• No results found

Immunization Handbook

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Immunization Handbook"

Copied!
56
0
0

Loading.... (view fulltext now)

Full text

(1)

1

Immunization Handbook

Federated States of Micronesia

Immunization

February 2009

The FSM Department of Health, Education and Social Affairs wishes to

acknowledge the contributions of the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the production of this handbook.

(2)

TABLE OF CONTENTS PROGRAM GOAL,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES ... 3

IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULES ... 4

Infant and Children Catch up schedule for children 4 months to 6 years Catch up schedule for children 7 years to 18 years NEW INFANT VACCINES Rotavirus vaccine Pneumococcal (PCV 7) ADULT AND ADOLESCENT VACCINES Influenza Pneumococcal disease Hepatitis b Rubella Adult tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis Human papillomavirus vaccine VACCINE ADMINISTRATION... 6

CONTRAINDICATIONS ... 7

ADVERSE EVENTS REPORTING SYSTEM ……… 8

VACCINE PROCUREMENT AND MANAGEMENT……… MONITORING AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS………… WHATAVACCINATORNEEDSTODO ... 11

HOW TO GIVE VACCINES SAFELY ... 17

BEFORE IMMUNIZING ... 22

PREPARE THE VACCINES ... 24

KEEP VACCINES AT THE RIGHT TEMPERATURE ... 26

MULTI DOSE VIAL POLICY ... 27

RECORD IMMUNIZATIONS GIVEN ... 29

THE IMMUNIZATION REGISTRY ... 30

REFRIGERATOR TEMPERATURE MONITORING PARENTS/PATIENT ADVISE ... 34

DTP. ... 34

(3)

3 Td. ... 35 OPV. ... 35 Hib ... 35 Hepatitis B. ... 35 BCG. ... 35 What to do. ... 35

ADVERSE EVENTS FROM IMMUNIZATIONS ... 36

VACCINE-PREVENTABLE DISEASES ... 36

VITAMIN A SUPPLEMENTATION ... 43

INFANTS BORN TO HBV CARRIER MOTHERS ... 44

(4)

PROGRAM GOAL

 

To improve child survival and health by controlling or  eliminating targeted vaccine preventable diseases in the  Federated States of Micronesia 

 

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

• To immunize all infants and children against the  following diseases:    tuberculosis,     hepatitis     B,  Haemophilus influenzae   type   b,   poliomyelitis,  diphtheria,   tetanus, pertussis, rotavirus, influenza,  pneumococcal disease, measles, mumps and rubella.  • To protect all pregnant women against tetanus and 

rubella. 

• To provide vaccines free of charge for the target  populations. 

• To provide safe immunization using vaccines that  have been   stored   and   transported   at   the  recommended temperature and are correctly  prepared and administered. 

• To introduce new vaccines, as appropriate based  on assessment of disease burden, cost‐effectiveness,  and affordability. 

(5)

5

IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULES

Infants and children 

Age  Vaccine 

Birth  BCG, Hep B1* 

2 months  OPV1, DTaP1, HepB2, Hib1,PCV7, Rotavirus  4 months  OPV2, DTaP2, Hib2, PCV7, Rotavirus 

6 months  OPV3, DTaP3, Hep B3, PCV7, Rotavirus  12 months  OPV4, DTaP4, Hib3, MMR1, PCV7  13 months  MMR2**  School entry  (5‐6 yrs)  DTaP5***  Adolescent   (15‐19 yrs) 

Tdap or Td,  HPV for girls 

 

*First dose of Hepatitis B vaccine is to be administered within 12 hours of birth and the second dose within 2 months of birth.

** Second dose MMR may be given anytime after 30 days of first dose. ***Fifth dose of DTaP recommended if fourth dose given before age 4 years.

(6)

Catch‐up Schedule for Children 

 

Age 4 months   through 6 years 

Minimum Interval Between Doses     Minimum  Age for  Dose 1    Dose 1 to  Dose2 

Dose 2 toDose3  Dose 3 to  Dose 4  Dose  4 to  Dose  DtaP   6 wks  4 wk 4wk 6 mo  6 mo IPV/OPV  6 wks  4 wk 4 wk 4 wk  HepB   Birth  4 wk 8wk MMR   12 months  4 wk Hib   6wk  4 weeks: if first dose given  at age <12  months.   8 weeks: (as  final dose) if  first dose at age  12‐14 months.     No further dose  needed if first  dose given ≥15  months.  4 wk: if current age  <12mo    8 wk (as final  dose) if current  age >12 mo and  second dose  given at age<15  mo.     No further  doses needed: if  previous dose  given at >15mo.  8wk (as final  dose) 

This dose only  necessary for  children age  12 mo‐5yr who  received 3  doses before  age 12 mo.    Pneumo  PCV7    (Prevnar)  6wks 4 weeks: if  first dose  given at age  <12 months  and current  age<24 months 8 weeks (as  final dose)  if first dose  given at age  ≥12 months or  current age 24  – 59 months.    No further  doses needed  for healthy  children if  first dose  given at age ≥  24  months. 4 weeks: if  current age<12  months    8 weeks(as final  dose) if current  age ≥12 months.   No further  doses needed  for healthy  children if  first dose  given at age ≥  24  months.  8 weeks: This  dose only  necessary for  children aged  12 months‐5  years who  received 3  doses before  age of 12  months.    Rotavirus  6 wks  4 wks 4 wks 4wks   

(7)

7

Catch‐up Schedule for Children  

Age 7 through 18 years in the FSM 

 

Note: Hib and Pneumococcal vaccines are not recommended for children over 5 years. First dose of rotavirus vaccine must be given before 12 weeks and all three doses must be completed before 32 weeks.

Minimum Interval Between Doses  Vaccine  Dose 1 to 

Dose 2 

Dose 2 to  Dose 3 

Dose 3 to Booster Dose 

Td:       4 weeks  6months  6 mo: if first dose given at age  < 12 mo and current age < 11 y.   

5 yrs: if first dose given at age  >12 mo and third dose given at  age <7 yrs and current age >11  yrs. 

 

10 yrs: if third dose given >7 yr.

OPV:         4 weeks  4weeks    HepB:        4 weeks  8weeks    MMR:       4 weeks     

(8)

NEW INFANT VACCINE

Rotavirus Vaccine 

 A new vaccine for rotavirus was approved by the ACIP in  February 2006 is now available in the FSM.  Rotavirus  infections can result in severe non‐bloody diarrhea, usually  preceded or accompanied by vomiting and fever.  

Transmission is presumed to be by the fecal‐oral route and  no specific antiviral therapy is available.  Rotavirus 

gastroenteritis most commonly occurs in infants and children  between 4 and 24 months.  Virtually all children are infected  by 3 years of age.   

The licensed pentavalent rotavirus vaccine is an oral vaccine  that contains 5 live reassortant rotaviruses.  This oral vaccine  is normally given at 2, 4, and 6 months of age.  The timing of  this vaccine is very tight.  The first dose must be given before  12 weeks of age and all three doses must be completed before  32 weeks. 

