The History of World Music

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T H E C A M B R I D G E H I S T O R Y O F W O R L D M U S I C

Scholars have long known that world music was not merely the globalized product of modern media, but rather that it connected religions, cultures, languages, and nations throughout world history. The chapters in this History take readers to foundational historical moments – in Europe, Oceania, China, India, the Muslim world, North and South America – in search of the connections provided by a truly world music. Historically, world music emerged from ritual and religion, labor and life cycles, which occupy chapters on Native American musicians, religious practices in India and Indonesia, and nationalism in Argentina and Portugal. The contributors critically examine music in cultural encounter and conﬂict, and as the critical core of scientiﬁc theories from the Arabic Middle Ages through the Enlightenment to postmodernism. Overall, the book contains the histories of the music of diverse cultures, which increasingly become the folk, popular, and classical music of our own era.

P H I L I P V.B O H L M A Nis the Mary Werkman Distinguished Service Professor of Music and the Humanities at the University of Chicago, and Honorary Professor at the Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover. A pianist, he is the Artistic Director of the New Budapest Orpheum Society, a Jewish cabaret and ensemble-in-residence at the University of Chicago. Among his honors are the Edward Dent Medal, the Berlin Prize, the Derek Allen Prize from the British Academy, and the Noah Greenberg Award from the American Musicological Society. He is currently completing the volume Ethnomusicology for the Cambridge Introductions to Music series.

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T H E C A M B R I D G E H I S T O R Y O F

WORLD MUSIC

* E D I T E D B Y P H I L IP V . B O H L M A N

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Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521868488 © Cambridge University Press 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2013

Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

The Cambridge history of world music / edited by Philip V. Bohlman. pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN978-0-521-86848-8 (alk. paper)

1. World music – History and criticism. I. Bohlman, Philip Vilas.

ML3545.C26 2014

780.9–dc23 2013043745

ISBN978-0-521-86848-8 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,

and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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For our teachers,

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’

S H I S T O R I C A L T U R N 253

10 . Johann Gottfried Herder and the global moment of world-music history 255

11 . Tartini the Indian: perspectives on world music

in the Enlightenment 277

S E B A S T I A N K L O T Z

12 . The music of non-Western nations and the evolution of British

ethnomusicology 298

B E N N E T T Z O N

P A R T V M U S I C H I S T O R I E S O F T H E F O L K A N D T H E N A T I O N 319

13 . Korean music before and after the West 321

K E I T H H O W A R D

14 . Folk music in Eastern Europe 352

T I M O T H Y J. C O O L E Y

15 . A story with(out) Gauchos: folk music in the building of the Argentine nation 371

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P A R T V I A S I A N M U S I C H I S T O R I E S 395 16 . Four recurring themes in histories of Chinese music 397

J O N A T H A N P. J. S T O C K

17 . On the history of the musical arts in Southeast Asia 416

M A R G A R E T K A R T O M I

18 . Musicians and the politics of dignity in South India 441

K A L E Y M A S O N

P A R T V I I I N S T I T U T I O N S A N D P O L I T I C S O F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 473

19 . Images of sound: Erich M. von Hornbostel and the Berlin

Phonogram Archive 475

L A R S-C H R I S T I A N K O C H

20 . Music in the mirror of multiple nationalisms: sound archives and ideology in Israel and Palestine 498

R U T H F. D A V I S

21 . Repatriation as reanimation through reciprocity 522

A A R O N A. F O X

P A R T V I I I T H E G L O B A L I Z A T I O N O F W O R L D M U S I C I N H I S T O R Y 555

22 . Landscapes of diaspora 557

T I M O T H Y R O M M E N

23 . Suﬁsm and the globalization of sacred music 584

R E G U L A B U R C K H A R D T Q U R E S H I

24 . Global exoticism and modernity 606

W. A N T H O N Y S H E P P A R D

P A R T I X M U S I C A L D I S C O U R S E S O F M O D E R N I T Y 635 25 . Encountering African music in history and modernity 637

