period
An analysis across the three newspapers concerning female themes showed that The Star (n=76, 61.3%) had a relatively higher coverage of sport results than The Sowetan (n=17, 13.7%) and Die Beeld (n=31, 25%) (see graph 3.9). Therefore, it can be concluded that more female representation is covered by The Star. This trend is valid for the majority of the themes, the exception being the themes of ‘sport codes’ and rising star’. Die Beeld however reported more on themes such as ‘resources’ (n=9, 40.9%) and ‘rising star’ (n=8, 40.0%) compared to The Star (n= 5, 22.7%), (n=7, 35.0%) and The Sowetan (n=8, 36.4%), (n=5, 25.0%). The Sowetan in turn, had most of its reports on management issues in sport (n=16, 84.2%) compared to The Star (n=1, 5.3%) and Die Beeld (n=2, 10.5%).
Every article has a storyline (theme), but the headline that accompanies it is important, for it is that which catches the eye of the reader first. In capturing the attention of the reader, the journalist uses descriptors in the story to keep the attention, making the function of descriptors just as important as the headlines. 4.10.2 Headlines and descriptors
• Performance/Success and failure
“Qualify for Athens or stay home, SA’s darling Natalie told” – Olympic Swimming
Reports on the qualifying swimming times of Natalie du Toit which will allow or prevent her to make the Olympic swimming squad that goes to Athens.
“WP lewer skok teen Bolanders” – Rugby
“WP delivers shock against Bolanders” – Rugby (translation)
This story outlines the performance and success of the Western Province rugby team against the Boland rugby team.
“Thai Paradorn Srichaphan became the latest victim to be steamrollered by Karlovic” – Tennis
Karlovic’s quality of performance is highlighted metaphorically (steamroller).
“Czechmate as Koller and Baros destroy Denmark” – Soccer
Reports on the Czechs defeating the Danish in the quarter finals in the European Soccer Cup.
“Nie a teeparty” – SA Women’s Volleyball
“Not a tea party” – SA Women’s Volleyball (translation)
Reports on the heavy loss of the South African women’s volleyball team at the Olympics against the Italians.
“It’s yours…with more digs than spikes” – Volleyball
• Performance/Excellence
“Feast of tries for Barbarians” – Rugby
Reports on the way the Barbarians beat the experimental England XV side.
“The Red Baron” – Formula One
Michael Schumacher’s ‘power’ over the race track and his fellow drivers is highlighted.
“Conchita Martinez brushed aside Colombia’s Catalina Castano” – Tennis
The style in which Martinez prevailed over her Columbian counterpart is illustrated.
“Federer bulldozed his way through to the next round” – Tennis
The manner in which Federer progressed to the next round is highlighted.
“…ready to crack the whip south of the border to win the US Grand Prix” – Formula One
Michael Schumacher’s expertise in and mastery of race driving is portrayed.
“Butler serves notice as she dances over the course” – Golf
Carrie Butler’s victory ‘style’ in the women’s European championships is reported on.
• Physicality/Gender Stereotyping
“Labuschagne dalk uit” – Rugby
“ Labuschagne might bow out” – Rugby (translation)
“….with the introduction of Julie Yates, the game should become more aesthetically pleasing” – Darts
The introduction of women to the sport is described as aesthetically pleasing.
“Mirror, mirror on the wall, does Sharapova have it all?” – Tennis
Her tennis skills and ‘beauty’ are mentioned.
“Cheeky...but petite” – Tennis
Tennis player Anastasia Myskina’s progresses to the quarter finals of Wimbledon 2004, ways of communication with the umpires and her physique are all mentioned.
“Young, talented and aesthetically pleasing, a real marketing dream” – Tennis
Maria Sharapova’s inauguration to the sport tennis is underlined.
“Aiming for a new image” – Darts
A headline that introduces Julie Yates to the sport code darts, and how this will introduce ‘prettiness’ to the game.
“No tall poppy as Mlambo wins three in a row” – Running
Analyzes her physique as small…but speedy.
“Vrouesokker sit bal aan rol vir die spele” – Soccer “Women’s soccer is set in motion” – Soccer
(translation)
• Rising star/Hero/Role model
“Heroic Natalie reaches out to teen survivor” – Para-Olympic swimming
Shireen Shapiro (13 years) survived being sliced open by a boat at the Vaal dam, which limited her physical abilities as a future Olympic champion. She was met by her role model Natalie du Toit, who encouraged her “to go on.”