Pentavalent rotavirus vaccine is provided in a squeezable  plastic dosing tube with a twist off cap designed to allow for  the vaccine to be administered directly to infants by mouth.   Each tube contains a single 2‐mL dose of the vaccine as a  liquid buffered‐stabilized solution that is pale yellow in color  but may have a pink tint.  This formulation protects the  vaccine virus from gastric acid and stabilizes the vaccine,  allowing for storage at refrigerator temperatures (2°C‐8° C)  for 24 months.  Pentavalent rotavirus vaccine should be  administered as soon as possible after being removed from  refrigeration.  

Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV7) 

Prevnar is the brand name for this vaccine marketed by  Wyeth Pharmaceuticals.  This vaccine protects against  pneumococcal disease; clinical syndromes include  pneumonia, bacteremia, and meningitis.  While this 

organism attacks all age groups the highest rates of invasive  pneumococcal disease occurs among young children, 

especially those younger than 2 years of age.  

(9)

9 routine childhood immunizations. 

Newborns:    A three dose primary series at  2, 4, 6,  followed by a booster dose at 12 to 15 months. (same  schedule as HiB).   

Unvaccinated children 7 – 11 months; should receive 2  doses at least 4 weeks apart, followed by a booster dose at  12‐15 months. 

Unvaccinated children  12 – 23 months; should be  vaccinated with two doses separated by 8 weeks.  (no  booster) 

Unvaccinated healthy children 24 ‐59 months: should  receive a single dose of PCV7.   

PCV7 (Prevnar) is never given after the fifth birthday. 

Adult & Adolescent Vaccines

Immunization programs throughout the world have 

dramatically reduced many childhood infections.  However,  the disparity between the impacts of vaccine‐preventable  diseases of adults compared with those of children is 

striking.  Vaccinations are not only for children.  Each year in  the United States alone over 50,000 to 70,000 adults die of  influenza, pneumococcal infections and hepatitis.  These are  all vaccine–preventable diseases.   

Influenza 

Influenza (Flu) is a highly infectious viral disease.  Classical  influenza has an incubation period of 2‐3 days and is 

characterized by abrupt onset of fever, myalgia (mainly back  muscles), sore throat, nonproductive cough and headache.   These systemic symptoms and fever usually last 3 or 4 days,  rarely more than 5 days.  The most common complication of  flu is secondary bacterial pneumonia. Primary viral 

pneumonia is an uncommon complication with a high  fatality rate.  Other complications include myocarditis  (inflammation of heart) and worsening of chronic bronchitis  and other chronic pulmonary diseases.  In the USA death rate  is 0.5 to 1 per 1,000 cases.  The elderly are at greatest risk of  death.  Persons over 65 years of age account for over 90% of  deaths attributed to influenza and pneumonia.  While the 

(10)

death rate is high in older adults, the hospitalization rates for  children under 12 months of age are also high. (Therefore, flu  shots are recommended for children 6 months to 23 months  of age.)  Unlike areas with temperate climates such as the US  mainland, Japan and Australia, the tropical FSM has no “Flu  Season”.  The risk of influenza transmission is the same  throughout the year. 

Two types of influenza vaccine are available in the USA;  Trivalent Inactivated Influenza vaccine, (TIV, injection) and  the Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (aerosol mist).  There  is no evidence that one form is more effective than the other,  however, only TIV is available from the FSM Department of  Health. 

TIV is recommended for all persons 50 years of age and  older, all children 6 ‐23 months of age and pregnant women.   Persons 6 month of age and older with a chronic medical  condition should also receive TIV annually.  These chronic  conditions include: 

• Pulmonary illnesses, such as emphysema, chronic  bronchitis, or asthma. 

• Cardiovascular illnesses, such as congestive heart  failure 

• Metabolic diseases, including diabetes mellitus 

• Renal dysfunction 

• Hemoglobinopathy, such as sickle cell disease 

• Immunosuppression, including HIV infection 

• Any condition that compromises respiratory function  or handling of respiratory secretions.  

Annual FLU SHOTS may be administered to anyone (over  age 6 months) wishing to avoid influenza.  Since there is no  “Flu Season” in the FSM the vaccine can be administered  year‐around but always respecting the vaccine’s expiration  date. 

Pneumococcal Disease 

Streptococcus pneumoniae causes an acute bacterial infection  which occurs throughout the world.  S. pneumoniae is a  human pathogen with the reservoir believed to be in the  nasopharynx of asymptomatic human carriers.  Transmission  is by direct person‐to‐person contact via the respiratory 

(11)

11 droplets and by autoinoculation in persons carrying the  bacteria in their upper respiratory tract. 

The major clinical symptoms of pneumococcal disease are  pneumonia (infection of lungs), bacteremia (infection in  blood), and meningitis (infection of brain coverings).  

• Pneumococcal pneumonia is the most common clinical  presentation of pneumococcal disease in adults.  

Symptoms generally include an abrupt onset of fever  and chills or rigors.  Other symptoms include chest  pains; cough productive of mucopurulent, rusty  sputum, shortness of breath, rapid breathing, rapid  heart rate, malaise and weakness.  The case‐fatality  rate is 5% ‐ 7% and may be much higher among  elderly persons 

• Pneumococcal bacteremia occurs in about 25% ‐ 30%  of all patients with pneumococcal pneumonia.  The  overall case‐fatality rate is about 20% but may be as  high as 60% among elderly patients. 

• Pneumococcal meningitis causes 13%‐19% of all cases  of bacterial meningitis in the USA.  Symptoms include  headache, lethargy, vomiting, irritability, fever, 

seizures and coma.  Case‐fatality is about 30% but may  be as high as 80% among the elderly.  Long‐term  neurological damage is common among survivors.  

•  

Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPV23) should be  administered routinely to all adults 65 years of age and older.   The vaccine is also indicated for persons 2 years of age and  older with normal immune systems that have a chronic  disease, including cardiovascular disease, pulmonary  disease, diabetes, alcoholism, cirrhosis, or spinal fluid leak.   Most recipients need only a single lifetime dose of PPV23.  Hepatitis B 

Adult Hepatitis B vaccine candidates include: 

• Men who have sex with men 

• Heterosexual with multiple partners 

• Persons diagnosed with an Sexually Transmitted  Disease 

(12)

• Injection drug users 

• Inmates of long‐term correctional facilities 

• Person receiving hemodialysis 

• Healthcare workers  

• Household members of chronically infected  persons(carrier) 

 

The usual schedule for adults is two doses separated by no  less than 4 weeks, and a third dose 4‐6 months after the  second dose.  The first and third dose must be separated by  no less than 16 weeks.  Adults 20 years of age or older should  receive 1 mL (10 mcg) of pediatric or adult formulation 

Recombivax HB (Merck) or 1 mL (20 mcg) of adult  formulation Engerix‐B (GlaxoSmithKline). 

Rubella 

Prevention of Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS) is the  main objective of the rubella vaccination program in the  FSM.  Rubella can be a disastrous illness in early pregnancy,  leading to fetal death, premature delivery, and an array of  congenital defects.  Spontaneous abortion and stillbirths are  common.  Screening for MMR can be part of prenatal care  but administer the vaccine only after delivery.  After delivery  but before discharge, all women should be vaccinated with  MMR if they do not have proof of two doses of this rubella  containing vaccine (rubella as a single antigen is not available  in the FSM).  This will protect the fetus during the next 

pregnancy. 