G R E G O R Y B A R Z

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26 . The politics of music categorization in Portugal 661

S A L W A E L-S H A W A N C A S T E L O-B R A N C O

27 . The world according to the Roma 678

M I C H A E L B E C K E R M A N

P A R T X M U S I C A L O N T O L O G I E S O F G L O B A L I Z A T I O N 703

28 . Disseminating world music 705

T R A V I S A. J A C K S O N

29 . Musical antinomies of race and empire 726

W A Y N E M A R S H A L L A N D R O N A L D R A D A N O

30 . Globalized new capitalism and the commodiﬁcation of taste 744

T I M O T H Y D. T A Y L O R

P A R T X I B E Y O N D W O R L D

-

M U S I C H I S T O R Y 765 31 . The time of music and the time of history 767

M A R T I N C L A Y T O N

32 . The ethics of ethnomusicology in a cosmopolitan age 786

K A Y K A U F M A N S H E L E M A Y

33 . Toward a new world? The vicissitudes of American popular

music 807

R I C H A R D M I D D L E T O N

Afterword: a worldly musicology? 826

M A R T I N S T O K E S

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Illustrations

0.1 Transcription of Tupinamba melody in de Léry 1578 page15

5.1 South Asia in Asia perspective. Joseph

Schwartzberg, A Historical Atlas of South Asia, Digital South Asia Library, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Courtesy of the Digital South Asia Library, http://dsal.uchicago.edu 126

7.1 Tupaia, [Musicians of Tahiti, June 1769] Four Tahitians: two dressed in the mare playing the nose ﬂute; two dressed in the tiputa beating drums. British Library, London. Add. MS. 15508, f. 10 189

7.2 Engraving by F. Bartolozzi after Giovanni Battista Cipriani, A View of the Inside of a House in the Island of Ulietea [Raiatea], with the representation of a dance to the music of the country (Hawkesworth 1773,II,

pl. 7 [fp. 265]) 190

7.3 Engraving by John Record after John Frederick Miller [Tools and instruments from the Society Islands] (Hawkesworth 1773,II, pl. 9, p. 213) 191

7.4 William Sharp, A Night Dance by Men in Hapaee/ J. Webber del.; W. Sharp sculp., London: s.n., 1784 193

9.1 Church of Our Lady of the Pillar, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais. Courtesy of Antonio Marciano

Ribeiro 231

9.2 A page from the manuscript of “Maria Mater Gratiae” by Marcos Coelho Netto, showing his signature and date. Courtesy of the Museu da

Inconﬁdência 233

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9.3 José Joaquim Emerico Lobo de Mesquita, Antiphona de Nossa Senhora, measures 22–31. Francisco Curt Lange, ed. 1951. Mendoza, Argentina: Universidad

Nacional de Cuyo 236

9.4 Manoel Dias de Oliveira, “Bajulans,” measures 1–8. Adapted from Mauricio Dottori, ed., n.d.,

unpublished manuscript 238

9.5 A “passo” in Campanha, Minas Gerais 239 9.6 The candombe drums. Courtesy of the Arturos

(photo by Lúcio Dias) 246

9.7 Vissungo no. 29, collected by Aires da Mata

Machado Filho 247

10.1a and 10.1b “O sanctissima!” – Sicilian sailor’s song (from Herder’s Nachlaß) 260

10.2 Herderian polymath identities 264

10.3 Additional Herderian polymath identities 264 10.4 Woodcut from the 1869 edition of Herder’s Cid translation – “El Cid in Valencia and in death”

(romance 49) 266

10.5 Lines 783 and 784 from the Poema de Mio Cid 271 10.6 Herder’s Cid, romance 68, lines 49–54 273 14.1 Béla Bartók recording songs in Zobordarázs