“Phelps in visier” – Swimming
“Phelps in vision” – Swimming (translation)
Roland Schoeman’s goal is on beating the favourite of the race, Phelps.
“The powerhouse winger” – Rugby
New Zealand rugby player, Jonah Lomu, and his performance on the field are reported on.
“Teenager sensation Rooney powered England to victory” – Soccer
Wayne Rooney’s potential, talent and performance are exemplified.
“Mooi meisie sy inspirasie” – Hockey
“A pretty girl, his inspiration” – Hockey (translation)
Jody Pauls’ initial introduction to the game of hockey was spurred on by the girl whom he liked, who happened to play hockey too. This gave inspiration to become a member of the men’s Olympic Hockey team.
“Wayne in a world of his own” – Soccer
“Sensational Serena, a girl ‘most people’ can only dream about” – Tennis
An article describes her victory of Wimbledon and her caring personality for the orphans.
“Turn left to Retief Goosen Avenue” – Golf
An article mentioning that the least that Retief Goosen can be awarded with for his incredible victory, is to have a street named after him.
• Build Up/Marketing
“Ranieri ready to outgun Arsenal” – Soccer
The build up of the big clash between Chelsea and Arsenal.
“England to pad up for Zimbabwe” – Cricket
The headline to the story outlines the forthcoming clash between England and Zimbabwe after political issues were placed aside.
“Will the 100m race be the same without ‘great’ Jones?” – Athletics
The bowing out of Marion Jones due to her positive testing of steroids left organisers worried on the possible low attendance of the 100m final due to the absence of greats such as Marion Jones and Cathy Freeman.
“Giants enter race for Cup Glory” – Soccer SAA Super 8
Comment after the upsets of soccer giants Kaizer Chiefs, Orlando Pirates and Sundowns being knocked out in the first round of the Super 8 last year. This year was different as all three giants were on their way to the final round.
After his announcement to retire, the South African team found it difficult to replace the talented ex-Bafana Bafana captain.
“Iere goed in lynstane, is die woorde van Bakkies” – Rugby
“Ireland strong in lineouts, says Bakkies” – Rugby (translation)
The pre match comments of SA rugby player Bakkies Botha on his Irish opponents’ tactical skills in the lineouts.
“Rassie gaan Bokke toets” – Rugby
“Rassie is going to test the Boks” – Rugby (translation)
The announcement of Rassie Erasmus in the starting line-up for the up and coming rugby test.
“SA kan meer goues wen as in Sydney” – Summer Olympic Games
“South Africa can win more golds than in Sydney” – Summer Olympic Games (translation)
Sam Ramsammy’s comment at the South African Olympic squad’s dinner prior to their departure to Athens in 2004.
When analysing the coverage given to women’s sport, the type of sport code, underlined theme and content (text) devoted to their coverage, shows signs of gender stereotyping. Therefore, the hypothesis of women’s sport coverage in S.A. media representing gender stereotyping, is accepted.
4.11 Summary of quantitative results
4.11.1 Overall textual and visual coverage
Total coverage - Articles 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
Graph 3.10 Overall article coverage in newspapers over the research period
When focusing on each newspaper and its ‘practice’ on gender representation, it was clear that The Star takes the lead by being relatively more pro-female (42.6%), followed by The Sowetan (29.9%) and lastly Die Beeld (27.4%). The fluctuations in coverage over the months can be related to the events that occurred during those months. During the month of May, the African Women’s Cup of Nations, cricket internationals hosted in South Africa and the start of the European Soccer Cup occurred. The month of June saw events such as the Euro Soccer Cup, the Comrades marathon and the triumph of winning the 2010 World Cup bid. July had events such as Wimbledon, the Tour de France and pre-Olympic competitions. In the month of August, the Tri-Nations Rugby Cup, the final stages of the Olympics and pre Para-Olympic events occurred, as well as the post-winning events of winning the 2010 World Soccer Cup bid.
