A Model for Knowledge Innovation in Online Learning Community

(1)

Learning Community

Qinglong Zhan

Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology and Education, Tianjin 300222, China

Abstract. This paper describes how to introduce the mechanism of knowledge innovation into online learning community (OLC) and con-structs a model which can facilitate innovative knowledge and develop online learner’s ability of knowledge innovation. The model is represented by three levels, namely: individual, collaborative and intermediary level, which is based on theories of knowledge creation and management, cog-nitive and social constructivism. Individual knowledge innovation begins with internalization, via combination, externalization and socialization, which is diﬀerent from Nonaka’s SECI. In collaborative knowledge inno-vation, learners in OLC share, compare, negotiate, create and integrate knowledge together. Individual knowledge innovation and collaborative knowledge innovation need certain intermediary. In doing so, individual knowledge applied to OLC situation can produce, promote and create new knowledge of OLC.

Keywords:online learning community, knowledge innovation, SECI.

1 Introduction

With the development of e-learning, online learning community (OLC) plays a more important role in e-learning. OLC is not only the inevitable result of de-velopment of e-learning, but a basic component of it as well. Through utilizing modern information technology such as Internet that oﬀers learning environ-ments of whole new communication mechanisms and abundant resources, OLC is an important environment of knowledge innovation which can realize pro-duction, sharing, application and innovation of knowledge. Since 1990s, for the research on OLC, many researchers centralized on concept, mechanism of for-mation and growth, knowledge construction/building etc., but the research on knowledge innovation is an omitted paradigm.Therefore, this paper focuses on introducing mechanism of knowledge innovation into OLC and constructing a model which can facilitate innovative knowledge and develop online learner’s ability of knowledge innovation.

Z. Pan et al. (Eds.): Edutainment 2008, LNCS 5093, pp. 21–31, 2008. c

(2)

2 Conceptual Background

2.1 OLC

OLC based on technologies of network and communication is an interactive autonomy cyberspace, in which several learners with common interest break through the space-time scope by web communication tools and study some course or theme for the goal of realizing knowledge sharing and knowledge in-novation.OLC as a metaphor of learner group in traditional school, generated and formed gradually with the development of Internet, has broken through the boundary to limit on the basis of inheriting learner group’s characteristics in tra-ditional school, and possesses certain opening and freedom. So long as a learner who is interested in some course/theme joins in, through the exchange in certain time, forms a relatively stable online learner’s group gradually, and becomes an OLC. OLC has some common interest and behavior codes, where each learner has the power and responsibility for participating in establishing and maintain-ing it. Learners facilitate their own learnmaintain-ing and innovation of knowledge in OLC by sharing information, resources, mutual thoughts, views, artifacts and experiences.

2.2 Knowledge Innovation

According to scientiﬁc research perspective, knowledge innovation is a process of creating new knowledge in fundamental and technological sciences through scientiﬁc research, whose purposes are to pursue original new discoveries, to explore new laws, to create and provide original new theories and methods. Based upon daily perspective, the knowledge innovation need not create absolutely brand-new knowledge but renew and change knowledge, merge new elements or add new forms into existed knowledge, improve understandings and get new development on something existed, put forward new problem-solving, and so on. In knowledge management, knowledge innovation is the whole process of production, creation and application of knowledge.

2.3 Deﬁning Knowledge Innovation in OLC

Combining the understanding of knowledge innovation with characteristics of OLC, I think knowledge innovation in OLC is the concept of daily perspec-tive and a simple innovaperspec-tive activity, so there is a great difference from knowl-edge innovation activity in scientific research. Therefore, knowlknowl-edge innovation in OLC is a process that individual online learner and community produce new viewpoints, thoughts and new problem solutions, change range and level of the existing knowledge structure, and eventually make new meaning through inter-action and collaboration. Its key element is that new understanding emerges on the basis of original cognition. According to Bloom’s classification of learning objectives, the knowledge which online learners produced through analyzing, synthesizing and appraising, belongs to knowledge of innovation.

(3)

3 OLC Is Regarded as the Environment of Knowledge

Innovation

At present,both distance and classroom educational environments fetter the pro-cess of interactive knowledge innovation, but OLC as an innovative engine and “Ba” of Nonaka’s term is one of the most eﬀective environments in knowledge innovation and conversion. OLC as the sharing space where knowledge is created and innovated, can realize integration of virtuality (E-mail, online meeting) and intelligence (sharable experiences, thoughts and ideas).

