CiteSeerX — Appendix 3: Relevant legislation

ANNEX V COUNTRY STUDIES: NETHERLANDS

1 NATIONAL CONTEXT

1.1 THE NATIONAL FISHERIES SECTOR 1.2 SELECTION OF FDAs

2 KEY DATA COLLECTED

2.1 EMPLOYMENT 2.2 LEGISLATION 2.3 ORGANISATION

2.4 EDUCATION & TRAINING 2.5 SOCIO-CULTURAL STATUS 2.6 ECONOMIC STATUS

3 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 KEY FINDINGS 3.2 CONCLUSIONS

3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Appendix 1: Bibliography

Appendix 2: People interviewed

Appendix 3: Relevant legislation

1 NATIONAL CONTEXT

1.1 THE NATIONAL FISHERIES SECTOR

The Netherlands has a small, but efficient, modern fishing fleet that mainly catches flatfish, shrimps and to a lesser extent herring, cod and whiting. Fishing grounds are the North Sea and Waddensea. There are also 15 trawlers fishing mainly outside the 200-mile zone or fishing in territorial zones of third countries, e.g. in Africa. There is also a strong shellfish section comprising oyster cultivation, mussel cultivation and cockles. (The shellfish sector will be discussed in the aquaculture section.)

In terms of number of vessels, fishermen, horsepower (HP) and catch value, the cutter fleet is the most important fleet in the Netherlands. However, this fleet is gradually decreasing due to EU fisheries management requirements (MAGP) and due to the ITQ system under which it is impossible to start a new fishery enterprise for total newcomers [Hoefnagel 1996a]. In 1998 the number of vessels decreased to 407 compared to 416 in 1997. The total amount of horsepower decreased from 443,000 HP to 434,000 HP.

Total gross revenue increased by 5% to more than NLG 600 million (circa EUR 267 million). The net economic result of all cutters returned to the early-nineties levels with a profit of NLG 39 million (EUR 17.3 million) [Wijk e.a. 1999]. The total number of enterprises was somewhat higher than 300 in 1999 (some of the enterprises own more than one vessel). Several fishing families, especially flatfish fishers, are quite wealthy in terms of the value of vessel(s) and quota, and level of income. Shrimp enterprises are less wealthy, owning relatively small vessels and the limited quota. The income of these fishermen shows some fluctuation, 1998 and 1999 being good years. The trawler fleet increased from 14 to 15 vessels in 1998, which also meant an increase of 40 crewmembers. The trawler fleet showed an increase of 16% in revenues and amounted NLG 249 million.

1.2 SELECTION OF FISHERIES DEPENDENT AREAS (FDAs)

Selection of FDA’s was made on the basis of the characterisation of the fisheries of the

country in the Regional socio-economic studies

Table 1: Value added for zones heavily dependent on fisheries (percentage of value added in concerning NUTS 3 region >1 of total gross value added), 1997, amounts in million NLG

NUTS 3 level Capture

fishing Processing Coastal aqua

culture Total 1) Total value added of region

Z.W.Friesland 3.33 26.5 0 32.3 2,986.3

Ijmond 37.7 65.8 0 111.8 7,894.9

Ov.Rijnmond 58.4 0 0 90.5 5,719.3

Ov.Zeeland 31.7 97.5 87.0 236.1 10,743.9

Flevoland 83.1 112.5 0 219.6 8,761.4

NUTS 5 level

Urk 2) 83.1 112.5 0 219.6 426.7

Wieringen 17.7 0 1.5 24.8 153.6

1) Incl. ancillary and vessel repairs and construction; 2) Incl. re-flagged vessels 122.8m NLG coastal capture fishing and 269.5m NLG total all sectors.

Table 2: Employment number for zones heavily dependent on fisheries (percentage of value added in concerning NUTS 3 region >1 of total gross value added), 1997

NUTS 3 level Capture fishing

Processing Coastal aqua culture

Total 1) Total employment in

region

Z.W.Friesland 24 230 0 315 32,010

Ijmond 133 600 0 803 66,220

Ov.Rijnmond 325 0 0 572 44,000

Ov.Zeeland 204 715 305 1,422 92,620

Flevoland 485 1,750 0 2,575 87,230

NUTS 5 level

Urk 2) 485 1,750 0 2,575 4,250

Wieringen 175 0 10 245 1,465

1) Incl. ancillary and vessel repairs and construction; 2) Incl. re-flagged vessels 735 coastal capture fishing and 2,930 total all sectors

(Source: Davidse e.a.1999)

2 KEY DATA COLLECTED

2.1 EMPLOYMENT

2.1.1 Women and work in the fisheries

The major categories of work in which Dutch fisheries women are active are the processing industry and family enterprises. There are also several women work in desk jobs in the supplying companies and (semi-)governmental organisations. A few women work in aquaculture. One works as fishing vessel crew on a regular basis, with four doing so occasionally. In the Netherlands there is a general shortage of labour in different categories of work outside (and inside) the fisheries. This is especially in urban centres, but counts as well for rural centres, for instance in schools, health jobs, shops, care services, tourism, IT etc.

2.1.2 Fishing

Some 2,300 people work in the Dutch industry as seagoing fishermen. The overwhelming majority are male- there is only one fulltime female crewmember and four who work occasionally.

Table 3: Number of skippers/vessels and crew 1998

Vessels/ % crew

all male skippers crew male female Cutter fishery

1-300 hp 224 415 99.5 0.5*

Cutter fishery

301 hp and more 183 1,036 100

Total 407 1,451

Trawlers 15 447 100

Total sea fishery 422 1,898

* Only one woman works on a regular base on the vessel (smaller than 300 HP), four others work occasionally and when there is a shortage of crew.

(Source: Wijk e.a 1999)

The table below shows the levels of employment in sea fishing according to NUTS 3 regions

in 1997. In 1998 there were fewer fishermen.

1 See appendix for FDA's.

Table 4: Employment in Fishing Industry (harvesting) 1997

Female Male Total

NUTS III Region

FT PT %Self

Emp

Total 1) FT PT Total FTE 2)

%Self Emp

Delfzijl 17 17

Ov.Gron 122 122

N.Friesl. 1 4 96 98

Z.W.Fri 30 30

Kop NH 481 481

Ijmond 133 133

Grt.Am 13 13

Aggl L 138 138

Aggl G 289 289

Ov. Rijn 325 325

Zw.Vlaa 46 46

Ov.Zeel 204 204

Flevolnd 483 483

Total NL 1 4 0 2 2,377 0 2,377 2,379

1) There are hardly any women employed on board, apart from very few exemptions especially in shrimp fisheries; 2) Total FTE is nr. of crew per vessel * nr. of vessels. Normally there are no PT fishermen.

An unknown number of people works ashore, e.g. father of the skipper-owner who promotes his interest with yards, banks etc., women who keep the accounts. Assuming one person/firm results in 350 persons PT working ashore for the cutter fishery.