(Dražovce), Slovakia, with a wax-cylinder recorder, 1907. Photograph by Gyula Kósa and housed in the Bartók Archives of the Institute for Musicology, Research Centre for the Humanities, Hungarian Academy of Sciences,

Budapest 356

14.2 “Ozwodna” (c. circle dance), sung by Krzysztof Trebunia-Tutka, Zakopane, Poland, 2003 360 14.3 “Ganga,” sung by Azra Bandic´, Mevla Luckin, and

Emsija Tatarovic´ 361

16.1 Yang Yinliu’s A Draft History of Ancient Chinese

Music 400

16.2 Musicologist Shen Zhibai (photo by Zhao Jiaqin; published in Shen 1982, n.p.) 409

16.3 Section of a score for the nanyin chamber music

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18.1 M. T. Manoharan performs on the oboe-like kurum kul

¯al for a local Hindu teyyam at a sacred grove in Kannur District, Northern Kerala, March, 2004 (photo by Kaley Mason) 446

18.2 Religious festival organizers serve Malayan musi-cians in Kannur District, Northern Kerala. January, 2004 (photo by Kaley Mason) 455

19.1 Carl Friedrich Stumpf 476 19.2 Erich Moritz von Hornbostel 478

19.3 Three galvanos and copies made from them (photo by Dietrich Graf ) 482

19.4 Transcription by Carl Stumpf – “Siamese Nationalhymne” 483

19.5 Transcription by Erich Moritz von

Hornbostel 483

19.6 Edison phonograph for the home (c. 1905) (photo by Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz) 484

19.7 The “Hornbostel Black Box” 487

19.8 Measurements from a xylophone from Burma by

Hornbostel 488

19.9 Typescript of Hornbostel’s unpublished manuscript on experiments with music psychology 489 22.1 First Landing of Columbus, Theodore de Bry, 1596.

Copper engraving, tinted. From H. Benzano, Amaricae Retectio, Frankfurt 1596. akg-images. Used with permission 558

22.2 Flyer for Caribbean Festival ’07 (Philadelphia) 571

22.3 Poster for Philly Carnival ’07 572

22.4 “Landfall of Columbus,” Roots junkanoo group on parade, Nassau 2004 (photograph by André J. M. Major). Used with permission 580

27.1 The Czigany melody from the Uherská collection 682

27.2 Score of “Černý cigán” 690

27.3 Cover of original “Černý cigán” (1922) 691 27.4 Score of “Cigán” 692

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4.1a Species of melodic and rhythmic composition (Cleonides, Kindī) page109

4.1b Fārābī’s classiﬁcation of melodic frameworks (alh ̣ān) 109

4.1c Avicenna’s commentary on Aristotle’s Poetics 109 4.1d Ṣafī al-Dīn al-Urmawī’s classiﬁcation of Shudūd 109 4.2 The seven divisions of harmonics (Aristoxenus

and al-Kindī) 115

16.1 Summary of historical primary sources compared in this chapter 398

31.1 Interpretations of cosmic symbolism 770

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Contributors

VA N E S S AAG N E W is Associate Professor in Germanic Languages and Literatures

at the University of Michigan, where she works on the cultural history of music, the history of science, postcolonial theory, travel, and historical reenactment. Enlightenment Orpheus: The Power of Music in Other Worlds (2008), her monograph on Charles Burney and musical travel, received the Kenshur Prize for Eighteenth-Century Studies and the American Musicological Society’s Lewis Lockwood Award. Major fellowships include those from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, DAAD, Australian Research Council, and National Maritime Museum. Her current book project deals with a 1925 collecting expedition to Angola.

GR E G O R Y BA R Z is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at Vanderbilt

University and Professor at the Odeion School of Music, University of the Free State, South Africa. General editor of “African Soundscapes” (Temple University Press), he co-edited The Culture of AIDS in Africa: Hope and Healing in Music and the Arts (2011) and Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology (2nd edn, 2008). He published Singing for Life: HIV/AIDS and Music in Uganda (2006), Music in East Africa (2004), and Performing Religion: Negotiating Past and Present in Kwaya Music of Tanzania (2003) and is a Grammy-nominated producer for Singing for Life: Songs of Hope, Healing, and HIV/AIDS in Uganda (2007).