3.1 OLC Forms the Foundation of Knowledge Innovation

OLC has common theme, goal, understanding, trust and open culture, which make up of the foundation of knowledge innovation. First of all, OLC learners always centre on the field of certain theme, and participate in the OLC because their learning contents and learning interests are closely related with the learning theme field. Therefore,while encountering problems about this theme, learners spontaneously get together to produce methods of problem-solving and form common innovative objectives. Secondly, OLC learners have questions of mon concern, similar background and knowledge field, so they are apt to com-municate between them and build the common understanding to the particular theme field. Thirdly, informality and opening in OLC which offers opportunities to freedom on informal dialogues and thought expression, can facilitate exchange and collaboration in an open atmosphere, “to achieve a deeper understanding of learning content and knowledge themes, to work together to solve problems, to exchange experience and develop new knowledge”(Seufert,2002).

3.2 The Mechanism in OLC Is Favorable to Knowledge Innovation The mechanism of favorable innovation of knowledge in OLC is shown in the following several aspects.First, ambiguities of OLC boundary make information transmission and knowledge sharing more convenient; Second, OLC strengthens means and scope of communication when compared with traditional commu-nity; Third, being no formal institutional structure in OLC, learners can be freely carrying on exchange and collaboration on questions of common concern equally, make learners escape from institutional construction of traditional com-mand and control, and turn to knowledge-intensive community which is more favorable to knowledge sharing. Hence, information and knowledge can be trans-mitted directly from a learner to any other learner in OLC without adopting the traditional exchange way, thus forming a knowledge community based on CSCL technologies.

3.3 Knowledge Sharing and Innovation Are Two Key Activities in OLC

Innovations arise at the intersection between ﬂows of people and ﬂows of knowl-edge (Starbuck, 1992). OLC, which emphasizes knowlknowl-edge sharing through

(4)

network, facilitates the learner acquiring and sharing knowledge from other ex-perienced learners by informal learning. It is an ideal environment of innovative process which is networking, interacting and knowledge-driving. So, knowledge sharing and innovation are two key activities in OLC. Knowledge innovation is promoted by knowledge sharing in which learners can obtain new elicitation, thinking or inspiration that provides the possibility of creating new knowledge. 3.4 OLC Strengthens the Process of Knowledge Integration

OLC can break through physical barriers and oﬀer learners chances to share experiences and context knowledge, obtain enlightening knowledge from outside, make it possible to promote new understanding and explanation of knowledge, strengthen and absorb diversiﬁed new knowledge, and improve integration of new knowledge and existing knowledge.

3.5 OLC Inﬂuences the Process of Knowledge Utilization

Any kind of knowledge shared in OLC should be codified in someway in or-der to be digitized (Afuah, 2003), which facilitates knowledge memorization, retrieval and recombination (Fahey and Prusak, 1998). Digitization of knowl-edge can increase knowlknowl-edge available in conversion, such as electronic files and knowledgebase-searching make it easy to discover, reorganize, externalize and in-ternalize knowledge. Through allowing to obtain various knowledge in real time, OLC promotes learners to combine several conflictive-like knowledge into a new schema which will strengthen action and innovation. In OLC, learners not only can discern and contact more learners with different knowledge, but also allow their spontaneous connection to collaborate in developing concrete application of certain knowledge directly, create public knowledgebase and promote them to find the best application of their thoughts.

4 Construction of OLC Knowledge Innovation Model

Knowledge innovation in OLC is a systematized process, which includes two sub-processes of individual knowledge innovation and collaborative knowledge innovation. Individual knowledge innovation is the foundation of knowledge inno-vation of collaboration. In collaborative knowledge innoinno-vation, sharing, compar-ing, negotiatcompar-ing, creating and integrating knowledge together among the learners of OLC, produce new facts, understandings, concepts, viewpoints and theories. Individual knowledge innovation and collaborative knowledge innovation need certain intermediary, in doing so, individual knowledge applied to OLC situa-tion can produce new knowledge and create and promote the knowledge of OLC. Therefore, OLC knowledge innovation model(Fig. 1)includes individual knowl-edge innovation layer, intermediary layer and collaborative knowlknowl-edge innovation layer.