Source: LEI-DLO cost and earnings panel, own expertise

2.1.3 Support ashore

Women and work for the family enterprise in the cutter fishery

Only wives of owners in the sea and coastal cutter fleet, were incorporated into research conducted in 1999 (Hoefnagel, Smits 2000). It is not known how many cutter owners have spouses since cutters are mostly owned by several members of a family. The most common ownership model is that of father and sons. Consequently, there are several spouses within one enterprise if the sons are married.

The majority of the fishermen’s wives (91%) work for the family fishery enterprise, and many have more than one duty. 68% of the women do the company laundry; 50% clean the dwelling units of the vessel, 47% stock up provisions for the week; 48% do the administration and 34% keep the books. In short, women’s work is substantial. From the interviews it became clear that most women are not paid for their efforts. When they are mentioned in the annual accounts as a participating spouse, there is no direct pay. The value of their effort ‘flows’ into the common account (Hoefnagel, Smits 1999). There is no relation between FDA and time spent on work for the company.

Most of the women have community of property, which does not mean that they also are co-owners of the enterprise. Fourteen percent of the women are co-owners of the fishing enterprise. Women who are co-owners tend to work more hours for the firm than others.

There is a strong tendency for couples to have a marriage settlement.

The majority of the women (61.5%) work less than eight hours a week for the firm, while about 30% spend more than 8 hours a week on work for the family enterprise. Whether one works for the firm does not depend on age or level of education or religion. However, the more children, the fewer hours are available for work in the firm.

Many women are motivated to work for the family enterprise. Thirty-five percent of the spouses followed courses for the benefit of the enterprise, particularly bookkeeping and computer courses. Four women did fisheries courses to work aboard. Only one woman works on a regular base on the vessel (smaller than 300 HP), four others work occasionally when there is a shortage of crew. The most important reason to work for the firm for more than 50% is ‘pleasure, interest in the work’. ‘To save costs’ is mentioned second. From the interviews it is clear that active involvement with the family enterprise is very important for the women since fisheries determines so much of their lives. Most of the women (60%) decide on investments and financial matters together with their husbands.

Figure 1: Time spent by fishermen’s wives on firm work in relation to vessel size.

1,00= small vessels of less than 300 HP;

2,00= medium-sized vessels of 300 HP;

3,00= large vessels of more than 300 HP, mostly larger than 1,500 HP.

size of largest vessel

3,00 2,00

1,00

per ce nta ge

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

time for the firm

no involvement 0-8 hours houur

> 8 hours

Supplying companies

Apart from the fishermen’s wives several bookkeepers, accountants, banks, ‘skippers ashore’, net makers, repairs, shipyards, fishing co-operations etc. support the fishing industry. The fifteen freezer trawlers belong to four industrial companies having offices, freezing and processing plants and full trade facilities. It is estimated that some 2,000 people are employed in these kinds of supplying companies (Davidse e.a. 1999). [The ratio men/women is not known, but an estimate is 90/10]

2.1.4 Aquaculture

Aquaculture in the Netherlands consists of:

1) Inland aquaculture of eel and African catfish;

2) Mussel culture;

3) Oyster culture.

Inland aquaculture of eel and African catfish

Inland aquaculture is a small sector. The main branches are eel and African catfish indoor cultivation. A minority of the workers are female (10%).

Table 5: Dutch Inland Aquaculture, eel and African catfish. 1998.

Region Category Output Employment

Fish type Production (t/year)

Turnover (1000 nlg)

Full time Part Time

m f m f

North Total 655 7,780 10 1 4 0

Eel 455 7,280 9 1 3

Afr. catfish 200 500 1 1

East Total 2,270 34,633 25 4 5 0

Eel 2,145 34,320 25 3 3

Afr.catfish 125 313 1 2

West Total 515 4,190 8 0 4 0

Eel 215 3,440 5 3

Afr.catfish 300 750 3 1

South Total 1,884 18,602 16 2 14 4

Eel 1,029 16,464 12 1 8 3

Afr.catfish 855 2,138 4 1 6 1

m f m F

1998 Total 5,324 65,204 59 7 27 4

Eel 3,844 61,504 51 5 17 3

Afr.catfish 1,480 3,700 8 2 10 1

(Source: Davidse e.a.1999)

Mussel culture

The mussel culture sector had in 1998 a lower turnover than in previous years, due to a decrease of 20% in the price of mussels. On mussel vessels all crew are men.

Production Turn

over crew Full time Part time

Mio kilo Mio

NLG

Male female Male female

97 103 225 225

Oyster culture

Oyster culture is a relatively small activity, with 41 companies involved and only 15 dependent on the activity. Production in 1997 amounted to about 1,400mt at a value of 4.3 million NLG.

About 40% of the total of 90 people are full time employed in oyster culture.

Oyster culture1997

er

Crew Full time Part time

M ton Mio

NLG

Male Female Male female

1,400 4.3 90 36 54

Total employment in cultivation amounts to:

Full time: 320 male employees and 7 female employees Part time: 81 male employees and 4 female employees

2.1.5 Processing

According to some estimates, the processing industry employed some 3,300 men and woman. In fact the post-harvesting sector is much larger when small firms and traders are taken into account, with total employment around 6,500 people. (Davidse e.a. 1999).

Women in the processing industry

Of the maximum estimate of 6,500 employees in the fish processing industry, more than 2,500 are female. Many of these unskilled workers, with a low level of education, and often of Moroccan, Turkish or non-Dutch origin. Press reports from the union CNV at the end of 1997 and 1998 indicated 'abuses' in the fish processing industry after a study of 100 enterprises in 1997 and 40 enterprises in 1998:

"Almost half of the workers work on the average more than 40 hours per week, regularly

settled pay during illness, a steady basis salary, a pension arrangement, holidays, things concerning social security".

According to the CNV the fish processing industry is rather new and developing, and still has a paternalistic structure especially in the smaller companies. The emphasis is to keep costs low by reducing labour costs to a minimum. Larger enterprises are usually better run from the worker point of view, but there is still a lack of structural employee policy and an acceptable labour agreement (CNV 29-10-1997). From the 1998 research of the CNV became clear that employee participation in many enterprise was not negotiated with employees as it should be under Dutch law (CNV 29-9-1998).

Table 6: Employment in Processing Industry (1997)

Female 1) Male 1)

NUTS I

Region FT PT %Self

Emp Total 2) FT PT Total 2) %Self Emp

Total 2)

I

Netherlands a) 1,300 2,000 3,300

Netherlands b) 2,049 871 2,611 3,151 429 3,440 6,051

III b)

Flevoland 579 757 1,336

Ijmond 243 318 560

Aggl Leiden 151 211 362

Aggl Den Haag 113 159 272

Utrecht 184 241 425

Rijnmond 132 172 304

Ov Zeeland 290 378 668

Other 921 1,204 2,125

1) Division female/male based on rate in total figures of fish processing industry by CBS (Dutch Statistical Bureau); 2) FTE, number therefore lower than sum FT and PT. Estimated on the basis of nr. of part-time employees, who are seasonally employed.

