Opportunities for Success and CO 2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation:

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By

Paul Waide, Navigant Consulting

in Partnership with CLASP,

the Collaborative Labeling & Appliance

Standards Program

Opportunities for Success

and CO

2

Savings from

Appliance Energy Efficiency

Harmonisation:

Part 2: An Assessment of Test

Procedures and Efficiency Metrics

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Success and CO2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation Page 2

This report has been produced for the Collaborative Labeling and Appliance

Standards Program (CLASP)

Prepared by 2010

Paul Waide, PhD

Navigant Consulting

5

th

Floor, Woolgate Exchange

25 Basinghall Street

London, EC2V 5HA

Tel: +44 7979 757 590

Fax: +44 20 7469 1110

Email: Paul.Waide@NavigantConsulting.com

and Lloyd Harrington, Energy Efficiency Strategies, Australia

with support from:

Michael Scholand, Aris Karcanais, Rowan Watson

Mark Ellis

© Navigant Consulting (Europe) Ltd. All rights reserved April 2010. This document is expressly provided to and solely for the use of the Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP). Navigant Consulting (Europe) Ltd accepts no liability of whatsoever nature for any use of this document by any other party.

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Executive Summary ... 9

1. Introduction ... 1

2. Room air conditioners (non ducted air conditioners) ... 3

Overview of the product ... 3

Comparison of energy performance test procedures ... 3

Comparison of energy efficiency metrics... 8

Recommended directions ... 9

3. Central air conditioners (ducted air conditioners) ... 10

4. Chillers for commercial buildings ... 15

5. Household refrigeration appliances ... 19

6. Household clothes washing machines ... 27

7. Household clothes dryers ... 36

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8. Household dishwashers ... 44

9. Water heating appliances ... 50

10. Televisions ... 59

11. Digital television decoders (set top boxes) ... 68

12. External power supplies ... 73

13. Lighting – GLS and CFli ... 77

14. Lighting – Ballasts ... 79

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16. Lighting – Linear Fluorescent Lamps and related systems ... 82

17. Lighting – HID lamps ... 83

18. Lighting – LEDs ... 85

19. Space heating devices ... 87

Comparison between US & EU Test Procedures/Systems for Efficiency ... 89

20. Fans and ventilators... 90

21. Office equipment, ICT and standby power ... 92

Office equipment ... 92 ICT ... 92 Standby power ... 93 Recommended directions ... 93

22. Electric motors... 94

23. Cooking appliances ... 98

24. Transformers ... 100

25. Commercial refrigeration equipment ... 101

Conclusions ... 101

Appendix A: Summaries of current standards and labelling requirements and test

procedures ... 103

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ANOPR Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking ANSI American National Standards Institute

AP Acidification Potential

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Btu British Thermal Unit

CCT Correlated Colour Temperature

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CECED European Home Appliance Manufacturers Association CEN European Committee for Standardisation

CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp

CFLi Compact Fluorescent Lamp with integrated ballast CFLn Compact Fluorescent Lamp without integrated ballast CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CHP Combined Heat and Power

CMH Ceramic Metal Halide

CIE International Commission on Lighting

CNCA Certification and Accreditation Commission of China CNIS China National Institute of Standardization

CRI Colour Rendering Index

CSCC China Standards Certification Centre (formerly the China Certification Centre for Energy Conservation Products, CECP)

CW Constant Wattage isolated transformer (HID magnetic ballast) CWA Constant Wattage Autotransformer (HID magnetic ballast) DALI Digital Addressable Lighting Interface

DG-TREN Directorate General for Energy and Transport DG-ENTI Directorate General for Enterprise and Industry DG-Environment Directorate General for Environment

DOE Department of Energy (United States of America) EACI Executive Agency on Competitiveness and Innovation

EC European Commission

EEAP Energy Efficiency Action Plan

EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (DOE) EIA Energy Information Administration (DOE)

EISA Energy Independence and Security Act (2007)

ELC European Lamp Companies Federation

EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme

EN European Standard (Européenne Norme)

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Success and CO2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation Page 7 EPACT Energy Policy Act (1992 and 2005)

EPCA Energy Policy and Conservation Act (1975) ETAP Environmental Technologies Action Plan

EU European Union

EU SDS European Union’s Sustainable Development Strategy

EuP Energy-Using Products

FCC Federal Communications Commission (US)

FR Federal Register

FTC Federal Trade Commission

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEF Global Environment Facility

GHG Green House Gases

GLS General Lighting Service

GPP Green Public Procurement

GWP Global Warming Potential

HEP High Efficiency Plasma

HID High Intensity Discharge

HP Horsepower (US motors equivalent to kW)

HPS High Pressure Sodium

HX High Reactance Autotransformer (HID magnetic ballast) ICT Information and Communication Technology

IEC International Electrotechnical Committee INPV Industry Net Present Value

IP Intellectual Property

IPP Integrated Product Policy

IPPC BREFs Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Best Available Techniques

IS Indian Standard

ISO International Organization for Standardization JIS Japan Industrial Standard

JRA Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association kW Kilowatt (EU motors equivalent to HP)

LCC Life Cycle Cost

LED Light Emitting Diode

LLD Lamp Lumen Depreciation

LLF Light Loss Factor

LPS Low Pressure Sodium

LPW Lumens Per Watt

PBP Payback Period

MEEUP Methodology study for Ecodesign of Energy-Using Products

MFD Multi-Function Devices (e.g., all-in-one: printer, copier, scanner, phone.)