Adult Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis Vaccines (Tdap: 

Boostrix® and Adacel®) 

Following a complete childhood DTP series of five doses, a  booster of Td is recommended at age 11‐12 years and every  ten years thereafter.  Two new Tdap products were 

approved for adolescents and adults in 2006.  Currently Tdap  is a one time only dose.  This vaccine is now recommended  as a routine substitute for a single Td dose in adults.  All  subsequent boosters should be Td vaccine.  In order to  reduce the pertussis risk to their new baby, immediate  postpartum vaccination with Tdap vaccine is also  recommended for new mothers, fathers and other adult 

(13)

13 household members.  A “tetanus shot” has been given as  standard wound management in emergency rooms and  clinics for decades.  For adults who require tetanus‐

containing vaccine as part of wound management, a single  dose of Tdap is preferred to Td if they have not previously  received Tdap. 

Human Papilloma Vaccine  

This new vaccine protects against infection from four strains  of human papilloma virus (HPV), which are known to cause  about 70 per cent of cases of cervical cancer as well as cancers  of the vulva and vagina, and genital warts.  This new, very  expensive vaccine is now available in the FSM. 

ACIP Recommendations for the Use of Quadrivalent HPV  Vaccine: 

• Routine vaccination with three doses of quadrivalent  HPV vaccine is recommended for females 11‐12 years  of age.  The vaccination series can be started in 

females as young as 9 years of age.  

• Catch‐up vaccination is recommended for females 13‐ 26 years of age who have not been vaccinated 

previously or who have not completed the full vaccine  series.  Ideally, vaccine should be administered before  potential exposure to HPV through sexual contact.  The FSM is conducting a HPV catch‐up campaign in  2009. 

• Each dose of quadrivalent HPV vaccine is 0.5 mL,  administered intramuscularly.  

• Quadrivalent HPV vaccine is administered in a three  dose schedule.  The second and third doses should be  administered 2 and 6 months after the first dose.  Once  the series has started it is never necessary to repeat a  dose.  The body’s immune system will “remember”  the previous dose(s).  

• Quadrivalent HPV vaccine can be administered at the  same visit when other age appropriate vaccines are  provided, such as Tdap, Td and MCV4.  

• At present, cervical cancer screening 

recommendations have not changed for females who  receive quadrivalent HPV vaccine.  

(14)

 

Special situations:  

• Quadrivalent HPV vaccine can be given to females who  have an equivocal or abnormal Pap test, a positive Hybrid  Capture II® high risk test, or genital warts.   

Vaccine recipients should be advised that data from clinical  trials do not indicate the vaccine will have any therapeutic  effect on existing Pap test abnormalities, HPV infection or  genital warts.  Vaccination of these females would provide  protection against infection with vaccine HPV types not  already acquired.  

• Lactating women can receive quadrivalent HPV vaccine.  

• Females who are immunocompromised either from  disease or medication can receive quadrivalent HPV  vaccine.  However the immune response to vaccination  and vaccine effectiveness might be less than in females  who are immunocompetent.  

 

Pregnancy:  

• Quadrivalent HPV vaccine is not recommended for use in  pregnancy.   

The vaccine has not been associated causally with adverse  outcomes of pregnancy or adverse events to the developing  fetus. However, data on vaccination during pregnancy are  limited.  Any exposure to vaccine during pregnancy should  be reported to the CDC vaccine pregnancy registry at (1‐800‐ 986‐8999).  

Contraindications to use of HPV vaccine:  

• Quadrivalent HPV vaccine is contraindicated for people  with a history of immediate hypersensitivity to yeast or to  any vaccine component.  

 

Pregnant women 

Pregnant women who have been vaccinated with 3 or more  doses of tetanus containing vaccines (DTP, DTaP, DT or TT)  should receive an additional dose of TT during the 

pregnancy if the last dose was more than 10 years ago, up  to a total of 5 doses. Pregnant women who have no 

(15)

15 history of receiving tetanus vaccine as a child or adult, or  have received only 1 or 2 doses of tetanus containing vaccine  should follow the schedule below based on the number of  doses received.                           

Schedule for Women with no previous doses of Tetanus Vaccine.

1st dose: at first contact (even early pregnancy 2nd dose; at least 4 weeks after 1st dose

3rd dose: at least 6 months after second dose or during next pregnancy. 4th dose: at least 1 year after 3rd dose or during subsequent pregnancy 5th dose: at least 1 year after 4th dose or subsequent pregnancy

(16)

 

VACCINE ADIMINSTRATION

• Use a sterile syringe and needle, for every injection.  The needle should not be recapped, nor the 

syringe and needles ever separated.    Used injection  equipment is to be placed in a safety box and 

destroyed by incineration. 

• Reconstituted vaccines (BCG, MMR) must be kept  cool and protected from light and discarded at the  end of 6 hours.   The vaccine and the diluent must be  from the same manufacturer. 

• Multi dose vials of OPV, DTP, TT and Hep B 

vaccines can be used for up to 4 weeks, provided that  all the following is fulfilled: 

1. The expiry date has not passed  2. Vaccines are stored at an appropriate 

temperature. 

3. The VVM, if attached, has not changed color    enough to be discarded 

4. Aseptic technique has been used to withdraw  all doses 

5. The   punctured   vial   septum    has   not    been submerged in non‐sterile water (ice water  etc). 

6. Date of first opening must be specified on the  Label. 

All EPI vaccines may be given at the same time without  affecting safety or efficacy. The vaccines should not be  mixed in the same syringe and must each be given in a  separate site. When a child is overdue for several  vaccines, they should be given at the same visit. 

All staff routinely administering vaccines should be  trained and have a copy of the FSM Immunization  Handbook for ready reference. 

CONTRAINDICATIONS

 

There are very few true contraindication (reasons for not  giving a vaccine) and precaution conditions.  Only two are 

(17)

17 generally considered to be permanent: severe allergy to a  vaccine component or severe allergic reaction following a  prior dose of a vaccine, and encephalopathy (infection of  the brain) within 7 days of pertussis vaccine. 

• Mild   illness   or   fever   is   not   a   contraindication  to immunization.   However, a child who is very  unwell, or who has a high fever (>38.5°C) should not  be immunized. 

• A child with previous anaphylactic reactions to a  vaccine should not receive that vaccine. 

(18)

ADVERSE EVENTS REPORTING SYSTEM

The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (USA) of 1986 applies to the Federated States of Micronesia. All vaccine providers are required to report adverse events following immunization. The vaccine adverse event reporting system (VAERS) seeks to capture all clinically significant medical events occurring post-vaccination. The

immunization coordinators in the four FSM states have the VAERS reporting forms to be filed out and sent to the FSM immunization program manager.

VACCINE PROCUREMENT & MANAGEMENT

Vaccine procurement is the responsibility of the State Immunization Coordinator and the National Immunization Program Manager. Vaccine requirements are to be estimated annually, and submitted to the National manager. Most vaccines are procured through the CDC contract system, while BCG and OPV are procured from UNICEF.

• A vaccine arrival report is to be completed for all international vaccine arrivals, and a decision made by the Immunization Program Manager as to the quality of the vaccine before use in the FSM. A computerized vaccine inventory with lot numbers, and expiration dates is to be maintained at the national and state level.

Vaccines are to be protected from thermal damage during storage

and transportation (conditioning of ice packs, monitoring and adjustment of cold chain equipment temperatures). Vaccine storage temperatures

are to be monitored two times a day (morning and afternoon) and records kept for 12 month.