Sources: a) CBS (corresponds with the PRODCOM products in table 8), no regional disaggregation available

b) LEI-DLO study on the Dutch fish processing and wholesale, includes regional employment data. Much higher employment because fish traders and also small companies (<20 employees) have been included.

Dutch shrimp is not processed in the Netherlands; the shrimp are transported to north Morocco. Shrimp processing is done by ‘thousands of Moroccan women in Morocco’

earning a small fee. After processing the shrimps are transported back to Holland. (Vrij

Nederland, 31-3-2001)

2.1.6 Total employment in fisheries

Table 7: Summary of employment in the fisheries sector

Women Men Total Fishing overall:

• skipper at sea 422

• crew at sea 2 1,898

• support/admin ashore 200* 1,800* 2,000*

Aquaculture overall:

• stock husbandry

• technical/lab

• management/marketing/trading

Processing overall: 2,611 3,440 6,051

• foreman (factory floor)

• worker (factory floor)

• technical/lab

• management, sourcing, marketing, trading

Administration, management

(eg Government and Producer Organisations, trade organisations, scientists, trainers & fisheries NGOs)

20* 180* 200*

Other key category

*approximate figures.

2.2 LEGISLATION

Women and men are legally equal in the Netherlands. The Equal Treatment Law forbids discrimination by sex, religion, race etc. It is given (in Dutch, with an English translation of the more relevant parts) in Appendix 3. There is also a Commission for Equal Treatment to monitor this law. It is official policy to strive for equal career chances;

equal pay; equal share in care responsibilities and to cancel the dividing line between the traditional male and female domain. Reality is different from this ideal. Only few women reach the top; women have generally lower salaries and are the main child carers (there are not enough childcare centres). Traditional male and female roles have become blurred, however fisheries, especially sea fisheries, remains a male domain.

The operational guidelines for the Commission for Equal Treatment are set out in Appendix 3. The Commission’s decision is "not legally binding". That means that it cannot force the party who is guilty of discrimination to cooperate with its decision. A search, which was not exhaustive, made during this study did not detect any case related to fisheries in the Equal Treatment Commission’s data system. However, within the sector there is some reason for complaint e.g. women are hardly allowed to work on a fishing vessel; fishermen’s wives usually work unpaid; and within the fish processing industry there may occur some discrimination on the base of gender and/or nationality.

The first two matters are difficult to invoke if women do not want that themselves.

2.3 ORGANISATION

Women in the processing industry may be, like their male colleagues, a member of a union which will probably be the CNV, a union based on the Protestant section of Dutch society. It has a department for the meat and fish processing industry. In reality only a small part of the workers in the processing industry are organised.

The flatfish processing industry is mainly based on Urk (Flevoland), IJmuiden, Katwijk and Scheveningen and the shellfish processing in Zeeland, which are strong Protestant regions.

Fishermen’s associations

Fishermen’s Associations (FA’s) are made up of local fisheries organisations, which are composed of vessel owners and crewmembers. An owner may be a woman, if so she is often a widow. Sometimes women/spouses attend yearly meetings, which may have a separate women’s excursion. Most women (82,7%) do not attend meetings of fishery organisations; 15,4 % ‘sometimes’ and only 1,9% ‘often’. The majority (87%) claim to be interested in fishery policy, although 80% of these do not attend meetings. (Hoefnagel, Smits 1999) FA’s and PO’s are traditionally male domains. Some women work in those (small) organisations, mainly in the administrative/financial force.

Women’s Associations

In the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, there is no special organisation of fishermen’s wives. Forty-two percent of the fishermen’s wives say that they would become a member if such an organisation existed, i.e. the majority would not.

In April 2000 a Symposium was organised by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Fisheries as a result of the report on the "Dutch fishermen's wives: Role, position and ambition of spouses of Dutch cutter owners" (Hoefnagel,Smits 2000). (The report was presented to the Minister of State of Fisheries.) At the end of the symposium the beginning of a woman’s network was born. It is the intention that spouses of crewmembers should become member as well. In 2001 the network is still under development. A few fisherwomen are member of the Dutch Rural Women Organisation (Plattelandsvrouwen vereniging).

Support facilities

In the Netherlands there is a shortage of crèches. Government policy is to increase the number, but it is taking time. Children start school at the age of four, so there is a period of at least 4 years, where child care is a major problem.

Fishermen’s wives rarely use professional childcare (4.1%), which is usually unavailable in rural regions. Many make use of a family network for childcare (73.2%), and 3.1%

make use of this network together with professional childcare (Hoefnagel, Smits 2000)

2.4 EDUCATION & TRAINING

In the Netherlands all type of courses and education are open for women, including fisheries schools. In practice only a few female pupils could be traced in the past decade.

Girls are not interested in attending fishery schools and in fact the schools are suffering from decreasing numbers of pupils. Women’s work in fisheries is concentrated in financial and administrative professions and mainly unskilled professions in the processing industry. Apart from this there are female traders, and female scientists and civil servants in fisheries departments. In all fisheries sections women are in the minority

The education level of fishermen’s wives is as follows:

Primary education 7%

Technical and vocational training for 12-16 year-olds/lower

secondary education 62%

Technical and vocational training for 16-18 year-olds/higher

secondary education 24%

Technical and vocational training for 18+/university 7%

Women older than 50 have generally a lower education level than women below 35. Next to the regular schools 35% of these women followed different types of courses for the family fishery enterprise:

percentage

non relevant education 65,0

bookkeeping 16,0

computer skills 24,3

fish processing 1,9

navigation licence 1,0

marine telephone

communication 1,9

others 3,9

Others include small navigation licence; tradesman’s/retailer’s certificate, charter

navigation licence, net mending.

2.5 SOCIO-CULTURAL STATUS

Most fisheries related jobs are not of high status, although in the last few decades crewmembers in the sea fishing have been earning high salaries, which gives them more status. This certainly counts for skippers and/or vessel owners. Status is not alone related to money. In the Netherlands jobs are valuated according to education levels. This does not count for crewmembers who get a percentage of the proceeds of the catch.

In the fishing family enterprise a crew of a father with sons is ideal. Sons work themselves into the enterprise, and gradually take a larger part in the business. Girls are not allowed to do this. They will inherit a portion of their father’s share in the private limited company, and are usually bought out by male family members. Though nowadays crewmembers are more difficult to find, girls and women are not a real option, one prefers men ‘even foreigners’. These days crewmembers from Poland can be found on some of the cutters and many other foreigners on trawlers.

2.6 ECONOMIC STATUS

In the Netherlands the average hourly wage of women is ¾ of that of men, even though working men and women have the same educational level and even though wage differences by sex are forbidden (Ministry of Social Affairs). In the Netherlands many women work part-time, and often interrupt their careers for childcare. The differences in wages can partly be explained by the fact that women often have shorter careers than men.