MH Metal Halide

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MV Mercury Vapour

NOPR Notice of Proposed Rulemaking

NPV Net Present Value

OLED Organic Light Emitting Diode PMH Pulse-start Metal Halide

SAC Standardization Administration of China

SEPA State Environmental Protection Administration (China)

SCP/SIP Sustainable Consumption and Production / Sustainable Industrial Policy SI le Système International d'unités

STB Set Top Box

TSD Technical Support Document

UL Underwriters Laboratory

US United States

USC United States Code (i.e., Congressional Statute)

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Energy performance test procedures and energy efficiency metrics underpin all the equipment regulations in place internationally such as MEPS, Top Runner regulations, and all forms of energy labelling. There are varying degrees of international harmonisation for these test procedures depending on the product type and economy in question. This report reviews the test procedures and energy efficiency metrics in use within the five major economies of China, the EU, India, Japan and the USA for the following twenty four energy using equipment types:

1. Room air conditioners (non ducted air conditioners) 2. Central air conditioners (ducted air conditioners) 3. Chillers for commercial buildings

4. Household refrigeration appliances 5. Household clothes washing machines 6. Household clothes dryers

7. Household dishwashers 8. Water heating appliances 9. Televisions

10. Digital television decoders (set top boxes) 11. External power supplies

12. Lighting – GLS and CFli 13. Lighting – Ballasts

14. Lighting – Halogen and reflector lamps

15. Lighting – Linear Fluorescent Lamps and related systems 16. Lighting – HID lamps

17. Lighting – LEDs 18. Space heating devices 19. Fans and ventilators

20. Office equipment, ICT and standby power 21. Electric motors

22. Cooking appliances 23. Transformers

24. Commercial refrigeration equipment

It assesses the degree of commonality and divergence in the test procedures and efficiency metrics and considers the prospects both from a technical and process driven perspective for enhanced international alignment and harmonisation for each of these products. It also presents comparative tables that summarise the main characteristics of the test procedures and efficiency metrics in place for each economy as they relate to existing energy efficiency regulations, and allows a cross comparison on a product by product basis between the economies.

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Success and CO2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation Page 10 Table 1 presents a summary of the status of and prospects for harmonisation for each of the products considered.

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Success and CO2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation Page 11 Table 1 Summary of test procedure harmonisation prospects

Product/end-use

Degree of harmonisation for energy test procedures Regions with greatest difference from international standards Potential for harmonisation of energy test procedures Comments

Room air conditioners (Ducted)

High Japan, USA Fair Treatment of split units in USA and variable capacity units everywhere are the main sources of difference. Japan and EU are moving to part-load testing approach Central air conditioners

(Non-ducted)

High/Moderate USA Fair New ISO standard under consideration; US would need to re-categorise split AC systems

Chillers High/Moderate Good No international test procedure; however, work on an

ISO standard has been approved Household refrigeration

appliances

Moderate/Poor India, Japan, USA

Moderate/Poor New IEC standard expected in 2011 should help improve prospects

Household clothes washers Low Japan, USA Moderate/Poor New IEC standard will address all clothes washer types (horizontal and vertical) but local wash temperatures and

cleaning requirements vary dramatically

Household clothes dryers Low All Moderate/Poor IEC61121 is under revision and should encourage greater harmonisation

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Household dishwashers Moderate USA Fair New IEC standard could be made more attractive if

prescriptive requirements were optional

Product/end-use Degree of

harmonisation for energy test procedures Regions with greatest difference from international standards Potential for harmonisation of energy test procedures Comments

Water heating appliances Low All Moderate New IEC standard under development could form the

basis of a global standard

Televisions Moderate EU is first to

adopt

Fair IEC62087 Edition 2-2008 was specifically developed as a global energy measurement standard and should be

adopted Digital television decoders

(set top boxes)

Moderate Good IEC62087 Edition 2-2008 was specifically developed as a

global energy measurement standard and should be adopted

External power supplies High Very good The draft international test method is broadly based on

the approach used by Energy Star International; delay in issuance presents risk

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Success and CO2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation Page 13 lookalikes

Lighting: CFLi High Good New IEC standard likely to have broad support

Lighting: fluorescent ballasts High/Moderate Japan, USA Moderate No technical justification for differences in test standards Lighting: directional lamps Too soon to say Good Greenfield product: opportunity for new international

standards to gain broad acceptance Lighting: linear fluorescent

lamps

High/Moderate Japan, USA Moderate No technical justification for differences in test standards

Product/end-use Degree of

harmonisation for energy test procedures Regions with greatest difference from international standards Potential for harmonisation of energy test procedures Comments

Lighting: HID lamps High/Moderate Japan, USA Moderate No technical justification for differences in test standards Lighting: LEDs Too soon to say None Good Greenfield product: opportunity for new international

standards to gain broad acceptance

Space heating devices Low All Poor except air

to air heat pumps

Too much regional product diversity except for air-to-air heat pumps

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Fans and ventilation High/Moderate USA Good IEC standards are adequate and widely used

Office Equipment, ICT, Standby power

High None Good International Energy Star is the most common testing

platform; broad support for IEC standby power standard

Electric motors High None Very good New IEC standard likely to have broad support

Cooking appliances Low All Moderate/Poor Cooking appliances are poor candidates for international harmonisation except microwaves and maybe ovens

Transformers High None Good Little variation in test procedures implies good potential

for harmonisation

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1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to provide information that will support CLASP and its partners to assess the degree to which greater international harmonisation and alignment within the various major energy efficiency standards and labelling programmes could help bring about significant energy and CO2 savings.

Efficiency standards and labelling schemes are currently in place for a variety of end-use equipment types in countries that account for about 80% of the world’s population and a higher share of its GDP, energy use and CO2 emissions. While these programmes are mostly highly cost effective and have

saved significant amounts of energy and CO2, there are also many limitations and lost opportunities

as follows:

 The share of energy using products subject to energy efficiency policy requirements varies significantly such that there is no economy where all end-uses are subject to requirements, while in most there are very significant gaps1_.

 The stringency of these requirements varies significantly

 The apparent effectiveness of product labelling varies significantly

 Compliance with requirements is often poorly assessed and weakly enforced

 The test procedures and metrics to define energy use and energy efficiency respectively are sometimes inadequate or nonexistent (in the worse case) and often vary among economies making performance comparison difficult2

 The degree to which complementary policies to stimulate energy savings in products operated within energy using systems are applied varies even more greatly and may have even larger savings potential.