• Vaccines are to be transported by airfreight from the national vaccine store in Pohnpei to the states. Shipment by sea should be used only when air transportation is not an option, such as to the outer islands.

(19)

19

Cold chain equipment is procured according to WHO/UNICEF standards. A national cold chain equipment inventory is kept that specifies: location, model and power source, working condition, age and expected future life. This information is reviewed and update annually, and used to plan for equipment placement, maintenance and long-term replacement.

MONITORING & PERFORMANCE

INDICATIORS

All immunizations are to be recorded on the child’s immunization card, in the clinic register and entered into the Web IZ computerized database. Data on immunizations administered in each state is to be conveyed to the national level using the Web IZ monthly report. At all sites where vaccines are administered, target populations should be calculated based on birth registrations and censuses by the public health nurses. Immunization coverage should be reviewed monthly for all antigens, and children that have missed vaccinations should be identified for immediate follow up.

The National Immunization Program manager sets the denominator used at the national level based on birth registrations and the census.

Performance indicators and targets Coverage:

• Hospital based Birth dose of Hepatitis B within 12 hours (99 %).

• Second dose of Hepatitis B within 2 months (95 %).

• Fully immunized children by the age of 2 year (95 %)

• Two doses of MMR by the age of 2 years (MMR1 100% and MMR2 95%)

• Number of State Immunization Programs submitting completed monthly reports on time (100%)

Vaccine management:

• Vaccine outages at the national level (zero% for all antigens)

• Number of doses of vaccine used (administered plus wastage) is within +/- 5% of the estimated vaccine requirements (100% for each vaccine)

• Vaccine wastage for all single dose antigens (5% or less)

(20)

• Vaccine arrival reports for international shipments completed (100%)

• Number of times monthly reports indicate that cold chain equipment is working at each site for the full month (12 months per year for each site).

• Number of days per year cold chain equipment temperature outside recommended range. (less than 12 days per year)

Immunization Safety

• Number of reported VAERS reports that are investigated and classified (100 %)

(21)

21

SCHOOL IMMUNIZATION LAWS

The school immunization law of the Federated States of Micronesia (Title 41 FSMC Chapter 4) as amended in 1997 requires that all children attending school have a valid School Immunization Certificate. The State Departments of Health issues this certificate after the student has received: 5 doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine, 4 doses of polio vaccine, 3 doses of hepatitis B vaccine and 2 doses of measles-mumps-rubella vaccine. Exemptions:

3.1 A child may be exempted from obtaining the required immunizations upon submission of a written statement from a licensed physician that the present condition of the child is such that the required immunizations would endanger the life or health of the child. The statement shall contain following information:

a. The name of the child, a list of the antigens for which the exemption is requested, specification of the condition that would be exacerbated by the immunization(s) and a determination when, or if, the child’s condition will allow immunization at a future date.

3.2 Any child granted an exemption shall be excluded from school during those periods when there exists an outbreak of the disease(s) for which they have been exempted from immunization. The child shall be allowed to return to school when the danger of infection has passed.

3.3 No child shall be exempted from immunizations on grounds of religious or personal beliefs, which either oppose immunizations or the concept of immunization

against communicable diseases. Part 5. Provisional Certificates

5.1 The immunizations listed in section 2.1 require multiple dosages with specific minimum time intervals between

each dosage. All children, whether currently enrolled or newly registering in school, and who have not completed the regiment of immunizations required by these regulations, shall receive a provisional School Immunization Certificate. The certificate shall be clearly marked with the word “provisional”, until such time as the full regiment of immunizations has been completed.

5.2 A provisional School Immunization Certificate shall

remain valid only as long the child adheres to the minimum time intervals required by the immunization schedule. No child with a valid provisional certificate shall be denied admittance to school for failure to comply with these regulations.

(22)

WHAT A VACCINATOR NEEDS TO DO

CHECK LIST OF ACTIVITIES 1. Before vaccinating Plan for the immunization session

Calculate vaccine supplies needed, especially for outreach session Keep vaccines at right temperature (+2°C to +8°C)

Check the child’s name, date of birth and address

Check   what   vaccines   the   child  needs according to the vaccination  card or the vaccination register 

(23)

23 Check the vaccine (and diluent if it is to be reconstituted) Tell the mother about the vaccine, likely reactions, and treatment Prepare the vaccines

2. Vaccinating > Give the right vaccines safely > Make sure that you give the

vaccine in the right site of injection according to the vaccine ordered 3. After vaccinating

> Discard used injection equipment safely

> Record the immunizations given on vaccination card and register. Submit data to CASA clerk for computer entry.

> Tell the mother when to come back for the next immunization

4. After the session

> Report the immunizations every month

> Review coverage progress and identify problems

> Plan strategies to immunize children who have missed out > Make referrals for children that

have transferred out of the district or state.

(24)

• Make enquires about children with suspected EPI diseases. Document and report promptly by phone to the EPI Manager

Vaccines given to children

Age given       BCG         HepB*    OPV      Hib      DTaP    MMR 

Birth  V  V        2 months    V  V  V  V      4 months      V  V  V      6 months    V  V    V      12 months      V V V V   13 months      V  

School entry (5‐6 yrs)      V      Adolescent    (15‐19 

yrs)       

 

  Where given  How  Dose  Type  Appearance 

BCG  Left upper arm  Intradermal  0.5 ml  Live virus  powder +  diluent 

White, cloudy  liquid 

HepB*  Right upper arm  IM  0.5 ml  Inactivated  White, cloudy  17

(25)

25

      Ready‐to use liquid 

OPV  Oral  Oral  2 drops  Live Virus  Vial with  dropper

Clear, pink, or  orange liquid  Hib  Left upper thigh  IM  0.5 ml  Inactivated 

ready to use 

Clear, slightly  cloudy liquid  DTaP  Left upper thigh  IM  0.5 ml  Inactived 

ready to use 

White, cloudy  liquid 

MMR  Left upper arm  SC  0.5 ml  Live virus  powder +  diluent 

Clear, slightly  yellow liquid  Td  Left upper arm  IM  0.5 ml  Inactivated 

ready to use 

White, cloudy  liquid 

• Hep B should be given within 12 hours of birth. If not given at the time of birth, it should be given as soon as possible in the first week of life.

** DTaP should be given in the left upper arm to children over one year of age

Tetanus Toxoid for Pregnant Women

Adults need 5 doses of tetanus containing vaccine (DTP, TT, DT or Td) for long term protection. Note that 3 doses of DTP (DTaP) before the age of one year count only as 2 adult doses.

Schedule for giving TT/Td vaccines to pregnant women:

• Pregnant women who have received no doses of tetanus containing vaccines should be vaccinated immediately (Td 1)

and follow the schedule above.

Pregnant women who have only received one dose of TT/Td more than one

month ago, should receive 1 dose of Td immediately (Td 2) and then follow the schedule above.

Pregnant women who have only received two doses of TT/Td (or 3 DTP

under the age of one year), should receive 1 dose of Td immediately (Td 3) if the last dose was more than 6 months ago and then follow the schedule above

(26)

• Pregnant women that have only received three doses of TT/Td (or 3 DTP under the age of one year plus one TT/DT or Td) and the last dose was more than a year ago, should receive 1 dose of Td immediately (Td 4) then follow the schedule above Pregnant women that have received four doses of TT/Td (or

3 DTP under the age of one year plus two TT/DT or Td) and the last dose was more than one year ago, should receive 1 dose of Td immediately (Td 5).