(5)

Knowledge integration Knowledge creation Knowledge negotiation Knowledge comparison Knowledge sharing Social interaction ZPD Socialization Internalization Externalization Knowledgebase Combination Cognition connection

Fig. 1.A model of knowledge innovation in OLC

4.1 Individual Knowledge Innovation Layer in OLC

Any knowledge innovation begins with the individual. According to Nonaka, Takeuchi and Konno (2000), new knowledge is produced through continuous con-version between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. There are four modes of knowledge conversion. They are: (1) socialization, from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge; (2) externalization, from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge; (3) combination, from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge; and (4) inter-nalization, from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge.

Internalization of individual knowledge. Internalization of individual knowledge is a process that a learner converts explicit knowledge in online course content and knowledgebase into tacit knowledge. By reading course materials, watching video, operating simulation, practising and testing online, searching knowledgebase, the learner forms individual internalized knowledge and experi-ences and builds personal knowledge foundation.

Combination of individual knowledge.That individual creatively uses tech-nological tool, online course and knowledgebase OLC offered, can promote com-bination and conversion between explicit knowledge, produce new viewpoints and improve information processing. “An online program offers a structural config-uration that meets the purpose of the course and the learners’ needs”(Kearsley and Lynch, 1996).Knowledgebase helps individuals to reconfigure and create new knowledge of existing knowledge. A concept map tool enables knowledge struc-turization and visualization.A tool of data processing makes knowledge into un-derstanding data, chart, formula and text.The OLC environment with search tool “allow online learners to determine the browsing sequence, to add to the

(6)

information for making it more personal, or to build and structure nodes and links, thereby forming a network of ideas in the knowledge base”(Jonassen, 2000). Externalization of individual knowledge. Externalization means the learner converts tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and makes contribution of knowledge to OLC. Externalization is mainly triggered by a social situation, more typical one begins with discussing question or putting forward miscon-cept.In this way, the learner can put forward new analysis and solution around the problem, externalizes one’s own knowledge and explains own viewpoints around misconcept.Generally speaking, externalization is also the reorganized process of individual knowledge. Externalizing individual knowledge also occurs through establishing learning notes, reﬂective logs, operation programs, visual presentations, E-mails, multimedia, reports and discuss records. Tacit knowl-edge that the learner externalized is stored in knowlknowl-edgebase at the same time in order to share and search for other learners.

Socialization of individual knowledge. Socialization of individual knowl-edge focuses on individual converting tacit knowlknowl-edge into OLC’s tacit knowlknowl-edge or explicit knowledge, “reinforce shared understanding across the group” (Con-sway and Whittingham, 2001). In OLC, Knowledge can be tacit (Sorensen and Lundh-Snis, 2001) and become explicit through interaction (Schwen, Kalman et al., 1998), and be transferred through participation in social groups (Sorensen and Lundh-Snis, 2001) too. Learner’s experiences and know-how knowledge can be exchanged and shared synchronously or asynchronously through such as con-versation, dialogue and meeting in OLC, which strengthens cognition of social sharing and new insight, and so creates and exchanges tacit knowledge. For ex-ample, discussion boards help other learners to learn the course topics, integrates knowledge into the learning environments by the common understanding, shar-ing values, beliefs, languages, and ways of doshar-ing thshar-ings (Trentin, 2001) that forms the basis for discussion and knowledge exchange (Consway and Whittingham, 2001).

4.2 Collaborative Knowledge Innovation Layer in OLC

Knowledge sharing. The concept framework of collaborative knowledge inno-vation begins with the sharing of individual knowledge. The individual learner enters OLC only through sharing externalized,socialized, combined and external knowledge, and the OLC environment supports learners to create knowledge through exploring other learners’ knowledge. Knowledge sharing is a process both which expands individual and whole OLC knowledge storage through knowl-edge exchanges and which understands knowlknowl-edge produced in other learner’s learning process. Knowledge sharing reﬂects OLC learners contribute individual tacit and explicit knowledge to OLC, so that other learners can get, thus forming the foundation of knowledge sharing. In OLC, each learner is not only a pro-ducer of knowledge but also a sharer of knowledge. Because there are none but all learners’ contributed knowledge positively, OLC will have more knowledge