This study, commissioned by CLASP, and conducted by Navigant Consulting (Europe) with support from Energy Efficiency Strategies (Australia) presents a review and analysis of the current situation focused on the five major global economies of China, the European Union, India, Japan and the USA.

1_{As of today China and the USA/Canada have the most mandatory product energy efficiency}

specifications. Europe is rapidly catching up through its Eco-design programme and Japan has relatively extensive, but slightly less, product coverage via its Top Runner programme. India is somewhat behind and currently has no mandatory product efficiency requirements.

2_{The EU almost exclusively applies test procedures that are aligned with international (ISO/IEC) test}

procedures. China also mostly uses international test procedures (ISO/IEC/IEEE/ITU) but in some cases uses those from other leading economies (USA, Japan, Canada) and has also developed some purely national test procedures. India uses many ISO/IEC test procedures but often with local adaptation and in one or two cases has aligned with other test procedures (such as the Australian/New Zealand procedure for refrigerators). North American test procedures are mostly aligned between the USA and Canada (and often Mexico) but these are usually not aligned with ISO/IEC test procedures. Sometimes international test procedures are used and in many cases common elements exist between US and international test procedures. Japan has a mix of fully ISO/IEC harmonised and national test procedures, which nonetheless often have some degree of alignment with ISO/IEC. The rest of the world uses predominantly ISO/IEC test procedures with some locally specific variations. The main exceptions are Australia/New Zealand who apply a mixture of regional and fully internationally aligned test procedures.

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It presents a thorough review of existing energy efficiency standards and labelling programmes (S&L programmes) with the exception of requirements that apply to transportation or non-energy using equipment. The section of the study reported in this document (Part 2) reviews the existing energy efficiency test procedures and energy efficiency metrics in place. It describes and compares the existing test procedures in use, considers their similarities and differences and analyses the prospects for greater harmonisation amongst them. This is done for each of the 24 energy end-uses in turn. Appendix A provides a complete listing of energy efficiency standards and labelling schemes applied in the five major economies excepting those applying to transportation uses, non-energy end-uses and industrial processes. It constitutes a useful resource summarising key details of the existing regulations in a comparable manner.

Part 1 of this study, written into a separate document:

 reviews and compares the S&L certification, accreditation & compliance procedures applied in the different economies

 provides a synthesis of issues concerned with the harmonisation/alignment process and documentation and analysis of factors to consider that influence its feasibility

 delivers a review and summary of the institutions and processes involved in setting test procedures, test regimes, regulations and compliance structures

 provides a determination and ranking of the viability of alignment/harmonisation by product type and an estimation of energy, CO2 and cost savings potentials from harmonisation or alignment of the most promising product types

Part 3 of this study, written into a separate document, presents descriptions of the leading equipment energy efficiency requirements in place for each economy.

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2. ROOM AIR CONDITIONERS

(NON DUCTED AIR CONDITIONERS)

Overview of the product

Room air conditioners are a mainstream product in developed economies and many developing economies are experiencing rapid increases in ownership. A range of technologies can be used for air conditioners. This section concentrates on systems that use the vapour compression cycle and air to air heat exchangers for cooling and/or heating of an indoor space. The systems covered have no air interchange between the outdoors and the conditioned space and they discharge conditioned air directly into the conditioned space (non-ducted configuration).

The main configurations are split systems (single or multi) and unitary systems (mainly window wall, but also some small packaged systems). Typically, these have a limited capacity (usually up to around 15kW cooling output) and are usually designed to condition a limited space within a residential dwelling or office.

Room air conditioners are a global commodity and there is widespread international trade. There are generally only small differences in product design at a regional level. North America treats split systems as central units, which means they have to be tested in a different fashion, but the product is otherwise the same as elsewhere. North America also has a product type called a packaged terminal air conditioner which appears to be limited to the USA – this is effectively a unitary non-ducted system.

There are differences in terminology in some parts of the world, particularly in North America. There is no international standard which defines air conditioner types and configurations3_.

Comparison of energy performance test procedures

Key parameters to consider for efficiency testing and measurement

A room air conditioner is essentially a heat pump that that collects energy from one space and moves it to another space using the vapour compression cycle. The main components are a compressor, refrigerant in a distribution system (including an expansion valve), an evaporator and a condenser. The direction of heat flow depends on the mode of operation: while cooling, the heat is collected from the inside space and moved outside. In heating mode, heat is collected from outside and moved to the inside space. The amount of heat that can be moved is generally considerably greater than the energy used to drive the refrigeration system, hence the apparent efficiency is typically in the range 200% to 500% (defined as output over input). For products that can operate in heating and cooling mode, the heating efficiency generally appears more efficient as the energy used to drive the compressor can also contribute to the overall output.

The key parameters used for efficiency testing and measurement are the input energy (electricity) and output (total heating or cooling capacity). These two parameters can be used to define overall efficiency of the product during operation.

3_{Note: the technologies not included in this section are evaporative coolers, water sourced heat}

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As set out in great detail in expert and academic literature, the efficiency of a refrigeration system (like the one used in an air conditioner) is affected by the indoor/outdoor temperatures and temperature difference (or more correctly the operating temperature of the evaporator and condenser) and the overall operating efficiency of the refrigeration system under that condition (which is a function of the compressor parameters and the heat transfer rate and surface area of the evaporator and condenser). Some energy is used by components such as fans and to some extent electronics and in some cases auxiliary heaters (e.g. for defrosting).

In order to obtain accurate comparative efficiency value of the air conditioner system itself, the indoor and outdoor conditions need to be carefully controlled. Accurate determination of the output of an air conditioner also requires careful measurement (volume and temperature of air, plus dehumidification effect in the case of cooling) – this parameter can be subject to large errors when some approaches are used.

The most accurate approach to testing for efficiency is a calorimeter where there is an overall check on the energy balance of the indoor and outdoor sides of the system. Calorimeters also give the best result for non ducted product where conditioned air is delivered directly to the room.