Many fishermen’s wives don’t earn a salary for their shore activities for the family enterprise (Hoefnagel, Smits 2000). They therefore do not have social benefit entitlements as long as their work is informal and consequently can not be found in the accounts. Many women in the processing industry are stand-bye employees and or part- time workers suffering from job and social insecurity.

The average wage per hour for women is 77% of that of men (28 versus 36 NLG). 67%

of Dutch women work part-time (compared to 30% in Europe as a whole), while only 10% of Dutch men work part-time. Partly because of this, working women earn 56% of male average income (on average, European women earn 79% of male average income).

Differences are also partly explained by profession choice. Men often work in the commercial sector, while women work in the public sector. The shortage of childcare centres in the Netherlands is also very important.

When there is some space for wage negotiations this often is consumed by childcare arrangements through the women's wages, while men negotiate for higher salaries or a company car. Only 20% of the women are member of a union, against 32% of the men.

In Europe as a whole half of the women are organised (NRC 7-4-2001).

Table 8: Legal gross minimum youth wages per 1 January 2001 in NLG.

age

Gross per month

gross per week

gross per 40 hours

Gross per 38 hours

Gross per 36 hours 15

year 763,20 176,10 4,40 4,63 4,89

16

year 877,70 202,50 5,06 5,33 5,63

17

year 1004,90 231,90 5,80 6,10 6,44

18

year 1157,60 267,10 6,68 7,03 7,42

19

year 1335,70 308,20 7,71 8,11 8,56

20

year 1564,60 361.10 9,03 9,50 10,03

21

year 1844,50 425,60 10,64 11,20 11,82

22

year 2162,50 499,00 12,48 13,13 13,86

23 +

older 2544,10 587,10 14,68 15,45 16,31

The net amounts are not legally established and may differ per sector or enterprise, due to varying deductions in wages.

2.6.1 Work on the fishery at sea

Crew members and skippers earn generally the same share of the net proceeds of the catch. Crew members of the small fleet segment, mainly shrimp fishermen, earned about 70,000 NLG in 1998. Crew members of larger cutters (300HP), fishing for sole, plaice and shrimps earned about 90,000 NLG. Crewmembers of larger cutters (2,000HP), fishing for sole, plaice and other demersals earned circa 125,000 NLG (LEI general information). These incomes are above average for the Netherlands, though fishermen work on the average many more hours per week (average is 36 hours).

Women do not work as crewmembers. Women's contribution to the sector is ashore: as

unpaid worker in the family enterprise, and salaried workers in the processing industry

and in the administrative, governmental, research sectors

3 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 KEY FINDINGS

3.1.1 Women working for the family enterprise

There is no relationship between age, marital status and origin, and type or amount of work women do. However, the more children women have, the less they work for the firm, and women who are co-owners also work more hours on average. The questionnaire also revealed that spouses of shrimp fishermen (less than 300 HP) and spouses of fishermen with a mixed fishery work more hours than the flatfish fishermen's wives. The interviews show that young women first have to gain trust from their parents-in- law to take over the administration and bookkeeping. In the beginning of a fisher marriage these tasks are performed by the father or mother in law.

Only 3,5% of women feel that they should be allowed more participation in decision making. The majority of the women would like to take up courses for the benefit of the enterprise. Only a few women work on board of fishing vessels. Most women think that circumstances on board are physically too heavy. Some women, however, think women could work on board, as a cook or shipper. Working on relatively small shrimp vessels is also possible, according to some women. Next to the physical obstacle, ‘the men’s culture’ in fisheries is considered an obstacle. The respondents did not, however, give the overall impression of being eager to get on board.

To conclude, there seem to be few obstacles to women’s participation in the family fishing enterprise, which is generally high. Women usually do not want to do much more than they already do. Their level of work activities can be combined successfully with childcare. Fishermen’s wives seem to be satisfied with this situation and do not seem to be unhappy (on the whole) about not being paid for their efforts.

Young women see taking over the administration and bookkeeping as an obstacle. The prevailing male culture is also an obstacle that complicates access to the vessel as a crewmember. Married women do not seem to be very anxious to do this job. But the small number of young girls in fishery schools [Hoefnagel 1996b], which could indicate that girls in general are not encouraged to follow this kind of education.

Women would like to do more courses, so a lack of knowledge is also considered an obstacle.

3.1.2 Women and fisheries organisations

Nearly 40% of the respondents believe that it would be a good idea if women were represented on the board of fisheries organisations. Respondents suggested that 'women see things from another perspective’; ‘then they have at least a vote’; ‘because it is such a men’s world the view is too restricted’; ‘as a wife you know very well what is going on’;

‘then other issues will become relevant, like time schedules and social security’.

The majority, however, do no think that women should have a seat in a board of a fishery organisations. They say that: ‘the men that go to sea have the experience’; ‘it’s a man’s world and everything is well arranged’; ‘if it is your profession you are more involved’;

‘women do not fish, so why should they decide’; ‘women are not informed enough’.

3.1.3 Obstacles for women within fisheries organisations

Few women attend fisheries organisations and no female board members can be found in fisheries organisations. Some 47 % of the women think that organisations themselves should be active in involving women. The interviews show that women think that if they go to a meeting they would be the only women present. A quarter agreed with the proposition ‘if more women go to meetings, I would also go’; 14% replied ‘I agree more than I disagree’, whereas circa 50%, however, would still not go. Nearly 75% agreed with the proposition ‘fishery is a man’s world, where women have no or few chances’.

3.2 CONCLUSION

3.2.1 Overall position of women in the fisheries sector

With regard to the position of women, two aspects should be kept in mind: (a) The informal or formal degree of influence in the family enterprise, and (b) the degree of participation of women in decision-making and consultation in fishery organisations.

Fourteen percent of the women are co-owner of the family enterprise. Sixty percent of the women participate in decision making with the family. The position of women within the family enterprise can above all be described as informal.

To verify this further, an extra check was carried out. Ten randomly chosen year accounts were checked to see whether women’s work is mentioned on the accounts. The costs of the work of an accountant are always mentioned, but the costs of women are rarely included. Four out of ten-year accounts did not specify a trace of the women’s efforts.

Though laundry pay was mentioned once, it was placed between brackets. Cleaning costs were also mentioned once, as was an illness insurance in the spouse or mother's name or that of another firm member. Once a spouse received interest from a loan. And in two firms three women had a share in the profit and had own capital in the firm.

The effort of women remains to a large extent invisible. However the position of women with their own capital in the enterprise or that of female shareholders is formally acknowledged. Women usually become shareholders through inheritance (widows). For modern types of enterprises, like a limited company, this is no longer so clear, and this could mean a future decrease in the percentage of women co-owners (now 14%).

The minimum value of women’s work for the family fishery enterprise can be ascertained

as follows: There are 300 enterprises; 60% of the women work 1-8 hours, which is on

average 4 hours. This means 180x4=720 hours a week. Thirty percent work 8-40 hours, which is averagely 20 hours, a total of 90x20=1,800 hours a week. Together women work 2,520 hours a week, which is the equivalent of 66.3 full time jobs based on an fte of 38 hours. The minimum wage in the Netherlands is f 2,376.40 a month. On a yearly base (13 months): f 2,376.40x13x66.3= f 2,048,219 or EUR 910,320. According to these assumptions, the fishery sector should pay at least EUR 0.91 million for women’s work if they had to contract it out to external personnel.