(7)

that will be accumulated, thus each learner could share more knowledge. But-ler(2001) noted that “the knowledge sharing activity is an important construct for explaining the dynamics of a virtual community since without some forms of community knowledge sharing activity, any virtual community will fail to sur-vive”. Reinforcing OLC will offer the ideal chance for the learner to put into knowledge sharing, to keep OLC knowledge being in the state of activating, to develop tacit and explicit knowledge so as to transmit other learners. Cummings (2003) identifies five primary contexts that can affect such successful knowledge sharing implementations, including: the relationship between the source and the recipient,the form and location of the knowledge, the recipient’s learning predis-position, the source’s knowledge sharing capability, and the broader environment in which the sharing occurs. Generally, there are several ways of sharing knowl-edge as following:(1)utilizing the forum, chat-room, electronic meeting, E-mail to exchange;(2)question-leading tacit knowledge sharing, namely OLC learners share tacit knowledge on the particular issue and artifacts or communicate their thought processes; and (3) Sharing the produced new opinion after learning from course content and knowledgebase.

Knowledge comparison. Comparison of knowledge needs to examine extant knowledge and knowledge shared, because there has knowledge being identiﬁed, valid and reusable in knowledgebase. To the knowledge shared, OLC learners will compare, clarify and ponder over their own understanding and methods of treating knowledge again. Through comparing, learners know about their diﬀer-ences between views and explanations, elaborate questions, clarify concepts, and generate creative collisions which will be the beginning of process of knowledge innovation. Individual learner explains the result of knowledge comparison in detail and posts it on discuss board, and other learners in OLC, through read-ing,elaborating, questioning and criticizing knowledge,make decisions,appraisals and criticisms of the thought,the fact and the solution.

Knowledge negotiation. Knowledge negotiation focuses on knowledge arti-facts in OLC to be developed into the one other acceptable state. After the comparative stage of knowledge, being different views and conflicts, OLC learn-ers engage in the process of negotiation of knowledge aiming at obtaining new knowledge, and they discern difference and similarity, produce abundant, com-mon understanding, and reduce the field disagreed with. Negotiation enables one another more understanding the viewpoint and the question each holds, adopts meta-cognitive statement presenting construction of new knowledge and reflecting fields that are agreed or disagreed with, and reaches the sharable understanding and the common vision. There are three kinds of methods of reaching consensus in negotiation of knowledge: quick consensus building, integration-oriented consensus building and conflict-oriented consensus building (Weinberger and Fischer, 2006). Quick consensus building is a method which the learner can accept others’ contribution, not because he/she is convinced or indicates a real change of perspective, but in order to negotiate continuously. Integration-oriented consensus building characterized by receiving the views of

(8)

various fields, occurs when the learner gives up or revises initial beliefs and cor-rects one’s own view based on other learners’ contributions. An indication for integration-oriented consensus building is that“participants show a willingness to actively revise or change their own views in response to persuasive argu-ments”(Keefer, Zeitz and Resnick, 2000). Conflict-oriented consensus building is that learners need to more closely operate on the reasoning of others instead of simple acceptance of their contributions, and need to pinpoint out specific aspects of other learners’ contributions and modify them or present alternatives. Knowledge creation. Knowledge creation is a continuous, self-transcending process through which one transcends the boundary of the old self into a new self by acquiring a new context, a new view of the world, and new knowledge(Nonaka, Toyama and Konno, 2000). Effective knowledge creation needs OLC learners to:

– change their cognitive frameworks;

– examine, verify and negotiate innovative knowledge by continuous interac-tion;

– compare and contrast with the views stated before;

– deal with and synthesize through arguing, consulting and reaching identical knowledge;

– oﬀer views, ideas not considered before or put forward new understanding to existing knowledge;

– discuss the value of view, hypothesis and possible solution; – strengthen knowledge;

– pay attention to wrong logic and expanded debate;

– promote problem-solving of diﬀerent situations on the basis of the original, ﬂexibility and deduction;

– produce creative problem solution or external structure of new knowledge. Knowledge integration. Knowledge integration refers to integrating innova-tive knowledge or solution of consensus into OLC knowledge that any learner can access, integrating knowledge produced in previous stages to form new knowl-edge, reconstructing existing thoughts or views from a new perspective, engaging in and reflecting different thoughts that others put forward, connecting their ex-isting knowledge to a series of new knowledge obtained, and building new mean-ing. Knowledge integration itself is a source of new knowledge which can produce combined different kinds of knowledge resources. The methods of knowledge in-tegration include synthesis, reflection and diffusion, the focus of inin-tegration is to make the cooperative effect of knowledge resource promote the innovation ability of OLC, and form the new foundation of application.