The air enthalpy method can be used to measure the capacity and efficiency of non-ducted products, but there can be problems in accurately measuring the energy discharge into the conditioned space as it is difficult to replicate the natural mixing and recirculation of the product under normal use conditions. The air enthalpy method does not provide an overall check of energy balance during testing.

The other key parameter which affects the overall energy consumption of room air conditioners is the non-operational energy consumption. Most test procedures do not currently deal with this parameter.

Overview of the international test method

The international test method for room air conditioners: ISO5151 - Non-ducted air conditioners and heat

pumps -- Testing and rating for performance. This standard is used very widely around the world. The

standard defines the following parameters for testing purposes:

 Definitions

 Determination of capacity and energy efficiency;

 A range of performance tests in cooling and heating mode;

 Uncertainties and tolerances.

For the determination of capacity, 3 possible combinations of indoor and outdoor conditions are defined. Condition T1 is used almost universally for cooling capacity determination and efficiency claims. T2 (mild conditions) and T3 (very hot conditions) are rarely specified. Condition “high” for heating is most commonly used, although “low” is sometimes specified for colder climates. Condition “extra-low” is not used widely for rating (climates with sub-zero temperatures tend to opt for other technologies like ground source heat pumps).

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Table 1: Cooling and heating conditions in ISO5151

Cooling conditions T1 T2 T3

Indoor 27°C DB, 19°C WB 21°C DB, 15°C WB 29°C DB, 19°C WB Outdoor 35°C DB, 24°C WB 27°C DB, 19°C WB 46°C DB, 24°C WB

Heating conditions High Low Extra Low

Indoor 20°C DB, <15°C WB 20°C DB, <15°C WB 20°C DB, <15°C WB Outdoor 7°C DB, 6°C WB 2°C DB, 1°C WB -7°C DB, -8°C WB Notes: DB = dry bulb, WB = wet bulb

Importantly, ISO5151 defines a range of performance tests that check whether the air conditioner is fit for purpose. For cooling these include maximum cooling, minimum cooling, enclosure sweat and condensate disposal tests and a freeze up test. For heating these include maximum heating, minimum heating and an automatic defrost test. Some of these tests are mandated within some testing regimes. Not all tests are relevant for all users.

In terms of efficiency the standard defines Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) as the ratio of cooling output (W) to electrical input (W) – this variable is dimensionless (W/W). It also defines the Coefficient of Performance (COP) for heating in a similar fashion.

ISO5151 specifies both calorimeter and air enthalpy test setups for energy and capacity determination. ISO5151 does not address non operating power.

Adequacy of the international test method

There are two main limitations to ISO5151 as it is currently written regarding operating efficiency. The first limitation is that most regulatory regimes specify condition T1 for cooling performance and condition ”high” for heating performance. While this provides good comparative data of overall system efficiency at the defined operating conditions, this may not necessarily represent the actual efficiency achieved during normal use. For many products, the relative efficiency will not change much with operating condition, which is why this limitation has largely been ignored until recently. The second limitation is a more significant problem (but of a similar nature) that has come about due to recent changes in the technology used in air conditioners. Over the past 10 years, the share of inverter driven products (or more correctly, compressor with variable output) has increased dramatically to a point where the these are used almost universally in Japan and are dominant in Australia and other regions (for example).

For a standard single speed compressor (which used to predominate), the refrigeration system always runs at “full load” when operating. The overall output of the system is modulated by changing the compressor on time and off time (50% output for example would be achieved by operating the compressor approximately half of the time).

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A variable output system operates on different basis. In order to achieve a reduced capacity, the speed or output of the compressor is reduced to match the load required. This means that the units run continuously across a wide range of required outputs. The key advantage of these systems is that they avoid compressor start-up losses and generally they can operate at increased efficiency at part load conditions. This increased efficiency occurs because at part load the refrigerant flow from compressor is reduced but the surface area of the evaporator and condenser remains the same, resulting in an overall improvement of heat transfer. Thus the operating efficiency during normal use is likely to be better than the value obtained at rated capacity (full load). However, there can be some so called “parasitic losses” to run the variable output system, so the efficiency gains vary by model and by output.

To some extent these two limitations are related in that the standardized test conditions (T1 and “High”) when measured at rated capacity do not necessarily reflect the operating efficiency at other conditions and outputs for some types. When the market was dominated by single speed compressors, the differences in operating efficiency at conditions that were different to T1 were relatively small and part load efficiency of single speed compressors changes little at reduced capacity (if anything this should deteriorate slightly), so the problems were ignored. However, with a large share of variable output product on the market, the test procedure as written does not provide a good representation of part load or seasonal variation in efficiency. Unless this is addressed, divergence from the test procedure that has to date been widely used globally may begin to occur.

The other issue which is not covered by ISO5151 is the measurement of non-operating energy of room air conditioners. Most room air conditioners now use some power when the refrigeration system is not operating. This power can be used for a range of functions such as remote controls, timers and even remote communications (including load control). Some room air conditioners also have heating systems (commonly called crank case heaters) which are used to stop refrigerant condensing and pooling in the compressor chamber (liquid in the compressor can damage it during starting). Crank case heaters are uncommon for room air conditioners (although they can be present) but are more common on larger ducted systems.

Typical power consumption for crank case heaters is 30W to 100W, but some systems can use as much as 200W. Over a year this can account for a large amount of energy.

The measurement of non operating power is usually straight forward when only functions related to communications and controls are involved (as these usually remain constant under different ambient conditions). The control and operation of crank case heaters can be complex in some cases – these range from simple heaters that are on when the system is not operating to more complex systems that are controlled by ambient temperature and/or by operating schedules (e.g. heaters may not operated for a specified period after the operation has stopped due to residual heat in the system).

Regional differences in products and testing approaches

There are surprising few significant variations in testing approaches to room air conditioners globally. There are some minor variations in web bulb requirements in some Asian countries and some small differences due to conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit temperature scales, but these are minor variations. There are also some differences in the expression of efficiency (EER) in the some regions, where outputs are expressed in British Thermal Units (BTU) or kilo-Calories, but the underlying concept of output over input is used fairly universally.