According to figures from our institute, the Agricultural Economics Research Institute (LEI), the net profit of the cutter sector amounted to EUR 15.6 million in 1998; in the previous decade this was on average EUR 4-6.7 million. In this perspective the contribution of women is quite substantial, even when the calculations are based on minimum wages.

Fishermen’s wives are not organised in an organisation of their own (although since 2001 a fisherwives network has been somewhat active) and have limited access to sea fishery organisations. Their position in these decision-making and consultation bodies can only be described as weak. The weak position of women in fishery decision making bodies and the informal position of women within the family enterprise essentially come down to the enduring traditional man/wife roles in this sector. Until some decades ago Dutch married women did not often have paid jobs, and were responsible for care of the household and the children. Many spouses then also worked in family enterprises, e.g. in shops or on the farm. However, this kind of labour could not be found in the statistics.

This invisibility endures in the fishery sector, and to a lesser extent in the agricultural sector.

In short, there are obstacles for women concerning fisheries organisations, due to the prevailing male culture. In addition, fisheries organisations are particularly directed towards owners, and women are rarely owners. Because women are not organised, they do not know from each other whether other women want to visit meetings or not.

3.2.2 Women’s ambition & aspirations within the sector

Wives of fishermen give the impression of being content with their status within the sector. Most interviewed women are modest and do not mind not being paid, or benefiting only indirectly for their work in the family enterprise.

Women, especially from the small enterprises, have of course an indirect interest in cost savings within the firm. For women from the larger enterprises extra personal income does not seem that important. The ambition of most fishermen’s wives is to be actively involved within the family firm in addition to their household and childcare tasks.

A small group aspires to paid jobs. 25 % of fishermen's wives already have paid jobs

outside the family enterprise. More women aspire to increase their knowledge, especially

in computer skills, bookkeeping, business administration and fishery policy. It became

clear from the interviews that women are not always satisfied with fishery policy. Many women would also like to be more involved within fishery organisations, firstly to break through the prevailing ‘male culture’ and secondly to form a separate organisation of fishermen’s wives.

3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

3.3.1 The processing industry

There is a shortage of labour in the Netherlands which extends to the processing industry.

This may improve the situation regarding terms and conditions of employment.

Improvements should be as follows:

• workers work no more than 36/38 hours per week

• contracts need to give more certainties about duration of work and payment

• regulations on the term of employment

• employee participation in contract negotiation, as required by law for enterprises with more than a certain number of workers

• a collective labour agreement is necessary, in which should be settled pay during illness, a steady basis salary, a pension arrangement, holidays and social security

• better union representation

• equal pay for equal work

3.3.2 Fishermen's wives

Nearly 75% of fishermen’s wives agreed with the proposition that ‘fishery is a man’s world, where women have no or little chances’. However, since this research made clear that the contribution of Dutch fishermen’s wives to the firm economics is substantial and their eagerness to learn new skills to perform their tasks even better, chances for women in the fishery should by now change more in their advantage.

• Status and position of women within the family enterprise could be improved by more information on possible official positions of contributing spouses, from the perspective of the women and not alone from the perspective of the firm. Information is needed on juridical, fiscal and financial arrangements for contributing spouses within family enterprises.

• Women need support to become actively involved in fishery organisations, for instance by inviting women to meetings and supporting their applications for available positions on boards.

• The establishment of a fishermen’s wives organisation (built out of the existing

network) should be supported. The exchange of individual experiences will make

clear that the women share experiences of which they were not aware.

• More childcare centres in rural areas.

• Courses to improve computer skills, bookkeeping, administration, internet;

management and other business courses; knowledge in fishery policy.

Appendix 1: Bibliography

1997 Enquête wijst op wantoestanden in de visverwerking. Persbericht 29-10-1997 1998 Medezeggenschap in visverwerking laat nog veel te wensen over. Persbericht 29-9- 1998 Davidse, W.P., H. Harmsma, M.H.Smit, J.W.de Wilde

1999 Regional, socio-economic studies in the fiseries sector. Lot no.16, The Netherlands.

LEI, Den Haag, The Netherlands.Hoefnagel, Ellen

1996a “The Maritime Environment Market: The Trade in Fishing Rights in The Netherlands”, in K. Crean and D. Symes (eds), Fisheries management in Crisis, London, Blackwell Science Ltd.

1996b Prognose van het benodigd aantal gediplomeerde bemanningsleden op de

Produktschap. LEI-DLO, Den Haag, Nederland.Hoefnagel Ellen, Marie Jose Smits 1999 Modern Dutch Fishermen's wives. Europaea, 1999 Vol. II. Italy.

#2000 De Nederlandse Vissersvrouw. Rol, positie en ambitie van echtgenotes

2001Vrouwen armer dan Eurozusters. Nederlandse arbeidsmarkt weinig geëmancipeerd. NRC Handelsblad Economiekatern 7-4-2001 Vrij Nederland

2001 Schandaal. De bittere bijsmaak van de hollandse garnalen. Vrij Nederland 31-3 2001 Wijk, M.O. van, C. de Ruijter, M.H.Smit and C.Taal

1999 Visserij in Cijfers 1998, LEI, Den Haag, Nederland.

Appendix 2: People Interviewed

297 Fisheries enterprises received a postal survey directed to the spouse(s) of the owner(s) of the enterprise. 208 Fishermen’s wives returned and filled in the questionnaire. Eight of these were selected for an interview. All of these respondents were assured that they would remain anonymous, so no list is available.

The study was supervised by:

Mr. Ing. J.K. Nooitgedagt, chairman of the Nederlandse Vissersbond (Dutch Fishermen’s Bond), Emmeloord.

Mrs. Drs. E.E.F. Janssens (fisher in inland waters), Graafjansdijk B 94a, 4554 LA , Westdorpe.

Mrs. Drs. A.Vrolijk (Manager of a department in a fisheries enterprise and fisherman’s daughter) PO box 54, 1970 AB, IJmuiden.

Mr. Dr. Ing. C.J.A.Barel, (research co-ordinator), Ministery of LNV, Fisheries

Department, Den Haag.

Appendix 3: Legislation relevant to women in fisheries

General rules providing protection against discrimination on the grounds of religion, belief, political opinion, race, sex, nationality, heterosexual or homosexual orientation or civil status (Equal Treatment Act)

Chapter I

Equal treatment of persons irrespective of their religion, belief, political opinion, race, sex, nationality, heterosexual or homosexual orientation or civil status

Section 1

For the purposes of this Act and the provisions based upon it the following definitions shall apply:

a. discrimination: direct and indirect discrimination;

b. direct discrimination: discrimination between persons on the grounds of religion, belief, political opinion, race, sex, heterosexual or homosexual orientation or civil status;

c. indirect discrimination: discrimination on the grounds of other characteristics or behaviour, resulting in direct discrimination.