Beeld SowetanStar BeeldSowetanStar BeeldSowetanStar BeeldSowetanStar BeeldSowetanStar BeeldSowetanStar
April May June July August September
Total photos 250 200 150 100 50 0
Beeld Sowetan Star Beeld Sowetan Star Beeld Sowetan Star Beeld Sowetan Star Beeld Sowetan Star Beeld Sowetan Star
April May June July August September
Female Male
Graph 3.11 A comparative analysis of overall photos of the newspapers in sample
The overall depiction of athletes (n=2354) over the six months research period (April 2004 – September 2004) showed that newspapers were biased towards male athletes, (n=1947, 82.7%) compared to female athletes (n=407, 17.3%) in their visual quantity (χ2=4.479, df=2, p=.106). In analysing the separate newspapers, it can be identified that the overall photo depiction taken over the research period, shows The Star (39.8%) provides relatively more female coverage, compared to The Sowetan (35.9%) and Die Beeld (24.3%). The levels in total photo coverage follow a similar monthly trend to that of the total coverage in articles. The reason for this can be events that took place during the course of the six months research period (April 2004 – September 2004).
4.11.2 Popularity of sports
Overall popularity of sport
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Athletics Boxing Cricket Cycling Formula one Golf Hockey Horse riding Netball Rugby Running Soccer Swimming Tennis Other Male Female
Graph 3.12 A comparative analysis on the overall popularity of sport in the newspapers in sample
Textual analysis allowed certain patterns and themes to be identified in this study. Another pattern that emerged from the study, is that of the most predominant sport codes reported on for male and female athletes. Fourteen (14) sport codes were identified during the pilot study, according to the amount of coverage each received from the media. The sport codes that were not prominently covered by the newspapers, but that did feature throughout the six month research period of analysis, were placed under the sport code of ‘other’. Sports that were included under this category were: aquatics, bowls, judo, karate, pool, rowing, squash and volleyball.
Athletics n=96 Tennis n=87 Field hockey n=75
Golf n=74 Soccer n=72 Table1.2 Ranking of the five most covered sports for
Soccer N=1057 Rugby N=998 Cricket N=327 Horse riding N=210
Golf N=206
Table 1.3 Ranking of the five most covered sports for male athletes
Traditionally male sports that received the most extensive coverage included, soccer (n=1057), rugby (n=998) and cricket (n=327). These are all sport codes that are positioned at the top of the popularity list. Statistically, a large discrepancy exists between attention given to the three sport codes according to gender representation (cricket: χ2 =3.312, df=2, p=.191, rugby: Kramer’s V test=.219 and soccer: Kramer’s V test=.239). Male participation in these sport codes receives more coverage compared to that of women. Therefore it can be concluded that male participation in these sport codes is perceived as more interesting and important compared to the female participation in the same sports codes.
4.11.3 Sport coverage per newspaper
When focusing on individual newspapers coverage of sport, patterns emerged which allowed insight into the ideology of each newspaper, and thus the perceived sport preferences of the readers they cater for. In the following four graphs, sport coverage of different sporting codes in the three newspapers will be discussed. First separately (see graphs 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15), and then comparatively (see graph 3.16).
Popularity of sport – Beeld
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Athletics Boxing Cricket Cycling Formula one Golf Hockey Horse riding Netball Rugby Running Soccer Swimming Tennis Other Male Female
Graph 3.13 Popularity of sport as reported in Die Beeld over a six month research period
(i) Die Beeld
Popularity of sport - Sowetan 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Athletics Boxing Cricket Cycling Formula one Golf Hockey Horse riding Netball Rugby Running Soccer Swimming Tennis Other Male Female
Graph 3.14 The popularity of sport covered by The Sowetan over a six month research period
(ii) The Sowetan
Popularity of Sport - Star 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Athletics Boxing Cricket Cycling Formula one Golf Hockey Horse riding Netball Rugby Running Soccer Swimming Tennis Other Male Female
Graph 3.15 The popularity of sport covered by The Star over a six month research period
(iii) The Star
Female Sport Codes over the three newspapers
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar Be el d Sowe ta n St ar
Athletics Golf Hockey Netball Running Squash Swimming Tennis
Graph 3.16 A comparative analysis of female sport codes over the three newspapers in sample
(iv) Female sport codes
The Star covered women’s hockey most frequently (n=28, 37.3%) compared to The Sowetan (n=28, 23.0%). The Star allocated the most coverage to women’s tennis (n=36, 41.4%) compared to the other newspapers, Die Beeld (n=24, 27.6%) and The Sowetan (n=27, 31.0%). Die Beeld measures a higher quantity of coverage for athletics (n=38, 39.6%) compared to The Sowetan (n=27, 28.1%) and The Star (n=31, 32.3%). Die Beeld allocates more space to swimming (n=15, 40.5%) compared to The Sowetan (n=10, 27.0%) and The Star (n=12, 32.4%). Both sport codes, running and squash were given little allocation of space by all three newspapers. The traditionally female sport code of netball received least coverage by The Sowetan (n=15, 53.6%), however with relatively more allocation of space compared to The Beeld (n=8, 28.6%) and The Star (n=5, 17.9%).