The most significant variation to the fundamental test requirements is in North America where split systems have to be tested to the requirements for central air conditioners, which requires the determination of a Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER). This requires test data at 4 different test conditions which are then combined to reflect an overall annual efficiency for a specified average

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North American climate. One of the test points is equivalent condition T1. The other points have the same indoor conditions with reduced (milder) outdoor conditions.

Table 2: North American SEER test conditions for room air conditioners

Condition Indoor Outdoor

Condition A (equivalent to ISO T1)

27°C DB, 19°C WB 35°C DB, 24°C WB

Condition B 27°C DB, 19°C WB 28°C DB, NS - WB Condition C 27°C DB, 14°C WB 28°C DB, NS – WB Condition D 27°C DB, 14°C WB 28°C DB, NS – WB

Testing to conditions “C” and “D” are optional in that if the tests are not done, a value of 0.25 is assigned for the degradation co-efficient CD. Only four tests are required for single speed compressors. Where there is a two speed compressor, tests at condition “A” and “B” are to be done for each speed. For variable speed compressors, up to seven tests are required as follows:

 “A” and “B” wet coil tests at maximum compressor speed

 “B” wet coil is tested at minimum speed

 Low temperature wet coil test is conducted at minimum speed (indoor and outdoor 19.4/13.9oC dry/wet)

 Final wet coil test is conducted at an intermediate speed

 if a value for CD of 0.25 is not used, dry coil tests “C” and “D” at minimum speed.

Comparability of regional testing approaches

As most regions globally have used the standard ISO5151 T1 and “High” test conditions to rate and compare their products, there is generally very good alignment and comparability of test data for air conditioners. The exception is North American due to the SEER requirement for split systems. However, data for the T1 test condition should be available for all products, which would allow direct comparison of products.

Subjective assessment of the level of international harmonisation for testing

There is a high degree of international harmonisation regarding the use of ISO5151, with the exception of North American requirements for split systems. The historical domination of single speed compressor units has meant that the imperfections in ISO5151 are relatively minor under many usage conditions and could be ignored. However, the growing dominance of variable output units now means that there is a lot of pressure to provide better information on the relative efficiency of these units under a range of operating conditions. Unless this issue is addressed in the near future, there may be moves to diverge from ISO5151 by the addition of more test conditions.

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Prospects and key directions for international harmonisation of testing

There is already good international harmonisation for room air conditioners through ISO5151. However, the test procedure needs to be made more relevant for variable output products, which can change their efficiency with changes in output and operating conditions.

Work is under way in ISO to develop a basis for a seasonal rating system for air conditioners. The approach is to define a series of standard test conditions. The standard test points can then be used to estimate, via a series of equations, operating efficiency under different operating conditions and different output levels, which can be used to estimate performance under different climates. The intent is to provide a standard comparative annual performance rating for international comparative purposes, but more importantly, to provide a standard methodology to calculate the annual performance of a product under a wide range of possible climate and usage conditions using data from a limited number of standard test points. The methodology under development, if accepted, will provide a sound basis for providing more accurate performance data for a large number of climates and usage levels without the need for extensive testing and it will also address current concerns regarding the relative efficiency of variable output air conditioners. For this approach to be successful, the data for each of the standard test points needs to be separately reported.

Comparison of energy efficiency metrics

Common Efficiency Metrics and Regional Approaches

The most widely used efficiency metric for room air conditioners is the EER for cooling and COP for heating that is derived from ISO5151. This measure is essentially output power over input power and provides a direct measure of operating efficiency. When stated with the cooling output and the heating output, EER and COP provides all of the data required for efficiency comparisons.

In terms of energy labelling, there are a wide different systems for depicting the categorical efficiency of air conditioners within individual country rating systems. Categories are depicted by various symbols such as numbers, letters and stars. However, all of these rating systems use EER and COP as the underlying efficiency measure to determine the category rating. In some regions (e.g. North America) the raw EER number is quoted as the efficiency metric (noting that that this is in BTU/W rather than W/W).

Similarly, EER and COP are generally used to define minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) where applicable.

The exception is North America that uses SEER for split systems. SEER is specifically determined for a specified North American climate, which makes this parameter of little value to most other regions in the world (and many parts of North America). The values for each of the test points are generally not reported as separate parameters.

Some countries now include non-operating power consumption in their overall efficiency requirements. This is an important measure to ensure that manufacturers minimize this as far as possible.

Performance Issues

The approach to performance requirements varies by country.

In North America, single speed compressor split systems are subject to four performance tests:

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 cyclic test,

 frost accumulation test

 low temperature test.

Variable speed units are subject to: high temperature test (one maximum speed, two at minimum speed), cyclic test (minimum speed), frost accumulation test (maximum and intermediate speeds). Other countries specify one or more of the performance tests in ISO5151 as a prerequisite to their energy labelling or MEPS programs.

It is usually advisable to mandate certain minimum performance tests to ensure that the products are fit for purpose and will actually work under the range of expected operated conditions normally encountered.

Comparability of efficiency metrics

At this stage, there is very good comparability of efficiency data across different regions where this is reported at ISO5151 condition T1 for cooling and “High” for heating. North American data for split systems tends to report SEER only, which cannot be directly compared to results at T1. However, efficiency at T1 is one of the standard test points that makes up the SEER value so separate reporting of this value in addition to SEER would make data highly comparable across regions.

Recommended directions

There is already a good level of global harmonisation in the testing and reporting of room air conditioner energy efficiency. The main exception is in North America where SEER is used for split systems. SEER is not directly comparable to ISO T1 conditions. However, ISO T1 data makes up one of the test conditions used to calculate SEER, so if this value could also be separately reported, this would allow direct regional comparability.

There is growing international pressure to take into account the improved performance of variable output compressors under both part load output and milder operating conditioners. Unless this issue is adequately addressed in the near future, there is likely to be a divergence of testing approaches around the globe. ISO are working on a globally applicable approach to determine a seasonal performance for air conditioners which is based on measured performance at a set of specified rating conditions which can be used to estimate efficiency under a range of operating conditions and outputs. Most importantly, a methodology is being developed to allow seasonal performance to be calculated for any selected climate zone. Once accepted, this should address many of the current concerns.