Section 2

1. The prohibition on discrimination shall not apply to indirect discrimination which is objectively justified.

2. The prohibition on discrimination on grounds of sex contained in this Act shall not apply:

a. in cases in which sex is a determining factor and

b. in cases concerning the protection of women, notably in relation to pregnancy and motherhood.

3. The prohibition on discrimination contained in this Act shall not apply if the aim of the discrimination is to place women or persons belonging to a particular ethnic or cultural minority group in a privileged position in order to eliminate or reduce de facto inequalities and the discrimination is reasonably proportionate to that aim;

4. The prohibition on discrimination on the grounds of race contained in this Act shall not apply in cases where a person's racial appearance is a determining factor.

5. The prohibition on discrimination on the grounds of nationality contained in this Act shall not apply:

a. if the discrimination is based on generally binding regulations or on written or unwritten rules of international law and

b. in cases where nationality is a determining factor.

6. The cases referred to in subsections 2, 4 and 5(b) shall be defined in more detail by order in council.

Section 4

This Act shall be without prejudice to:

a. the Equal Opportunities Act;

b. articles 1637ij, 1639e and 1639h of the Civil Code;

c. discrimination by or pursuant to any other Act of Parliament which entered into force before this Act.

Section 5

1. It shall be unlawful to discriminate in or with regard to:

a. public advertising of employment and procedures leading to the filling of vacancies;

b. the commencement or termination of an employment relationship;

c. the appointment and dismissal of civil servants;

d. terms and conditions of employment;

e. permitting staff to receive education or training during or prior to employment;

f. promotion.

Section 7

1. It shall be unlawful to discriminate in offering goods or services, in concluding, implementing or terminating agreements on the subject, and in providing advice or information regarding the choice of educational establishment or career if such acts of discrimination are committed:

a. in the course of carrying on a business or exercising a profession;

b. by the public service;

c. by institutions which are active in the field of housing, social services, health care, cultural affairs or education or

d. by private persons not engaged in carrying on a business or exercising a profession, in so far as the offer is made publicly.

Section 8

1. If an employer terminates an employee's employment in contravention of section 5 or on the grounds that the employee has invoked section 5, either at law or otherwise, such termination shall be invalid.

2. Without prejudice to chapter 8 of the General Administrative Law Act, an employee may invoke subsection 1 within two months of being given notice of termination of employment or within two months of termination of employment if the employer has terminated it other than by giving notice. The invalidity of the termination of employment shall be invoked by notifying the employer. Termination of employment as referred to in subsection 1 shall not render the

employer liable for compensation. All claims by the employee in connection with the invocation of invalidity of termination of employment under this subsection shall lapse after six months.

Chapter 2 The Equal Treatment Commission

Section 11

1. An Equal Treatment Commission shall be established, hereinafter referred to as the Commission.

2. The Commission may establish subcommittees from among its members for the performance of its duties.

Section 12

1. The Commission may, in response to a request in writing, conduct an investigation to

determine whether discrimination as referred to in this Act, the Equal Opportunities Act or article 1637ij of the Civil Code has taken or is taking place, and may publish its findings. The

Commission may also conduct an investigation on its own initiative to determine whether such discrimination is systematically taking place in the public service or in one or more sectors of society, and publish its findings.

1637ij of the Civil Code.

Section 13

1. The Commission shall institute an investigation and shall forward its findings, in writing and with reasons, to the petitioner, the person said to be guilty of discrimination and, if relevant, the victim of discrimination.

2. The Commission may make recommendations when forwarding its findings to a person said to be guilty of discrimination.

3. The Commission may forward its findings to such of Our Ministers as may be concerned, and to such organisations of employers, employees, professionals, public servants, consumers of goods and services and relevant consultative bodies as it believes appropriate.

Section 19

1. The Commission and the persons referred to in section 17 who are designated by the

Commission may call for all the information and documents which may reasonably be considered necessary for the performance of its duties.

2. Everyone shall be obliged, unless they are exempt on the grounds of official or professional confidentiality, to provide the information and documents required pursuant to subsection 1 in full and in accordance with the truth, in the manner and within the time-limit laid down by or on behalf of the Commission. This obligation shall not apply if, in this way, a person would expose themself or a relative by blood or marriage, in the direct or indirect line to the second or third degree, or his spouse or former spouse to the risk of criminal prosecution for an indictable offence.

Section 20

1. The Commission shall issue an annual report of its activities, which shall be published. It shall forward this report in any event to such of Our Ministers as it may concern and to the advisory bodies concerned.

2. Every five years, calculated from the entry into force of this Act, the Commission shall draw up a report of its findings on the operation in practice of this Act, the Equal Opportunities Act or article 1637ij of the Civil Code. It shall forward this report to the Minister of the Interior.

Chapter 3

Concluding provisions

(Sections 22 and 23 have been deleted.)

ii) Equal Treatment Commission

The Equal Treatment Act (AWGB) has been in force since 1 September 1994. The AWGB has given rise to the establishment of the Equal Treatment Commission. The Commission ensures compliance with the AWGB.

The Equal Treatment Commission is an independent, professional organization. It was established by the government as an organization where individuals can turn for help with complaints about unequal treatment. The Commission reviews the complaints it receives to see if the regulations on equal treatment have been violated. It deals with unequal treatment involving:

• religion

• personal convictions and views

• political orientation

• race

• gender

• nationality

• sexual preference

• marital status

• duration of employment (under working relationships)

These are the nine "grounds of discrimination". It is forbidden to treat people differently on these grounds of discrimination in the following situations:

• In working relationships between employers and employees. Unequal treatment is forbidden in any area that is related to work, from job advertisements to actual

employment. It is also forbidden in the following areas: salary, holidays, promotions and opportunities to follow courses. These regulations also apply to people in the liberal professions, such as lawyers, notary publics, and doctors.

• In offering goods and services. Everyone should be treated equally when buying insurance policies, renting houses, opening bank accounts, having telephones installed and other such situations.

• In receiving advice about educational or career opportunities.

If one feels to be a victim of discrimination in one of these situations, one can file a complaint to the Commission.

Direct and indirect discrimination

The Commission deals with complaints about "direct" as well as "indirect" discrimination.

Direct discrimination is unequal treatment based on one of the grounds of discrimination listed earlier. If someone is not allowed to rent a certain house or apartment because he is a

homosexual, then he is a victim of direct discrimination. Indirect discrimination occurs when a certain requirement is made that seems neutral, but leads indirectly to discrimination. A job advertisement for bulb peelers that specifies fluency in Dutch as a requirement is an example. It may seem like a neutral requirement. But in practice, it makes it possible to treat ethnic minorities unequally. After all, it will be more difficult for them to meet this requirement. And fluency in Dutch is not necessary for the job of peeling bulbs.