MI C H A E L BE C K E R M A N is Carroll and Milton Petrie Professor of Music at New

York University and Distinguished Professor at Lancaster University. He is the author of numerous books, including Janáček as Theorist (1994) and New Worlds of Dvořák: Searching in America for the Composer’s Inner Life (2003) and is currently writing on such subjects as composition in Terezín, musical middles, the way stories about disability aﬀect performance, and the genesis of “Happy Birthday.” ST E P H E N BL U M teaches in the music doctoral programs of the City University

of New York Graduate Center. He is the consulting editor for music of the Encyclopaedia Iranica and is currently completing a short book on Ethnomusicology and Music Theory to be published by Oxford University Press in the series “Theory in

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Ethnomusicology.” A Persian-language collection of his writings on Iranian musical practices will be published by the Mahoor Institute of Culture and Art in Tehran.

PH I L I P V . BO H L M A Nis the Mary Werkman Distinguished Service Professor of

Music and the Humanities at the University of Chicago, and Honorarprofessor at the Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover. A pianist, he is the Artistic Director of the New Budapest Orpheum Society, a Jewish cabaret and ensemble-in-residence at the University of Chicago. Among his honors are the Edward Dent Medal, the Berlin Prize, the Derek Allen Prize from the British Academy, and the Noah Greenberg Award from the American Musicological Society. He is currently completing the volume Ethnomusicology for the “Cambridge Introductions to Music.”

SA L W A EL- SH A W A N CA S T E L O- BR A N C O is Professor of Ethnomusicology and

Director of the Instituto de Etnomusicologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal. Her field research in Egypt, Portugal, and Oman resulted in publications on cultural politics, musical nationalism, identity, music media, modernity, and music and conflict. Recent publications include her edited four-volume Enciclopédia da Música em Portugal no Século XX (2010) and her co-edited Music and Conflict (2010). With Dieter Christensen she wrote Traditional Arts in Southern Arabia: Music and Society in Sohar, Sultanate of Oman (2009). She has served as Vice President of the Society for Ethnomusicology (2007–9) and of the International Council for Traditional Music (1997–2001, and 2009–13). She was elected President of the International Council for Traditional Music in 2013.

MA R T I N CL A Y T O N is Professor of Ethnomusicology at Durham University.

He has published widely on topics including North Indian classical music, rhythm and metrical theory, interactions between Indian and Western music, and the history of ethnomusicology. He is the author of Time in Indian Music: Rhythm, Metre, and Form in North Indian Rāg Performance (2000) and Music, Time, and Place: Essays in Comparative Musicology (2007), and the co-editor of The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction (2nd edn, 2012).

NI C H O L A S CO O K is 1684 Professor of Music at the University of Cambridge.

His books include Music: A Very Short Introduction (1998), which has appeared in fourteen diﬀerent languages, and The Schenker Project: Culture, Race, and Music Theory in Fin-de-siècle Vienna (2007), which won the Society for Music Theory’s 2010 Wallace Berry Award. His most recent book, Beyond the Score: Music as Performance, appears in 2013. He is a Fellow of the British Academy and of Academia Europaea.

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TI M O T H Y J . CO O L E Y is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at the

University of California, Santa Barbara, where he teaches courses on Polish and North American vernacular and popular musics. His book, Making Music in the Polish Tatras: Tourists, Ethnographers, and Mountain Musicians (2005), received the 2006 Orbis Prize for Polish Studies. He served as the Editor of the journal Ethnomusicology from 2006 to 2009. His current research considers how musical practices are combined with lifestyle sports to create meaningful aﬃnity groups with global reach and is the subject of his forthcoming book, Surﬁng about Music.