All women should be encouraged to complete the tetanus schedule for women whether they are pregnant or not. A woman who has

received 5 doses of tetanus toxoid containing vaccine is protected during her childbearing years regardless of if she was immunized when pregnant or not.

Vaccines in the delivery room

The nursing staffs in the hospital delivery room play an important role in the immunization programs of the FSM. The newborn infant should receive its first dose of Hepatitis B vaccine as soon as possible after birth (within 12 hours or less). This will protect those infants exposed to hepatitis during the birth process. In addition, BCG is administered at the same time.

MMR vaccine should be administered, after delivery, to any women without proof of prior vaccination. This will protect her fetus from rubella during future pregnancies.

HOW TO GIVE VACCINES SAFELY

HOW TO GIVE AN INJECTION 1. Wash skin that looks dirty with

soap and water. It is not

(27)

27

necessary to swab clean skin with alcohol or disinfectant.

2. Hold syringe barrel between thumb, index, and middle fingers. Do not touch the needle.

3. Insert needle with a smooth action.

4. Use thumb to push the plunger without moving the syringe around.

5. Pull needle out quickly and smoothly (less painful than doing it slowly)

6. Ask the parent to press the site gently with a clean swab for a

few seconds to stop bleeding and relieve pain.

7. Do not rub the area where the injection was given.

DTAP, HIB, PCV 7, OR HEP B VACCINE: INTRAMUSCULAR (IM) INJECTION IN THIGH

(28)

Position the child sideways on the parent’s lap with his or her whole leg bare. The child’s left arm should be tucked around the parent’s body. One of the parent’s arms should be tucked around the child supporting his or her head and

holding the right arm. The parent’s other hand should hold the child’s legs Gently stretch the skin flat between your thumb and forefinger of the middle third of the thigh.Quickly push the entire needle straight down through the skin and into the muscle.

MMR vaccine: subcutaneous (SC) injection

IN LEFT UPPER ARM

The injection is given into the layer below the skin (subcutaneous fat) on the left upper arm.

1. Position child sideways on parent’s lap with the whole arm bare.

2. The left arm should be tucked around the parent’s body.

3. One of the parent’s arms should be tucked around the child supporting his or her head and holding the left arm injection.

4. The parent’s other hand should hold the child’s legs. 5. Hold the top of the child’s arm from underneath. Reach

your fingers around and pinch up the skin.

6. Quickly push the needle into the pinched up skin- the

needle should point towards the shoulder.

7. To control the needle, support the end of the syringe with your thumb and forefinger but do not touch the needle.

BCG VACCINE: INTRADERMAL (ID) INJECTION IN LEFT ARM

(29)

29

The injection is given into the skin in the left upper arm.

1. Position child mother’s lap clothing from shoulder.

2. The mother should hold the child close to her body, supporting

his or her head and holding the arms close to the body.

3. Hold the syringe in your right hand with the bevel of the needle facing upwards.

21

sideways on  and remove  the    arm 

(30)

4. Stretch the skin out flat with your left thumb and forefinger.

5. Lay the syringe and needle almost flat along the child’s skin with the eye of the needle facing upwards.

6. Insert the tip of the needle

just under the skin -just past the bevel (the eye of the needle).

7. Keep the needle FLAT along the skin, so that it goes into the top layer of the skin only. Keep the bevel of the needle facing up.

8. Do not push too far and do not point down or the needle will go under the skin and an abscess or enlarged glands may result.

9. To hold the needle in position, put your left thumb on the lower end of the syringe near the needle, but do not touch the needle.

10. Hold the plunger end of the syringe between the index and middle fingers of your right hand. Press the plunger in slowly with your right thumb. If done correctly, a small pale lump should form in the skin.

11. Remove the needle. 22

(31)

31

OPV ADMINISTRATION

1. Ask the parent to hold the child with the head supported and tilted slightly back.

2. The chin and cheeks should be dry: OPV is less likely to

spill out.

3. Open the child’s mouth gently, either with your thumb on the chin (for small infants) or by squeezing the child’s cheeks gently between your fingers

4. Let 2 drops of vaccine fall from the dropper onto the tongue. Do not let the dropper touch the child. More than one injection at the same visit

All the different EPI vaccines are safe and effective when given at the same time. For example, a child aged 1 year who has never been immunized can receive during one visit to a clinic:

1. BCG in left arm

2. Measles/ Mumps/ Rubella in the right arm

3. DTaP (left thigh) and HepB (right thigh) Hib (left arm)

4. OPV1 (orally)

5. Prepare all injections (so they can all be given one after other). Do not mix different vaccines in one syringe

6. Give injections, as needed, in this order: • BCG • Measles/Rubella • DTP • Hepatitis B • Hib

3. Give OPV last (when child is crying) 23

(32)

Use auto-disable syringes (ADs)

There are several types of disposable syringes. The standard syringe and the auto disable (ADs). The AD syringes can only be used one time because the plunger cannot be retracted once it has been pushed in. All syringes should be discarded in a safety box together with needles and sharps immediately after use.

You do need to:

• Throw the needle cap and piston cap in the safety box - do not recap the needle

• Do not touch the tip of the needle or let it touch any surface.

• Dispose of syringe and needle into the safety box immediately after use You do not need to:

• Inject air before vaccine

• Draw back the piston to check for blood.

TD VACCINE (Adolescent and Pregnant Women)

Tetanus vaccine (Td) is given into the left arm to children when they leave school (15 - 19 years) and pregnant women with no or an incomplete history of tetanus immunization

1. Ask the child or woman to sit down. 24

into a vial withdrawing

(33)

33 2. Tell them to drop their shoulder and place their left hand

behind their back or resting on the hip. This relaxes the muscle in the arm and makes the injection nearly painless.

3. Put your finger and thumb on the OUTER part of the upper arm.

4. Use your left hand to squeeze up the muscle of the arm.

5. Quickly push the needle straight down through the skin between your fingers. Go deep into the muscle.

6. Press the plunger with your thumb to inject the vaccine.

7. Pull out the needle quickly and smoothly and ask the child/woman to press the site gently with a cotton pad in case of bleeding and also because gentle pressure relieves pain.

BEFORE IMMUNIZING

CHECK WHAT VACCINES THE CHILD NEEDS 1. Look at the child’s immunization card and clinic register 2. Identify which vaccine series have not been completed. 3. If they have no card, give them one. Mark the vaccines,

only if you are certain they have been given.

4. Give all vaccines due. If more than one type of vaccine is needed, they may all be given at the same time.

5. Doses of the same vaccine must be at least four weeks apart.

Check the vaccine

1. Is this the correct vaccine for the child? 2. Is the vial/ampoule in good condition?

• Discard damaged vials/ampoules and those with no label 3. Check the label to see that

(34)

a. the expiry date has not passed b. VVM, if present (see below)

• Discard vaccine if past expiry date or if VVM past ’discard point”

4. Look at vaccine - check for colour and particles

• Discard vaccine with any change in appearance or presence of particles and lumps that will not dissolve. Explain to mother about the vaccine, likely reactions and treatment

1. Explain to the mother what disease(s) the vaccine(s) protects from.

2. Reassure the mother that reactions are common and show that the child is responding well to the vaccine. 3. Advise treatment for fever, pain/swelling at injection site.

a. Give extra fluids e.g. more breastfeeds or water b. Paracetamol may be given.

c. Extra hugs and attention - but keep pressure off the area(s)

d. Cold cloth on the injection site is soothing for local reaction

4. Tell mother to bring child to health centre if reaction continues for more than a day or two, or if it is more

serious.