As was said earlier, anyone who feels that he/she is being treated unequally may request the Commission for a decision in his/her case. As an individual, one may submit a request to the Commission only if he/she hasv suffered some disadvantage. For example, if a job advertisement for an executive secretary asks women only to apply, a man may file a complaint only if he has the qualifications for this position.

If one would prefer not to file a complaint oneselves, he/she may ask someone else to do it as his/her representative. This representative may be a relative, a union, or a pressure group, such as an anti-discrimination organization. They may act as one’s "authorized representative" (or gemachtigde as it is called in Dutch) and carry out the procedure on the individual’s behalf.

However, if someone authorizes someone else, that does not mean that he or she can stay anonymous.

Pressure groups may also file complaints to the Commission independently. However, they can only file complaints if they are organizations or societies that were officially founded to promote the interests of the people to whom the regulations for equal treatment apply. Works councils and service committees may also file complaints to the Commission. However, their complaints must be about unequal treatment within their own company or organization.

In addition, employers or organizations may submit their own regulations to the Commission, requesting an assessment of whether these comply with the legal regulations. This is referred to as a request for "assessment of one’s own actions".

Procedures

After someone has filed his/her complaint, the Commission will review it to see if it can process the complaint. This is why the Commission cannot make decisions in situations in which the discrimination involves a handicap or someone’s age. If the Commission can process someone’s complaint, it will start an investigation. The Commission will question the complainant and the

"other party" (the person(s) that you feel is discriminating against you) and give both a chance to respond to each other’s points of view. The Commission can also make "third parties" (for example, witnesses) give information about the case. The reason for this is that proof is needed to judge whether the complaint is valid, as is done in court cases. So it could be said that the

Commission is like a judicial organization. However, one important difference is that the Commission itself searches for the information that it feels it needs. Another difference is that when one files a complaint to the Commission, one does not have to hire a lawyer and that the procedure is free.

Hearing

Once the Commission has collected enough information it closes the investigation and holds a hearing, which usually lasts about one hour. The complainant and the other party can testify at the hearing and take experts to it. The Commission can question both parties and compare their points of view.

After the hearing, the Commission discusses the case in a closed meeting. It makes its decision within a maximum of eight weeks. In its decision, the Commission specifies whether the other party has or has not violated the regulations and whether the complainant has truly been a victim of discrimination.

The Commission’s decision is important, but "not legally binding". That means that it cannot force the party who is guilty of discrimination to cooperate with its decision. However, in practice, the Commission’s decisions are usually accepted and carried out.

Often after a decision has been made, the Commission follows up a case. For example, after the decision, the Commission may go talk to representatives of the branch of industry in which the case occurred. It does this in the hope that good communication will help to prevent unequal treatment in the future.

The Equal treatment act in Dutch - Algemene wet gelijke behandeling

Wet van 2 maart 1994, houdende algemene regels ter bescherming tegen discriminatie op grond van godsdienst, levensovertuiging, politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat

Wij Beatrix, bij de gratie Gods, Koningin der Nederlanden, Prinses van Oranje-Nassau, enz. enz.

enz.

Allen, die deze zullen zien of horen lezen, saluut! doen te weten:

Alzo Wij in overweging genomen hebben, dat het wenselijk is om, mede in verband met artikel 1 van de Grondwet, ter bevordering van de deelneming op gelijke voet aan het maatschappelijk leven bescherming te bieden tegen discriminatie op grond van godsdienst, levensovertuiging, politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of

burgerlijke staat, dat het daarom wenselijk is behoudens wettelijke uitzonderingen onderscheid op deze gronden te verbieden en dat het in verband met de handhaving van dit verbod wenselijk is een Commissie gelijke behandeling in te stellen;

Zo is het, dat Wij, de Raad van State gehoord, en met gemeen overleg der Staten-Generaal, hebben goedgevonden en verstaan, gelijk Wij goedvinden en verstaan bij deze:

Hoofdstuk 1. Gelijke behandeling van personen ongeacht hun godsdienst,

levensovertuiging, politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat

Artikel 1

In deze wet en de daarop berustende bepalingen wordt verstaan onder:

a. onderscheid: direct en indirect onderscheid;

b. direct onderscheid: onderscheid tussen personen op grond van godsdienst, levensovertuiging, politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of

burgerlijke staat;

c. indirect onderscheid: onderscheid op grond van andere hoedanigheden of gedragingen dan die bedoeld in onderdeel b, dat direct onderscheid tot gevolg heeft.

Artikel 2

1. Het in deze wet neergelegde verbod van onderscheid geldt niet ten aanzien van indirect onderscheid dat objectief gerechtvaardigd is.

2. Het in deze wet neergelegde verbod van onderscheid op grond van geslacht geldt niet:

a. in gevallen waarin het geslacht bepalend is en

b. in gevallen waarin het de bescherming van de vrouw betreft, met name in verband met zwangerschap en moederschap.

3. Het in deze wet neergelegde verbod van onderscheid geldt niet, indien het onderscheid tot doel heeft vrouwen of personen behorende tot een bepaalde etnische of culturele minderheidsgroep een bevoorrechte positie toe te kennen ten einde feitelijke ongelijkheden op te heffen of te verminderen en het onderscheid in een redelijke verhouding staat tot dat doel.

4. Het in deze wet neergelegde verbod van onderscheid op grond van ras geldt niet in gevallen waarin uiterlijke kenmerken die samenhangen met het ras van een persoon bepalend zijn.

5. Het in deze wet neergelegde verbod van onderscheid op grond van nationaliteit geldt niet:

a. indien het onderscheid is gebaseerd op algemeen verbindende voorschriften of geschreven of ongeschreven regels van internationaal recht en

b. in gevallen waarin de nationaliteit bepalend is.

6. Bij algemene maatregel van bestuur worden de in het tweede, vierde en vijfde lid, onderdeel b, bedoelde gevallen nader omschreven.

Artikel 3

Deze wet is niet van toepassing op:

a. rechtsverhoudingen binnen kerkgenootschappen alsmede hun zelfstandige onderdelen en lichamen waarin zij zijn verenigd, alsmede binnen andere genootschappen op geestelijke grondslag;

b. het geestelijk ambt.

Artikel 4

Deze wet laat onverlet:

a. de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen;

b. de artikelen 646, 647, 667 en 670 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek;

c. onderscheid dat gemaakt wordt bij of krachtens enige andere wet, welke voorafgaand aan deze wet in werking is getreden.

Artikel 5

1. Onderscheid is verboden bij:

a. de aanbieding van een betrekking en de behandeling bij de vervulling van een openstaande betrekking;

b. het aangaan en het beëindigen van een arbeidsverhouding;

c. het aanstellen tot ambtenaar en het beëindigen van het dienstverband van een ambtenaar;

d. arbeidsvoorwaarden;

e. het laten volgen van onderwijs, scholing en vorming tijdens of voorafgaand aan een arbeidsverhouding en

f. bevordering.