4.3 Intermediary Layer of Knowledge Innovation in OLC

Social interaction. Social interaction in OLC includes two dimensions of knowledge innovation and social development. From the perspective of knowl-edge innovation, personal knowlknowl-edge and ability are not isolatively but inter-actively obtained from others who formed the social network. In that context,

(9)

knowledge innovation is the creation of knowledge as a social product (Scar-damalia and Bereiter, 1996), is a social process and is not merely limited to individual(Nonaka, Takeuchi and Konno, 2000). Social interaction offers oppor-tunities for OLC learner to criticize, prove and help the individual learner to reach what themselves can not, and it enables “covert abstract processes vis-ible, public and manipulable and serves as a necessary catalyst for reflective meta-cognitive activity”(Puntambekar et al.,1997). Knowledge innovation ac-tivities are recursive processes including building knowledge, identifying and solving important problems, sharing results, discussing thoughts and making elaboration in OLC. The learner acquires particular knowledge and enhances meta-cognitive abilities of subject through detailing, constructing, collaborating and reflecting. From the perspective of social development, success of OLC is not so reliant on the static ‘stock’ of knowledge, but rather on the dynamic social processes through which knowledge is enhanced and renewed(Gray and Densten, 2005). Social interaction play an important role in determining that the OLC forms and develops, “social interaction and consequently the social (psycholog-ical) processes may give rise to a social space through affiliation, impression formation, and interpersonal attraction that may end in social relationships and group cohesion”(Kreijns and Kirschner, 2001).

Knowledgebase. Knowledgebase as OLC learners’ public knowledge assets is the results that OLC knowledge accumulates gradually. Sources of knowledge-base include: knowledge which the teacher prefabricates; knowledge which the learner produces in the course of learning; knowledge which the learner obtains from the outside; and knowledge which the community innovates. It supports knowledge of comparison, creation, combination and decision, solves problem, promotes learners’ conversations, and produces potentials such as innovative knowledge. The learner can:

– establish and operate knowledgebase;

– engage in the activity of knowledge expression;

– organize information in one’s own way that can be understood; – promote high order thinking and the meaningful learning connection; – create new knowledge and form new cognitive structure and schema. So, the environment of knowledgebase needs learners to reﬂect personal knowl-edge, state learning intentions and release thoughts to public knowledgebase. Rights of accessing public knowledgebase are equal to all learners, but the dif-ference depends on how learners interact with knowledgebase and use methods of searching the knowledge.

Cognition connection. The knowledge innovation is a complicated informa-tion processing activity which needs learner’s cogniinforma-tion participainforma-tion and cogni-tion conneccogni-tion. The cognicogni-tion conneccogni-tion refers to cognitive input/output. In order to solve problem in learning and innovate knowledge, the learner needs cognitive activities such as building question space, concept space and relation-ship between them. OLC culture forces learners to exchange their cognition

(10)

connections in an explicit way. The cognition connection reflects the concrete processing activity, and learners must deal with selection, organization and syn-thesis. Each learner’s cognition connection is organized so as to be got by other learners in OLC easily. Generally speaking, there are three kinds of basic ac-tivities of cognition connection (Schellens and Valcke, 2005):(1) Presentation of new information. Learners present information that is new in the context of the discussion. Further distinction is made between the presentations of informa-tion about facts, experiences or opinions and theoretical ideas. (2)Explicitainforma-tion. This is a type of communication that reflects a further refining and/or elabora-tion of earlier ideas. (3)Evaluaelabora-tion. This type of written messages corresponds to a critical discussion of earlier information or ideas. It goes beyond a simple confirmation or negation and reflects argumentations, reasonings, justifications. Zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the distance between learner’s present actual development level and potential development level. In OLC, there are individual ZPD and collective ZPD. In individual ZPD, as to the learner who wants to participate but can’t indepen-dently create knowledge, he/she needs capable learners in OLC to offer helps or supporting resources, thus creating knowledge which reaches the potential level. In collective ZPD, the learners in OLC can form the intelligence collective, all learners participate and collaborate together to create the new knowledge which surmounts collective ZPD of the whole community by utilizing mutual potentials.