PREPARE THE VACCINES

Always start by washing your hands with water and soap and dry them well with a clean cloth.

(35)

35 1. Shake the vial to mix the

contents. Do not touch the rubber top.

2. Insert the needle and turn the vial upside down. Do not touch the needle.

3. Gently pull the plunger to fill the syringe just over the 0.5 ml mark (to be able to remove the air).

4. With the needle still in the vial pointing upwards, tap the

syringe to bring any air bubbles to the top of the vaccine. Gently push the piston to remove air and excess vaccine from the syringe.

5. Stop exactly at the 0.5 ml mark

TO RECONSTITUTE BCG AND MEASLES/MUMPS/RUBELLA VACCINES The diluent for reconstituting BCG and MMR vaccines comes in ampoules, bot0tles, or plastic tubes. Cool the diluent to the same temperature as the vaccine before mixing or keep the diluent with vaccine in the vaccine carrier.

1. Check that the diluent matches the vaccine: from the same manufacturer.

2. Draw up amount of diluent required into mixing syringe. 3. Inject all the diluent into the vial.

4. Roll the vial between your fingers to mix the vaccine and diluent.

5. Place used mixing syringe and needle into the safety box. Do not leave mixing needle in vial.

Keep reconstituted vaccine cool between+ 2 to +8 degrees and away from sunlight. Discard reconstituted vaccines

27

within six hours or at the end of the session, whichever comes sooner. Note: When using multi dose vials reconstitute vaccine also when you only have one or few children to immunize. Do not delay immunization in order to save vaccines. Do not reconstitute vaccine until the child is ready for immunization.

Plan outreach immunization session

1. Inform municipal and island officers of the date and time of the immunization visit

2. Arrange how to get to the outreach site.

3. Check from the register book, the list of children for immunization and the number of target children; and the number of pregnant women for TT/Td immunization. 4. Work with the village health volunteers to make sure that

all the children turn up.

5. Check materials, equipment and vaccines.  

• Vaccine carrier and vaccine.

• Syringes- 0.5 ml and 0.05 ml (and needles, if not attached to syringes)

• Reconstitution syringes with needles- 5 ml and 2 ml

• Safety boxes

• Immunization register book for children

(36)

• Handout leaflets on reactions to the vaccines to mothers

 

6. Arrange the immunization site and waiting area, ensuring that site is suitable and with everything needed within reach.

7. After the session:

• Pack any unopened vaccines, together with any opened vials of TT, DTP, OPV with good VVM 28

(37)

37 and that has not been contaminated (dirty syringe or submerged in water), back in the cold box.

• Collect used materials to return to health centre. • Thank the local people who have helped organize

the session and remind them when you will return. 8. At the Health Centre:

• If the ice packs are still frozen, put unopened vials in the “returned” box in the refrigerator so they will be used first during the next session.

• If the ice in the ice packs has melted, discard all vaccines EXCEPT for any in vials carrying VVMs that are not past discard point. Return these vaccines to the refrigerator for use during the next session.

• Put ice packs from carrier into the freezer and check and record the temperature of the refrigerator.

KEEP VACCINES AT THE RIGHT TEMP.

Vaccines must be stored at the right temperature (+ 2°C to + 8°C). To keep vaccines cold during outreach sessions, special boxes are used called Skis. The temperature inside the box is kept cold by ice packs.

A foam pad fits on top of the ice packs in a vaccine carrier. When the carrier lid is open, the foam pad keeps the vaccines inside cold.

(38)

HOW TO LOAD A VACCINE CARRIER

 

1. Remove ice packs from freezer and let them sit at room temperature for about 30 minutes before drying them and placing them in the vaccine carrier.

2. Place the ice packs along each side of the vaccine carrier.

3. Place OPV, measles/Mumps/rubella vaccine and BCG at the bottom of the vaccine carrier.

4. Place DTaP and TT/Td at the top of the vaccine carrier. Do not let vials touch the ice packs. Wrap newspaper or cardboard around them to protect them from freezing. 5. Place a foam pad on top of the ice packs. 6. Make sure that the vaccine carrier is tightly shut.

MULTI DOSE VIAL POLICY

Whenever feasible the FSM Immunization Program uses single dose vials. However, when multi dose vials are provided the program has the following policy:

1. Opened vials of OPV and opened vials of DPT, Td, TT, Hepatitis B, and Hib vaccines packaged according to

Close the lid. Place ice

into carrier.

(39)

39 manufactures standards, should be used in subsequent immunization sessions, provided that:

a. The expiry date has not passed and,

b. The vaccines are stored under the appropriate cold chain conditions (2-8 degree centigrade) and, c. The vaccines are not taken out of the Public Health clinics for immunization activities (e.g. outreach).

d. However, no vial should be used after one month of opening

2. Opened vials of measles (M), Measles Mumps and Rubella (MMR), and BCG vaccines must be discarded six hours after reconstituted.

3. If sterile procedures have not been fully observed or if there is a suspicion that an opened vial of vaccine has been contaminated, it must be discarded immediately. HOW TO USE THE VACCINE VIAL MONITOR

Innei square is lighter than outer ring. USE the vaccine, if expiry date nol reached. As lime passes: Inner square is stilt lighter than ouiernng.

USE the vaccine if expiry date nol

Discard point: Inner square matches the CQIQUI

of outer ring.

DO MOT use the vaccine.

Beyond Hie discard point: Inner square is darfcei Itianouler ring

DO NQT use the vaccine.

The vaccine vial monitor (VVM) allows health workers to check whether the vaccine has been damaged by heat. The VVM

(40)

gradually changes color with heat and gives an indication when the vaccine should not be used.

Discard used injection equipment safely

1. Prepare the safety box and place it within reach in the area where you are immunizing.

2. Place needle cap in the safety box. Needles should never be recapped.

3. Place the syringe and needle directly into the safety box after immunizing.

4. Fill the safety box to about % full - a safety box can hold about 150 used syringes

5. When the safety box is filled, close the lid and seal the box.

6. Return the safety box to the health centre for destruction.

RECORD IMMUNIZATION GIVEN

The immunization should not be recorded until after it has been given. 1. Complete the child’s yellow immunization card by recording

the date for each vaccine

2. Remind the mother to keep the yellow card in a safe place and always to bring it when going to the health centre or hospital.

3. Record the date that each vaccine is given in the register Ensure child returns to complete the immunizations

(41)

41 1. Tell mother how many more visits needed to protect the child 2. Advise when fully immunized

3. Tell mother the place, date, and time of next session 4. Answer mother’s concerns and advise on possible reactions

and treatment and give the mother a handout leaflet Report the immunizations

At the end of each month, every State Immunization Program should complete and submit an immunization coverage report, which is programmed in WebIZ to the National Program Manager.