2. Het eerste lid laat onverlet:

a. de vrijheid van een instelling op godsdienstige of levensbeschouwelijke grondslag om eisen te stellen, die gelet op het doel van de instelling, nodig zijn voor de vervulling van een functie, waarbij deze eisen niet mogen leiden tot onderscheid op grond van het enkele feit van politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat;

b. de vrijheid van een instelling op politieke grondslag om eisen te stellen, die gelet op het doel van de instelling, nodig zijn voor de vervulling van een functie, waarbij deze eisen niet mogen leiden tot onderscheid op grond van het enkele feit van ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat en

c. de vrijheid van een instelling van bijzonder onderwijs om eisen te stellen over de vervulling van een functie, die, gelet op het doel van de instelling, nodig zijn voor de verwezenlijking van haar grondslag, waarbij deze eisen niet mogen leiden tot onderscheid op grond van het enkele feit van politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat.

3. Het eerste lid is niet van toepassing op eisen, die, gelet op het privé-karakter van de werkverhouding in redelijkheid aan een werkverhouding kunnen worden gesteld.

4. Het eerste lid is niet van toepassing op eisen met betrekking tot de politieke gezindheid die in redelijkheid kunnen worden gesteld in verband met de vervulling van functies in bestuursorganen en adviesorganen.

5. Het eerste lid is niet van toepassing op eisen met betrekking tot de politieke gezindheid die in redelijkheid kunnen worden gesteld in verband met de vervulling van vertrouwensfuncties.

6. Het eerste lid, onderdeel d, is niet van toepassing op onderscheid op grond van burgerlijke staat, voor zover het betreft pensioenvoorzieningen.

Artikel 6

Onderscheid is verboden met betrekking tot de voorwaarden voor en de toegang tot het vrije beroep en de mogelijkheden tot uitoefening van en ontplooiing binnen het vrije beroep.

Artikel 7

1. Onderscheid is verboden bij het aanbieden van goederen of diensten en bij het sluiten, uitvoeren of beëindigen van overeenkomsten ter zake, alsmede bij het geven van advies of voorlichting over school- of beroepskeuze, indien dit geschiedt:

a. in de uitoefening van een beroep of bedrijf;

b. door de openbare dienst;

c. door instellingen die werkzaam zijn op het gebied van volkshuisvesting, welzijn, gezondheidszorg, cultuur of onderwijs of

d. door natuurlijke personen die niet handelen in de uitoefening van een beroep of bedrijf, voor zover het aanbod in het openbaar geschiedt.

2. Het eerste lid, onderdeel c, laat onverlet de vrijheid van een instelling van bijzonder onderwijs om bij de toelating en ten aanzien van de deelname aan het onderwijs eisen te stellen, die gelet op het doel van de instelling nodig zijn voor de verwezenlijking van haar grondslag, waarbij deze eisen niet mogen leiden tot onderscheid op grond van het enkele feit van politieke gezindheid, ras, geslacht, nationaliteit, hetero- of homoseksuele gerichtheid of burgerlijke staat. Onderscheid op grond van geslacht is alleen toegestaan, indien de eigen aard van de instelling dit eist en voor leerlingen van beide geslachten gelijkwaardige voorzieningen aanwezig zijn.

3. Het eerste lid, onderdelen a en d, is niet van toepassing op eisen die gelet op het privé-karakter van de omstandigheden waarop de rechtsverhouding ziet in redelijkheid kunnen worden gesteld.

Artikel 8

1. Beëindiging van de arbeidsverhouding door de werkgever in strijd met artikel 5 of wegens de omstandigheid dat de werknemer in of buiten rechte een beroep heeft gedaan op artikel 5, is vernietigbaar.

2. Onverminderd hoofdstuk 8 van de Algemene wet bestuursrecht, vervalt twee maanden na de beëindiging van de arbeidsverhouding de bevoegdheid van de werknemer een beroep te doen op de vernietigingsgrond, bedoeld in het eerste lid. Artikel 55 van Boek 3 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek is niet van toepassing.

3. Een rechtsvordering in verband met de vernietiging verjaart door verloop van zes maanden na de dag waarop de arbeidsverhouding is geëindigd.

Artikel 9

Bedingen in strijd met deze wet zijn nietig.

Artikel 10 [Vervallen.]

Hoofdstuk 2. De commissie gelijke behandeling Artikel 11

1. Er is een Commissie gelijke behandeling, hierna te noemen: de Commissie.

2. De Commissie kan uit haar midden kamers vormen voor het vervullen van haar taak.

Artikel 12

1. De Commissie kan op schriftelijk verzoek onderzoeken of een onderscheid is of wordt gemaakt als bedoeld in deze wet, de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen of artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek, en haar oordeel daaromtrent kenbaar maken. Voorts kan de Commissie uit eigen beweging onderzoeken of zodanig onderscheid stelselmatig wordt gemaakt in de openbare dienst of binnen één of meer sectoren van het maatschappelijk leven, en haar oordeel daarover kenbaar maken.

2. Een schriftelijk verzoek als bedoeld in het eerste lid, kan worden ingediend door:

a. degene die meent dat te zijnen nadele een onderscheid is of wordt gemaakt als bedoeld in deze wet, de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen of artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek;

b. de natuurlijke persoon, de rechtspersoon of het bevoegd gezag, die wensen te weten of zij een onderscheid maken als bedoeld in deze wet, de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen of artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek;

c. degene die belast is met de beslissing over een geschil met betrekking tot onderscheid als bedoeld in deze wet, de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen of artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek;

d. een ondernemingsraad, die meent dat in de onderneming waarvoor deze is ingesteld, onderscheidenlijk een met die ondernemingsraad vergelijkbaar medezeggenschapsorgaan, dat meent dat in het organisatorisch samenwerkingsverband waarvoor het is ingesteld, onderscheid wordt gemaakt als bedoeld in deze wet, in artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek of in de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen;

e. een vereniging met volledige rechtsbevoegdheid of stichting, die in overeenstemming met haar statuten de belangen behartigt van diegenen in wier bescherming deze wet, de Wet gelijke behandeling van mannen en vrouwen of artikel 646 van Boek 7 van het Burgerlijk Wetboek beoogt te voorzien.

3. In het geval een schriftelijk verzoek als bedoeld in het tweede lid, onderdelen d en e, personen noemt ten nadele van wie zou zijn gehandeld, dan wel indien een onderzoek ingesteld uit eigen beweging, betrekking heeft op zodanige personen, stelt de Commissie deze personen op de hoogte van het voornemen tot onderzoek. De Commissie is niet bevoegd in het onderzoek en de beoordeling personen als bedoeld in de eerste volzin te betrekken die schriftelijk hebben verklaard daartegen bedenkingen te hebben.

Artikel 13

1. De Commissie stelt een onderzoek in en brengt haar oordeel schriftelijk en met redenen omkleed ter kennis van de verzoeker, van degene die het onderscheid zou maken, alsmede, in voorkomend geval, van degene, jegens wie het onderscheid zou worden gemaakt.