4.12 Construction of media reports
This component of the study, the ‘within-put’, held special significance for media ideology as it intersects with gender ideology and priorities. It was also difficult to obtain information, merely because accessibility to journalists was limited, due to their lack of willingness to participate in the study. The following information is the outcome of one interview held with an editor and an electronic self-designed questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions to which only two responses were received. The questions were informed by the literature study and validated by means of being reviewed by three experts. All interviewees were male. Open-ended questions were asked, allowing the journalists and editor to feel free to share any extra insight they deemed important.
4.12.1 Objectives of sport coverage
Objectives of sport coverage are:
to entertain to be newsworthy
to provide readers with stories of interest
As a whole, the journalists from the three publishing houses highlighted the fact that their main philosophy was one of adequately capturing the continuous needs of the South African society. This is done by emphasising the advancement of women in sport, either as players (athletes) or as administrators. Each endeavoured to inform and entertain the public through sport reporting, as well as have the most interesting and widespread coverage of sports.
As one interviewee explained:
“It is more interesting to read about how certain individuals overcame the odds to be sport stars, than asking an official how he thinks S.A. will fare in the next Olympics.”
“The sport section must portray the new society of S.A. and capture its continuing metamorphosis. It is for this reason I put emphasis on showcasing the advancement of women in sport.”
A slight deviation in qualitative and quantitative data is visible. The journalist mentioned that it was more interesting to read about how individuals overcame the odds, rather than report on the build up of an event. However, statistically, the build up/marketing of an event as a theme measured higher than non-sport related stories or personal stories. One journalist mentions that the sport section must portray the new society of South Africa and its continuing metamorphosis. Yet, political restructuring and/or policies in the sporting world measured as the lowest theme covered in newspapers. Upcoming female sport stars are hardly reported on and when a story is covered, it is usually a story that trivializes the achievements and importance of women’s sport. My question is this: Best writers for reporting on sport, or merely to entertain readers?
4.12.2 How editorial offices work
All three newspapers cover mostly soccer, rugby and cricket (most of the time in that order), as they are ‘their’ main sports. It was highlighted that the readers’ profiles and interests were taken into serious consideration and only what was required and of interest to the readers, is reported on. Local stories are given prominence except if a national team plays abroad or in an international event. Other sport codes will be reported on only if they are mainly international events (golf, tennis and athletics). Simultaneously, it was mentioned that the readers in the community still need to be exposed to other sport codes which are not as traditional as soccer, rugby, and cricket and boxing. One journalist explains this focus:
“In a nutshell, the pre-requisites are that the sport code has to have international and national appeal, and whatever story is reported, on must be newsworthy.”
“As they say, local is indeed lekker.”
“The Tour de France is a major international cycling event, but if your readers are not keen on cycling as participants of spectators it would serve little purpose to report on Tour de France.”
The criteria that decide what and how a story needs to be covered, are different however also similar in the three newspapers. The criteria for formulating a sport story will be discussed next.
4.12.3 Criteria for the formulating of a sport story
Interviewees agreed that if the opportunity presents itself, female athletes will be reported on. Stories about teams would depend on what happened on the sport scene during a particular day or week. Stories should have a national interest and are prioritized as such. International news and events such as the World Cup, Wimbledon, Olympics and Golf majors take priority, especially when a South African athlete is performing in such an event. Otherwise, national events and then local events get coverage, when there is space. An exception is Die Beeld where school sport gets prioritized because of Die Beeld Trofee for boys’ rugby.
“Female is better for me, stories must have a national interest and such stories get prioritized.”
in line with the country’s gender equality programme. The same criterion is used for team photos.
“We don’t really consider the sexual orientation.”