RU T H F . DA V I S is Reader in Ethnomusicology and Fellow and Director of

Studies in Music at Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge. She has published extensively on the music of the Arab and Jewish Mediterranean and the wider Middle East, especially on her ﬁeldwork in mainland Tunisia and the island of Djerba. Her most recent volume, A Musical Ethnography of British Mandate Palestine, 1936–1937, based on Robert Lachmann’s “Oriental Music” archive and broadcasting projects in Jerusalem, is published with A-R Editions (2013). She has recently held positions as a Fellow at the Yale Institute of Sacred Music and as a Scholar-in-Residence at the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center, Italy.

BE V E R L E Y DI A M O N D is the Canada Research Chair in Ethnomusicology at

Memorial University of Newfoundland where she established the Research Centre for the Study of Music, Media, and Place. Her research on indigenous music has ranged from Inuit drum dances, and Sámi joik, to indigenous audio recording and expressive culture in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on residential schools. She co-edited Aboriginal Music in Contemporary Canada: Echoes and Exchanges (2012). Among her other publications are Native American Music in Eastern North America (2008) and Music and Gender (2000). She was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2008, named a Trudeau Fellow (2009–12), and a Member of the Order of Canada (2013). She is President of the Society for Ethnomusicology (2013–15). AA R O NA . FO Xis Associate Professor of Music at Columbia University, where he

served as Director of the Center for Ethnomusicology from 2003 to 2008 and as Chair from 2008 to 2011. His research broadly focuses on language and music relations, working-class and popular culture, music and social identity, issues of place and subjectivity, ethnographic methodology, and semiotics and poetics. His recent work engages issues of cultural and intellectual property and the repatriation of Native American cultural resources. He is the author of Real Country: Music and Language in Working-Class Culture (2004).

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KE I T H HO W A R D is Professor of Music at SOAS, University of London.

Currently researching Korean dance and North Korean music, he has written or edited seventeen books, including Music as Intangible Cultural Heritage (2012), Singing the Kyrgyz Manas (with Saparbek Kasmambetov, 2011), Korean Kayagum Sanjo (with Chaesuk Lee and Nicholas Casswell, 2008), Zimbabwean Mbira Music on an International Stage (with Chartwell Dutiro, 2007), Creating Korean Music (2006), Preserving Korean Music (2006), and Korean Pop Music (2006). He founded and managed the SOASIS CD/DVD label and OpenAir Radio, and is editorial chair of the “SOAS Musicology Series” (Ashgate).

BE R N A R D OIL L A R Ihas taught at the University of North Texas since 2001, where

he specializes in Latin American music between 1600 and 1800. He is the author of Doménico Zipoli: Para una genealogía de la música “clásica” latinoamericana (2011), and the editor of Juan Pedro Esnaola’s Cuaderno de música (1844) (2009) and Música barroca del Chiquitos jesuítico (1998). He has published articles in the Revista Argentina de Musicología, of which he was founding co-editor, Revista de Musicología, Música e Investigación, and Resonancias, among others. He is the recipient of a career recog-nition award from the Konex Foundation (2009) and the Premio de Musicología “Casa de las Américas” (2003).

TR A V I S A . JA C K S O N is Associate Professor of Music and the Humanities at

the University of Chicago. He is the author of Blowin’ the Blues Away: Performance and Meaning on the New York Jazz Scene (2012). His other writings include essays on jazz history and historiography, intersections between jazz and poetry, Duke Ellington’s “travel suites” and world music, the politics of punk, and popular music and recording technology. He is currently conducting research for a monograph on post-punk music, graphic design, discourses of branding, and attitudes regard-ing race and empire in the United Kregard-ingdom between 1977 and 1984.

JA I M E JO N E S is a College Lecturer in Ethnomusicology at University College

Dublin, where she also coordinates the Masters in Diaspora Studies. She is a fellow of the Humanities Institute of Ireland and the Chair of ICTM Ireland. Her research has focused on music and religion in India. She is currently writing a book that addresses the performance and positioning of devotional Hindu musics in Maharashtra state, India.