It is important that a global test procedure for air conditioners define the conditions of measurement for non operating power in an accurate and relevant manner. This can then be used by different regions as required within efficiency programs without the need to generate local requirements to address this issue. The seasonal calculation approach also needs to address non operating power as this can be a significant element of total energy consumption.

This work by ISO should be supported on the understanding that it will be based on a limited number of standard testing points and the methodology will allow these test point results to be converted into a seasonal rating for any selected climate. It is also critical that the methodology to calculate seasonal ratings be publicly available. The resulting standard should also mandate the separate reporting of all data for all of the standard test conditions which are specified to allow different regions to apply relevant weightings to reflect their local conditions.

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3. CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONERS

(DUCTED AIR CONDITIONERS)

Overview of the product

Central air conditioners are a mainstream product in developed economies. This section concentrates on systems that use the vapour compression cycle and air to air heat exchangers for cooling and/or heating of an indoor space. It also covers some larger packaged systems use small cooling towers to improve their cooling efficiency and capacity (where the cooling tower is used as a heat sink). This section does not cover water sourced or ground sourced heat pumps. The systems covered have no air interchange between the outdoors and the conditioned space and they discharge conditioned into a duct system that coveys conditioned air to one or more conditioned spaces (ducted configuration). The main configurations are generally unitary systems (packaged systems) and split systems. Ducted systems can range from 5kW to as much as 70kW. They are usually designed to condition a large area within commercial buildings, although they are also used for some larger residential systems in developed countries. Many of the larger systems run multiple compressors in one or multiple refrigeration systems.

Central air conditioners are a global commodity and there is widespread international trade. There are generally only small differences in product design at a regional level. North America has different test procedures for these types of units, but the product is otherwise the same as elsewhere.

There are differences in terminology in some parts of the world, particularly in North America. There is no international standard which defines air conditioner types and configurations.

Notes: The technologies not included in this section are evaporative coolers, water or ground sourced heat pumps (covered by ISO13256), chillers (that provide cooled water – see next section), non ducted systems (see previous section).

Comparison of energy performance test procedures

A central air conditioner is essentially a heat pump that that collects energy from one space and moves it to another space using the vapour compression cycle. The main components are a compressor, refrigerant in a distribution system (including an expansion valve), an evaporator and a condenser. The direction of heat flow depends on the mode of operation: while cooling, the heat is collected from the inside space and moved outside. In heating mode, heat is collected from outside and moved to the inside space. The amount of heat that can be moved is generally considerably greater than the energy used to drive the refrigeration system, hence the apparent efficiency is typically in the range 200% to 500% (defined as output over input). For products that can operate in heating and cooling mode, the heating efficiency generally appears more efficient as the energy used to drive the compressor can also contribute to the overall output.

The key parameters used for efficiency testing and measurement are the input energy (electricity) and output (total heating or cooling capacity). These two parameters can be used to define overall efficiency of the product during operation.

As discussed in the section on non-ducted air conditioners, the efficiency of a refrigeration system (like the one used in an air conditioner) is affected by indoor/outdoor temperatures and the temperature difference.

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In order to obtain accurate comparative efficiency value of the air conditioner system itself, the indoor and outdoor conditions need to be carefully controlled. Accurate determination of the output of an air conditioner also requires careful measurement (volume and temperature of air, plus dehumidification effect in the case of cooling) – this parameter can be subject to large errors when some approaches are used.

The air enthalpy method is generally considered to be acceptable for ducted systems as accurate measurement of air flow and temperature in the output duct is relatively straight forward (in comparison to non-duct systems which discharge directly to the conditioned space). However, a calorimeter is still preferable as the air enthalpy method does not provide an overall check of energy balance during testing. However, calorimeters have a natural capacity limit and generally it is difficult to test systems larger than 12kW to 15kW in a calorimeter, so larger ducted systems cannot be tested using this approach.

The other key parameter which can affect the overall energy consumption of room air conditioners is the non-operational energy consumption. Most test procedures do not currently deal with this parameter.

The international test method for central air conditioners ISO13253 - Ducted air conditioners and heat

pumps -- Testing and rating for performance. This standard is used very widely around the world. The

standard defines the following parameters for testing purposes:

 Definitions

 Determination of capacity and energy efficiency;

 A range of performance tests in cooling and heating mode;

 Uncertainties and tolerances.

The structure and detail of the standard is very similar to ISO5151 for non-ducted systems (refer to the previous section for details). Some local regulatory approaches do not divide products purely on the basis of ducted and non-ducted, so there can be some mismatch between the international test methods and local requirements in some cases.

In terms of efficiency the standard defines Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) as the ratio of cooling output (W) to electrical input (W) – this variable is dimensionless (W/W). It also defines the Coefficient of Performance (COP) for heating in a similar fashion.

ISO13253 specifies air enthalpy test setups for energy and capacity determination. ISO13253 does not deal with non operating power.

The limitations to ISO13253 are the same as ISO5151 – see discussion in the previous section on non-ducted (room) air conditioners.

Most regions require the use of ISO13253 Condition T1 for energy efficiency and capacity testing. The most significant variation to this test requirement is in North America where central air conditioners (as well as non-ducted split systems) require the determination of a Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio

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(SEER). This requires test data at 4 (or more) different test conditions which are then combined to reflect an overall annual efficiency for a specified average North American climate. One of the test points is equivalent condition T1. The other points have the same indoor conditions with reduced (milder) outdoor conditions.