5 Conclusions

OLC is the important environment of knowledge innovation which can realize production, sharing, application and innovation of knowledge. This knowledge innovation is a concept of daily perspective and a simple innovative activity, so there is a great diﬀerence from the original activity of knowledge innovation in scientiﬁc research.

The model of knowledge innovation in OLC must integrate viewpoints of knowledge creation and management, cognitive and social constructivism. Knowledge innovation in OLC includes two sub-processes of individual knowl-edge innovation and collaborative knowlknowl-edge innovation, which are mediated by cognition connection, ZPD, social interaction and knowledgebase. Individual knowledge innovation, which is diﬀerent from SECI, begins with internaliza-tion, via combinainternaliza-tion, externalization and socialization. In collaborative knowl-edge innovation, learners of OLC share, compare, negotiate, create and integrate knowledge together.

Acknowledgments. This study was part of the research project of “Models and Practice of Knowledge Innovation in Online Learning Community” by the grant from the 11th 5-Year Plan for Tianjin Educational Development (C023).

(11)

References

1. Afhuah, A.: Redefining firm boundaries in the face of the Internet: Are firms really shrinking? Academy of Management Review 28, 34–53 (2003)

2. Butler, B.S.: Membership Size, Community Activity, and Sustainability: A Resource-based Model of Online Social Structures. Information Systems Re-search 12, 346–362 (2001)

3. Consway, B., Whittingham, V.: Managing Knowledge and Learning at Unipart. Knowledge Management Review 4, 14–17 (2001)

4. Cummings, J.: Knowledge Sharing: A Review of a Literature (2003),

http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/oed/knowledge eval literature review.pdf

5. Fahey, L., Prusak, L.: The Eleven Deadliest Sins of Knowledge Management. Cal-ifornia Management Review 40, 265–276 (1998)

6. Gray, J.H., Densten, I.L.: Towards an Integrative Model of Organizational Culture and Knowledge Management. International Journal of Organizational Behavior 9, 594–603 (2005)

7. Jonassen, D.H.: Computers as Mind Tools for Schools: Engaging Critical Thinking, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2000)

8. Kearsley, G., Lynch, W.: Structural Issues in Distance Education. Journal of Ed-ucation for Business 71, 191–196 (1996)

9. Keefer, M.W., Zeitz, C.M., Resnick, L.B.: Judging the Quality of Peer-led Student Dialogues. Cognition and Instruction 18, 53–81 (2000)

10. Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P.A.: The Social Aﬀordances of Computer Supported Col-laborative Learning Environments. In: 31th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Reno, Nevada, USA (2001)

11. Nonaka, I., Toyama, R., Konno, N.: SECI, Ba and Leadership: a Uniﬁed Model of Dynamic Knowledge Creation. Long Range Planning 33, 5–34 (2000)

12. Puntambekar, S., Nagel, K., Hbsher, R., et al.: Intra-group and Intergroup: An Exploration of Learning with Complementary Collaboration Tools. In: Hall, R., Miyake, N., Enyedy, N. (eds.) Proceedings of Computer-supported Collaborative Learning, Toronto, Canada, pp. 207–214 (1997)

13. Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C.: Student Communities for the Advancement of Knowledge. Communications of the ACM 39, 36–37 (1996)

14. Schellens, T., Valcke, M.: Collaborative learning in asynchronous discussion groups: What about the impact on cognitive processing? Computers in Human Behavior 21, 957–975 (2005)

15. Schwen, T.M., Kalman, H.K., Hara, N., et al.: Potential Knowledge Management Contributions to Human Performance Technology Research and Practice. Educa-tional Technology Research and Development 46, 73–89 (1998)

16. Seufert, S.: Design and Management of Online Learning Communities (2002),

http://www.aib.ws.tum.de/euram/seufert paper.pdf

17. Sorensen, C., Lundh-Snis, U.: Innovation through Knowledge Codiﬁcation. Journal of Information Technology 16, 83–97 (2001)

18. Starbuck, W.H.: Learning by Knowledge Intensive Firms. Journal of Management Studies 29, 713–740 (1992)

19. Trentin, G.: From Formal Training to Communities of Practice via Network based Learning. Educational Technology 41, 5–14 (2001)

20. Weinberger, A., Fischer, F.: A Framework to Analyze Argumentative Knowledge Construction in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Computers & Edu-cation 46, 71–95 (2006)