“International events take priority especially when one of our athletes is performing in those kind of events, local getting occasionally coverage.”
“The photographic department goes for pictures that are ‘great’, whereas we are merely looking for a picture to do with a particular story.”
“Rarely do we use team photos.”
Sports such as rugby and cricket are considered the most interesting sports for readers, and they are therefore placed in prominent sections of the newspapers. The challenge therefore is to search for achievements in other codes or events to report on, for the sake of balance.
“Sports like rugby, soccer and cricket attract more attention in their seasons. It is for this reason that we must focus on them.’
“Locally, rugby and cricket seasons are considered the most interesting for our readers.”
All journalists and newspaper houses have their own criteria that they follow in order to write a sport story. This however is not the only guideline that journalists use, their own insight, experience and emotions are part of the formulation process. Each journalist will bring to a story that which is his/hers.
4.12.4 Journalist contributions
also all rounder reporters who write on a couple of sports. All these journalists follow a similar story-production process.
4.12.5 What the process of writing up an article involves
Firstly, the writer has to sell his story idea to the editor or is assigned to a specific story or an event. The two usually discuss and plan the angle and approach the story needs to take. In this process, it is decided whether a picture is necessary. It is also decided whether to use stock pictures or pictures that are already available on the newspapers’ database or whether a photographer needs to take a new picture. The journalists will do the research on the subject by checking up on the internet or studying in existing files on the subject. Then the journalist will either go out and conduct an interview with the particular person(s), or cover an event. Upon returning, the journalist usually briefs the sports editor on what transpired so that they can decide what angle (slant) the story should take. The editor (the person responsible for laying out the page or page design) will then decide how much space to allocate to the story (usually done in terms of the number of words required). The journalist will then write his/her piece, which will go through to the copy editors who in turn, will ensure that the story meets the basic requirements in terms of language and style. The copy editors will then come up with an appropriate and sometimes provocative headline for the story.
One journalist refers to the process of writing up a story as finding “credible facts and exciting details”. It is thus clear that the construction of media articles and pictures involve a variety of angles, as well as team effort.
4.12.6 Composition of media staff
sport editors are male with two (2) newspapers having male editors and one (1) newspaper is being run by a female editor.
In analysing the gender representation of sport journalists and sport editors of the three publishing houses, the hypotheses of (a) male journalists being in the majority in editorial offices, and (b) female journalists being absent in decision-making roles in the editorial offices becomes and is accepted.
4.12.7 Opinions in the production offices
One of the main roles of the media reporting on sport in newspapers, is perceived to be the countering of other news such as crime and politics, and to provide entertainment and a sense of hope. Other viewpoints relate to the function of informing the public on what their favourite sport stars and teams have achieved. This relates to newsworthy occurrences and to report on matches, including previews (build up to matches), profiles (revealing the people behind the sport stars) and player movements between clubs as well as the economics (sponsorship deals) and politics (elections of member in sporting structures). As one journalist said: “Our role is to inform the public of all this.”
The reasons, offered by the sport journalists, for the viewpoint that male athletes are relatively more exciting than female athletes, even in similar sports, include the following:
“In soccer and rugby, the pace (of women) is boring and slow.” – The Sowetan
“Boxing is definitely interesting as it is great fun watching two men bloodying each other’s faces and knocking each other senseless.” – The Star
“Soccer – even though women have made gigantic strides in the game, they’re still not a pretty sight running after the round leather ball as compared to men.” – The Star
and masculine values. The fact that women doing sport “are not a pretty sight”, clearly indicates cultural values and patriarchal ideology.
The various stakeholders whom the journalists and editors are taking into account, relate to the ‘public’, sponsors and decision-makers. The readers or public is the main concern for the media. Their perceived interests are prioritised, yet female readers and feminist groups are not directly consulted.
Sponsors are not directly catered for. One editor said that too often they have companies calling them to complain that they did not mention their names in their sport report. Their policy is however that unless a company has naming rights to a particular sport event, club, player or team, they would not particularly be mentioned. Decision-makers like sponsors are thus perceived to be the least of journalists’ concern. This policy has often got them into trouble with such people, especially in soccer where the people who hold the power are sensitive to media reports. One journalist is of the opinion that club owners or coaches are very sensitive to criticism and dote on public praise and adulation.
4.13 Summary