Table 3: North American SEER test conditions for central air conditioners

Condition Indoor Outdoor

Condition A (equivalent to ISO T1)

27°C DB, 19°C WB 35°C DB, 24°C WB

Condition B 27°C DB, 19°C WB 28°C DB, NS – WB Condition C 27°C DB, 14°C WB 28°C DB, NS – WB Condition D 27°C DB, 14°C WB 28°C DB, NS – WB

Testing to conditions “C” and “D” are optional in that if the tests are not done, a value of 0.25 is assigned for the degradation co-efficient CD. Only four tests are required for single speed compressors. Where there is a two speed compressor, tests at condition “A” and “B” are to be done for each speed. For variable speed compressors, up to seven tests are required as follows:

 “A” and “B” wet coil tests at maximum compressor speed

 “B” wet coil is tested at minimum speed

 Low temperature wet coil test is conducted at minimum speed (indoor and outdoor 19.4/13.9oC dry/wet)

 Final wet coil test is conducted at an intermediate speed

 if a value for CD of 0.25 is not used, dry coil tests “C” and “D” at minimum speed.

Comparability of regional testing approaches

As most regions globally have used the standard ISO13253 T1 and “High” test conditions to rate and compare their products, there is generally very good alignment and comparability of test data for air conditioners. The exception is North American which uses SEER for all central air conditioners. However, data for the T1 test condition should be available for all products, which would allow direct comparison of products.

Subjective assessment of the level of international harmonisation for testing

There is a high degree of international harmonisation regarding the use of ISO13253, with the exception of North American requirements. The historical domination of single speed compressor units has meant that the imperfections in ISO13253 are relatively minor under many usage conditions and could be ignored. However, the growing dominance of variable output units now means that there is a lot of pressure to provide better information on the relative efficiency of these units under a range of operating conditions. Unless this issue is addressed in the near future, there may be moves to diverge from ISO13253 by the addition of more test conditions to better reflect part load performance.

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Prospects and key directions for international harmonisation of testing

There is already good international harmonisation for room air conditioners through ISO13253. However, the test procedure needs to be made more relevant for variable output products, which can change their efficiency with changes in output and operating conditions.

Work is under way in ISO to develop a basis for a seasonal rating system for air conditioners. The approach is to define a series of standard test conditions. The standard test points can then be used to estimate, via a series of equations, operating efficiency under different operating conditions and different output levels, which can be used to estimate performance under different climates. The intent is to provide a standard comparative annual performance rating for international comparative purposes, but more importantly, to provide a standard methodology to calculate the annual performance of a product under a wide range of possible climate and usage conditions using data from a limited number of standard test points. The methodology under development, if accepted, will provide a sound basis for providing more accurate performance data for a large number of climates and usage levels without the need for extensive testing and it will also address current concerns regarding the relative efficiency of variable output air conditioners. For this approach to be successful, the data for each of the standard test points needs to be separately reported.

Comparison of energy efficiency metrics

Common Efficiency Metrics and Regional Approaches

The most widely used efficiency metric for room air conditioners is the EER for cooling and COP for heating that is derived from ISO13253. This measure is essentially output power over input power and provides a direct measure of operating efficiency. When stated with the cooling output and the heating output, EER and COP provides all of the data required for efficiency comparisons.

EER and COP are generally used to define minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) where applicable. The exception is North America that uses SEER for split systems. SEER is specifically determined for a specified North American climate, which makes this parameter of little value to most other regions in the world (and many parts of North America). The values for each of the test points are generally not reported as separate parameters.

Some countries now include non-operating power consumption in their overall efficiency requirements. This is an important measure to ensure that manufacturers minimize this as far as possible.

Performance Issues

The approach to performance requirements varies by country.

In North America, central air conditioners are subject to four performance tests:

 high temperature test,

 cyclic test,

 frost accumulation test

 low temperature test.

Variable speed units are subject to: high temperature test (one maximum speed, two at minimum speed), cyclic test (minimum speed), frost accumulation test (maximum and intermediate speeds).

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Other countries specify one or more of the performance tests in ISO13253 as a prerequisite to their energy labelling or MEPS programs.

It is usually advisable to mandate certain minimum performance tests to ensure that the products are fit for purpose and will actually work under the range of expected operated conditions normally encountered.

Comparability of efficiency metrics

At this stage, there is very good comparability of efficiency data across different regions where this is reported at ISO13253 condition T1 for cooling and “High” for heating. North American data for split systems tends to report SEER only, which cannot be directly compared to results at T1. However, efficiency at T1 is one of the standard test points that makes up the SEER value so separate reporting of this value in addition to SEER would make data highly comparable across regions.

Recommended directions

There is already a good level of global harmonisation in the testing and reporting of central air conditioner energy efficiency. The main exception is in North America where SEER is used for split systems. SEER is not directly comparable to ISO T1 conditions. However, ISO T1 data makes up one of the test conditions used to calculate SEER, so if this value could also be separately reported, this would allow direct regional comparability.

There is growing international pressure to take into account the improved performance of variable output compressors under both part load output and milder operating conditioners. Unless this issue is adequately addressed in the near future, there is likely to be a divergence of testing approaches around the globe. ISO are working on a globally applicable approach to determine a seasonal performance for air conditioners which is based on measured performance at a set of specified rating conditions which can be used to estimate efficiency under a range of operating conditions and outputs. Most importantly, a methodology is being developed to allow seasonal performance to be calculated for any selected climate zone. Once accepted, this should address many of the current concerns.

It is important that a global test procedure for air conditioners define the conditions of measurement for non-operating power in an accurate and relevant manner. This can then be used by different regions as required within efficiency programs without the need to generate local requirements to address this issue. The seasonal calculation approach also needs to address non-operating power as this can be a significant element of total energy consumption.

This work by ISO should be supported on the understanding that it will be based on a limited number of standard testing points and the methodology will allow these test point results to be converted into a seasonal rating for any selected climate. It is also critical that the methodology to calculate seasonal ratings be publicly available. The resulting standard should also mandate the separate reporting of all data for all of the standard test conditions which are specified to allow different regions to apply relevant weightings to reflect their local conditions.