THE IMMUNIZATION REGISTRY

The National Immunization Program introduced its first computerized immunization registry in 1999 called CASA. In 2007, it was replaced by a Web based registry call WebIZ. With the new registry it is possible to keep records of individual children in a national database. The purpose of the registry is to improve coverage further by identifying children that have not been immunized in time. Children will be entered in the Web IZ registry in two ways, through information in the child’s birth certificate and by reports from the public health nurses providing immunization. The registry has the ability to generate monthly reports of vaccines administered by age, list of children late for immunization, provide individual immunization records, and even print Immunization Certificate for students. By using the internet it is expected that the immunization programs in all four FSM states will have access to the records in other states. It is also foreseen that Guam and Hawaii will someday share immunization records.

Review coverage progress & problems

1. Identify problems by talking with community leaders, village health committees, parents and other health workers.

(42)

2. Plot coverage to check the percentage of people immunized and how the number of immunizations given compares with targets.

3. Check the register of names to see who is missing out on their immunizations.

Plan strategies for those missing out

1. Identify the target population = the number of infants born the

previous year.

2. Estimate number missing by using WebIZ to generate not-up- to-date children list.

3. Develop strategies and plan activities to ensure these children are reached. Consider:

• Increasing people’s knowledge about immunization

• Changing hours of immunization sessions so more convenient

Involving community health workers in solving transport

problems

• Remind parents or asking community leaders to remind parents that have not brought their children for immunization

4. Monitor progress in reaching these children Search for children with EPI diseases

Ask in the village if there have been any cases of:

• Acute flaccid paralysis

• Fever and Rash (measles or rubella)

• Néonatal/maternel tetanus

(43)

43

REFRIGERATOR TEMPERATURE MONITORING

If you suspect a case of EPI diseases you should :

1. Ask to see the child and document the history. The history should include the date of onset, symptoms and signs of illness and immunization history

2. Enquire about other cases in the family and in the community

3. Find out if the child has traveled to other state(s) in FSM or abroad in the last few weeks

4. Report the case to the EPI Manager immediately by phone. It is important that you report the case even if the mother tells you that she has already taken the child to the hospital or to see a doctor.

The refrigerators temperature should be checked two times a day (morning and afternoon) to ensure that it is in the safe range of +2 to + 8 deg. Celsius. • If the temperature is too high (above 8 deg. C):

1. Make sure that the refrigerator is working 2. If the refrigerator is working, turn the thermostat

knob so that the arrow points to a HIGHER number. This will increase the amount of cooling and make the refrigerator colder

3. Check the VVMs on the vaccines to see if they have been damaged

4. If the refrigerator is not working, store vaccines in an other place until the refrigerator is repaired • If the temperature is too low (below 2 deg. C):

1. Turn the thermostat knob so that the arrow points to a LOWER number. This will decrease the

(44)

amount of cooling and make the refrigerator warmer.

2. Check DPT, Hep B, DPT and TT/Td for freezing using the shake test.

If adjusting the thermostat still does not make the refrigerator stay between + 2 to + 8°C, you should contact your supervisor. Cleaning the refrigerator

Clean the refrigerator at least once every three months. Soak a cloth in soap and warm water and use it to clean the interior of the refrigerator and its fittings. Never use detergents, scouring powder, strongly scented products to clean the interior of the refrigerator as they may damage the surfaces. The exterior of the refrigerator should be wiped clean regularly, using a damp cloth and a small quantity of detergent. The door seals should be cleaned only with soap and water and then thoroughly dried. The cooling unit behind the refrigerator should be cleaned with a brush to remove any dust.

Defrosting

Check the formation of ice in the refrigerator every week and, defrost the refrigerator if 3 mm thick or more. To defrost the refrigerator, turn it off and remove all items. Do not use any sharp objects to scrape off the ice as this may damage the refrigerator walls. As the ice melts, water from the refrigerator will collect in a container at the back of the refrigerator. When all ice has melted, wipe the refrigerator dry and restart it. If you have to defrost more than once a month, the door seal may be faulty or the door may be being opened too frequently.

(45)

45

PARENTS/PATIENT ADVISE

Any injection may result in soreness, redness, itching, swelling or burning at an injection site for 1 or 2 days. Sometimes a small, hard lump may for some weeks or more. This is no cause for concern. Common adverse events following immunization and what to do about them:

DTP

Usually mild and transient • Within 24 hours

• Localized pain, redness and swelling at injection site

• Low grade fever

Being grizzly, unsettled and generally unhappy - may

persist for 24 to 48 hours

• Drowsiness

**The new DTaP has fewer side effects and is now the standard vaccine in the FSM

MMR

• Discomfort at the injection site

• Usually transient and mild

The following may occur 5 to 12 days after vaccination

• Low grade fever

Faint rash (not infectious) • Head cold and/or runny nose

• Cough and/or puffy eyes

• Swelling of the salivary glands Usually mild and transient

(46)

• Localized discomfort, redness and swelling at the injection site

OPV

• Very rarely any adverse event

Occasional diarrhoea

HIB

• Usually mild and transient

• Localized discomfort, redness and swelling at the injection site

Hepatitis B

• Very occasionally soreness, redness at the injection site

• Low grade fever BCG

The BCG sore is normal. It develops about two weeks after injection, and remains for about two weeks. • Do not put anything on it. It heals by itself and a scar

develops. What to do

• Give extra fluids to drink

• Do not overdress the baby if hot

• Give paracetamol to lower the fever if needed

ADVERSE EVENTS FROM IMMUNIZATIONS

An adverse event following immunization (AEFI) is any event that happens during or after administration of a vaccine, and the vaccine may be the cause. Minor reactions, such as fever, local swelling and redness at the site of injection and crying, are common with immunizations. Parents should be informed about common reactions verbally at the time of immunization and should also be provided with a written information leaflet. More serious reactions must be documented on a VAERS form and

(47)

47

immediately reported to the EPI supervisor who will decide if further investigations are required.

Most AEFIs are not caused by vaccines but by other illnesses that would have happened whether the child had been immunized or not. (i.e. just a coincidence). Occasionally, an AEFI is caused by an error in the preparation, handling, or administration of the vaccine. For example, if a vaccine has been prepared with the wrong diluent or has been

contaminated by non-sterile handling, it may cause reactions. Such errors can be avoided by following good practice. Some reactions, especially in older children, come from the fear or pain of the injection. All suspected adverse events from immunization that are seen or reported to the health worker, should be documented and reported to the EPI Manager, as this may reflect a problem with vaccine quality or immunization practice.

VACCINE-PREVENTABLE DISEASES

Tuberculosis (Tb)

Description: Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The most important route of spread is through inhalation of droplets of pulmonary secretions from a coughing infective person. Close contact is normally required for transmission and the source of infection is likely to be a person within the family when a child is

diagnosed with Tb. People of all ages can contract Tb but young children are more susceptible to infection and they are also at higher risk of developing severe disease, such as Tb meningitis (brain infection), Tb osteitis (bone infection) or disseminated Tb (infection in many different parts of the body). Adults with Tb infection will usually have a chronic cough but young children often have indistinctive symptoms such as tiredness and failure to thrive

Vaccine: The BCG vaccine (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) is made from an attenuated (=weakened) strain of Mycobacterium bovis and was first developed in the early 20th century. BCG is a live vaccine, which

(48)

vaccine will multiply in the body after immunization and create an immune response. Immunization with BCG protects children particularly against the severe forms of tuberculosis but it will not prevent all cases of tuberculosis in a population.