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4. CHILLERS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

Overview of the product

Chillers are a mainstream product in developed economies. Chillers are large cooling systems that use the vapour compression cycle to cool water which is then circulated in a loop via a pipe network around a building to provide cooling for indoor spaces via secondary air handling systems which are located as required. The secondary air handling systems are not part of the chiller design and are usually specified by building designers. The heat removed from the circulating chilled water loop is discharged to the outside via a cooling tower or an air cooled condenser. The temperature of the water loop supplied by chillers is typically between 4°C and 9°C. Chillers are commonly used in larger commercial buildings.

Chillers are a global commodity and there is significant international trade. The main differences in products are to suit local requirements regarding capacity and operating conditions, but generally there are only small differences in product design at a regional level.

Chillers range in size from 10kW to more than 2MW. Chillers may have one or more compressors, evaporators and/or condensers.

Comparison of energy performance test procedures

Chillers are a heat pump that that removes heat from a circulating water loop and discharges this heat to the outside using the vapour compression cycle. The main components are a compressor, refrigerant, an evaporator, a condenser, a water loop and a pump. Some systems use cooling towers in association with the condenser.

The key parameters used for efficiency testing and measurement are the input energy (electricity) and output (total heating or cooling capacity). These two parameters can be used to define overall efficiency of the product during operation. The ratio of these two parameters is defined as the system Coefficient of Performance (COP).

As with any refrigeration based system, the efficiency of a refrigeration system is affected by indoor/outdoor temperatures and the temperature difference.

In order to obtain accurate comparative efficiency value of the chiller, the conditions for measurement need to be carefully controlled, including outside conditions and water loop temperatures. Accurate determination of the output of a chiller requires measurement of the water flow and temperature difference in the water loop during operation.

At this stage there is no international test method for chillers. ISO have approved a new work item ISO/NP 19298 called Water chilling packages using the vapor compression cycle in July 2007 under ISO TC86 SC6, although work on this standard has not yet advanced to the next stage.

However, this proposed standard is based on and is likely to be technically equivalent to the US industry standard ARI 550/590 Water chilling packages using the vapor compression cycle which is prepared and published by the US Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI).

In terms of efficiency the standard defines the Coefficient of Performance (COP) as the ratio of cooling output (W) to electrical input (W) – this variable is dimensionless (W/W).

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The standard is likely to define the following parameters for output, energy consumption and energy efficiency (COP):

 Standard rating conditions: defines the water inlet temperature for water cooled condensers and air inlet temperature for air cooled condensers as well as the water temperature leaving the evaporator (Condition A).

 Part load rating conditions: defines the water inlet temperature for water cooled condensers and air inlet temperature for air cooled condensers at load output conditions of 75%, 50% and 25% of the rated output of the system (Conditions B, C and D respectively).

The draft standard specifies test setup for energy and capacity determination.

Although the international standard is only an early draft and has not yet been issued for public comment, it will draw on the main international approaches to testing and rating for chillers currently in force in the USA and Europe and is likely to be adequate in addressing the performance of the product across a range of conditions. The values for Conditions A, B, C and D are separately reported, which could allow a local weighting to be performed if required, although the COP at rated output (Condition A) and the IPLV under ARI550/590 is widely used internationally as a comparative performance value.

The two main regions that specify tests method for chillers are North America and Europe. North American test methods are based on ARI550/590. Europe runs a certification program called Eurovent which specifies test conditions for testing, rating and certification of chillers. The two methods are generally quite similar in their requirements but there are some minor differences in the rating conditions as noted below. Some of these differences are likely to have arisen from rounding of imperial and metric units and it is hoped that these can be resolved during the development of the relevant ISO standard. In any case, these current differences will not result in any significant differences in energy efficiency measurements in most cases. The key differences between ARI and Eurovent are set out below:

Table 4: North American SEER test conditions

Condition ARI550/590 Eurovent

Liquid cooled condenser inlet temperature

29.4ºC (85ºF) 30ºC

Liquid cooled condenser operation condition

0.054 L/s/kW 5K temp drop

Air cooled condenser outdoor air temperature

35ºC (95ºF) 35ºC

Water temperature leaving the evaporator

6.7ºC (44ºF) 7ºC

Liquid cooled condenser operation condition

Opportunities for Success and CO 2 Savings from Appliance Energy Efficiency Harmonisation:

By

Paul Waide, Navigant Consulting

in Partnership with CLASP,

the Collaborative Labeling & Appliance

Standards Program

Opportunities for Success

and CO

2

Savings from

Appliance Energy Efficiency

Harmonisation:

Part 2: An Assessment of Test

Procedures and Efficiency Metrics

This report has been produced for the Collaborative Labeling and Appliance

Standards Program (CLASP)

Prepared by 2010

Paul Waide, PhD

Navigant Consulting

5

Floor, Woolgate Exchange

25 Basinghall Street

London, EC2V 5HA

Tel: +44 7979 757 590

Fax: +44 20 7469 1110

Email: Paul.Waide@NavigantConsulting.com

and Lloyd Harrington, Energy Efficiency Strategies, Australia

with support from:

Michael Scholand, Aris Karcanais, Rowan Watson

Mark Ellis

CONTENTS

Executive Summary ... 9

1.

Introduction ... 1

2.

Room air conditioners (non ducted air conditioners) ... 3

3.

Central air conditioners (ducted air conditioners) ... 10

4.

Chillers for commercial buildings ... 15

5.

Household refrigeration appliances ... 19

6.

Household clothes washing machines ... 27

7.

Household clothes dryers ... 36

8.

Household dishwashers ... 44

9.

Water heating appliances ... 50

10.

Televisions ... 59

11.

Digital television decoders (set top boxes) ... 68

12.

External power supplies ... 73

13.

Lighting – GLS and CFli ... 77

14.

Lighting – Ballasts ... 79

16.

Lighting – Linear Fluorescent Lamps and related systems ... 82

17.

Lighting – HID lamps ... 83

18.

Lighting – LEDs ... 85

19.

Space heating devices ... 87

20.

Fans and ventilators... 90

21.

Office equipment, ICT and standby power ... 92

22.

Electric motors... 94

23.

Cooking appliances ... 98

24.

Transformers ... 100

25.

Commercial refrigeration equipment ... 101