Diphtheria

Description: Diphtheria is caused by the toxin (toxin=poison) producing Corynebacterium diphteriae bacterium. Transmission is by personal contact through droplets produced by coughing and sneezing. Crowding, poverty and poor access to health care are important risk factors for diphtheria. The typical patient with diphtheria is below 15 years of age and not fully immunized. Symptoms are sore throat, loss of appetite and slight fever. The severity varies with the site of infection and many infections are unapparent resulting in asymptomatic patients carrying and transmitting the infection for long periods. The serious forms include infections in the throat and tonsils causing swelling that can block the airways. A typical membrane is formed in the throat. Diphtheria can also infect the skin causing painful, red swollen sores not unlike impetigo.

Vaccine: The Diphtheria vaccine is a toxoid, that is the inactivated toxin produced by the Corynebacterium. When the diphtheria toxin is treated with formaldehyde it loses its ability to bind to cells and will no longer cause disease. The inactivated toxin induces a strong immune response with production of antitoxin antibodies. The anti-toxin antibodies will protect from the diseases since the mortality from diphtheria is caused by the toxin.

Tetanus

Description: Tetanus is caused by another toxin (poison) producing bacteria, Clostridium tetani, that lives in soil. The toxin binds to nerve cells in the spinal cord and the brain making muscles contract

involuntary. The muscle spasms interfere with breathing and swallowing and mortality is very high. The site of infection is often a skin lesion. A newborn baby can become infected if the umbilical cord is cut with a contaminated

(49)

49

instrument or infected material is used to dress the cord. This is called neonatal tetanus and symptoms appear three to ten days after birth. The first sign is that the baby is unable to suck because of muscle spasms in the throat and around the mouth. The spasms will increase and

eventually involve the entire body and few affected babies survive. Neonatal tetanus can be prevented if mothers are immunized against tetanus before or during pregnancy. Maternal antibodies against the tetanus toxin are then transported over the placenta to the baby during pregnancy and will protect the baby against tetanus until it has been immunized. After 20 years without tetanus, Pohnpei had two cases in 2003. A six-year-old child with no history of vaccination and a fatal case in newborn with a unvaccinated mother.

Vaccine: Tetanus vaccine is a toxoid, the inactivated form of the natural toxin produced by the tetanus bacteria. When the toxin is treated with formaldehyde it is no longer poisonous but it still induces an immune response. Anti-toxin antibodies protect from disease by inactivating the toxin produced by the bacteria. Like diphtheria, the disease tetanus is caused by the toxin produced by the bacteria.

Pertussis (WhoopinG cough)

Description: Whooping cough is caused by the Bordetella pertussis, bacteria that produce several different toxins. The infection is

particularly dangerous for infants because the intensive coughing can interfere with breathing and feeding. The illness starts with a runny nose, red eyes and low-grade fever. A cough develops over several days culminating with frequent episodes of intensive coughing. During severe attacks the face and hands of the baby may turn blue (cyanotic) due to lack of oxygen when the coughing interferes with breathing. Small blood vessels in the outer layer of the eye can break from the intensive coughing causing typical haemorrhages in the eye. Coughing and vomiting is exhaustive and the lack of oxygen can lead to brain damage in severe cases.

(50)

Vaccine: There are several different kinds of pertussis vaccine but they can be divided into two major groups, whole cell vaccines and acellular vaccines. Both types of vaccines are often combined with diphtheria and tetanus vaccine. The pertussis vaccine used in the FSM is of the whole cell/acellular type and comes in a combination with diphtheria and tetanus vaccines called DPT.

Hepatitis B

Description: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) spreads from person to person through body fluids and sexual contact without condom is an important route of infection. The virus can also spread from mother to child during delivery and breastfeeding. Hepatitis B virus can cause liver cirrhosis and liver cancer many years after the initial infection and infection with hepatitis B virus is the most important cause of liver cancer in the world. Infection with hepatitis B is common in the FSM and around 12% of the people tested for blood donation are positive for the infection. Hepatitis B immunization of newborns started in 1988. Vaccine: The vaccine used in the FSM is a recombinant DNA vaccine. Children are infected early in life and most transmission is from mother to child during and soon after delivery. It is therefore very important that the Hepatitis B vaccine is given as soon as possible after birth and every effort should be made to immunize all newborns within 12 hours. Infants born to mothers who are HbsAg-positive (Hepatitis B Carriers) are at extremely high risk of HVB transmission and chronic HBV infection. Hepatitis B Immune Globulin is provide to the exposed child within 12 hours of birth.

Measles

Description: Measles is caused by a virus that spreads easily via airborne droplets and through direct contact. Measles is most infectious during the 10-12 days incubation period when the infected person does not yet have symptoms. The first signs are high fever together with cough, runny nose, and red eyes. Small

(51)

51

white spots on the inside the cheeks called Koplik’s spots are typical for measles but they are not always seen. A rash consisting of small, elevated papules on red skin (maculo-papular rash), sometimes with a haemorrhagic centre, appears 2-4 days after the onset of fever. It starts on the head and spreads to the trunk and extremities. The rash fades in the same order it appeared, often with scaling of the skin. The infection can be complicated with pneumonia and diarrhoea and children with malnutrition are especially at risk of death. One of the goals of the EPI is to eradicate measles from the world. To do that it is very

important to report and investigate all cases of fever with rash to establish whether or not it is measles. If you come across a child with fever and rash, you should refer the child to the nearest hospital for testing.

Vaccine: Measles vaccine is a weakened (attenuated) live virus. Reconstituted measles vaccine is sensitive to heat. Maternal antibodies can interfere with the development of immunity and it is therefore important not to give the measles vaccine too early in life. At the same time you do not want to wait too long because it increases the risk that the child is infected with measles. Measles vaccine is often combined with vaccines against rubella and mumps. A combined

measles/mumps/ rubella vaccine (MMR vaccine) is used in the Federated States of Micronesia and it is given at 12 months of age with a second dose one month later. The last outbreak of measles in the FSM occurred in Chuuk in 1994 and killed 13 children.

Rubella

Rubella is a virus that is spread with respiratory droplets through the air. The illness is usually mild with low-grade fever and a rash that can be mistaken for measles rash. Other symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, tiredness and red eyes. The most serious consequences of rubella result from infection before birth. If a pregnant woman is infected with rubella, the virus will infect also the unborn child. There is a very high risk, especially if the infection occurred during the first three months of pregnancy, that the child could be born with

complications such as undeveloped brain, heart malformation, blindness and deafness.

References

Related documents

1989 - Digidesign launches the first digital audio workstation system, Sound Tools, for the Apple Macintosh.. The company refers to it as &#34;the first tapeless

The study was conducted with the aim to compare the CT findings with endoscopic findings in patients with chronic paranasal sinus disease, to compare the mucosal

Though several studies document positive impacts on intermediary outcomes such as food production and income and there is promising evidence on the interaction with

The theo- retical investigations had objectives aero-thermal analysis and evaluation of the engine airframe integration and reducing the temperature distribution (by this

Such data as well as data concerning the decision taken on my application or a decision whether to annul, revoke or extend a visa issued will be entered into, and stored in the

Features: Reflex reflector, Twin tail, Reverse, Direction indicator, Rear fog, Stop. Dimensions: 335mm(L) x 113mm(W)

In the coming decade, the development and effective diffusion of new agricultural technologies will largely shape how well farmers adapt to climate change