MA R G A R E TKA R T O M I is Professor of Music in the Sir Zelman Cowen School of

Music at Australia’s Monash University, where she pioneered the study of Asian music and other aspects of ethnomusicology from 1969, was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities, and was awarded the Order of Australia and

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the Centenary Medal for services to music. Her books include On Concepts and Classiﬁcations of Musical Instruments (1990), The Gamelan Digul and the Prison-Camp Musician Who Built It (2002), and Musical Journeys in Sumatra (2012).

SE B A S T I A N KL O T Z is Professor of Systematic Musicology at the University of

Leipzig. His research interests are broadly interdisciplinary, including music and knowledge cultures, ecological theories of auditory perception, music and the technological unconscious, and comparative musicologies of the metropolis. He is the author of “Music with Her Silver Sound”: Kommunikationsformen im Goldenen Zeitalter der englischen Musik (1998) and Kombinatorik und die Verbindungskünste der Zeichen in der Musik zwischen 1630 bis 1780 (2006). He is the editor of Musik als Agens urbaner Lebenswelten: Musiksoziologische, musikethnologische und organologische Perspektiven (2008).

LA R S- CH R I S T I A N KO C H is Head of the Department of Ethnomusicology and

the Berlin Phonogram Archive at the Museum of Ethnology, Professor for Ethnomusicology at the University of Cologne, and Honorary Professor for Ethnomusicology at the University of the Arts in Berlin. His research focuses on the theory and practice of North Indian raga-music, organology, Buddhist music, the aesthetics of music in intercultural perspective, music and medicine, media and ethnomusicology, popular music and urban culture, historical recordings, and music archeology. Most recently, he is the author of My Heart Sings: Die Lieder Rabindranath Tagores zwischen Tradition und Moderne (2012). In 2012, he was the co-recipient of the Bruno Nettl Prize for the History of Ethnomusicology from the Society for Ethnomusicology.

PE T E R MA N U E L has researched and published extensively on musics of India,

the Caribbean, and Spain. His several books include Cassette Culture: Popular Musics and Technology in North India (1993) and Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey (1988), as well as two documentary videos on Indo-Caribbean music. Formerly an amateur performer of ﬂamenco guitar, jazz piano, and sitar, he has served as editor of Ethnomusicology and teaches ethno-musicology at John Jay College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York.

WA Y N EMA R S H A L L has held postdoctoral fellowships at MIT, the University of

Chicago, and Brandeis University, and he currently teaches in the Music Department at Harvard University. His work deals with media technologies, public spheres, and cultural politics vis-à-vis hip-hop and reggae and their global circu-lations. An active blogger at wayneandwax.com, he has published in the Journal of

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Popular Music Studies, Popular Music, and The Wire, among others, and co-edited Reggaeton (2009).

KA L E Y MA S O N is Assistant Professor of Music and the Humanities at the

University of Chicago. He is currently ﬁnishing the book The Labor of Music: South Indian Performers and Cultural Mobility, which examines how a subaltern performer caste merged feudal traditions of ritual servitude with modern practices of musical work in the Indian state of Kerala. He is also engaged in research that traces the relations between radical socialism and song in Malayalam popular music. He is the co-recipient of a fellowship from the Neubauer Family Collegium at the University of Chicago, which will be dedicated to the archeological analysis of early recordings of Indian music.

RI C H A R D MI D D L E T O Nis Emeritus Professor of Music at Newcastle University.

Having taught for many years at the Open University, he works principally in the areas of popular music and the cultural theory of music. Recent publications include Voicing the Popular: On the Subjects of Popular Music (2006), Musical Belongings: Selected Essays (2009), and a revised edition of The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction (co-edited with Martin Clayton and Trevor Herbert, 2012). He is a Fellow of the British Academy.

BR U N O NE T T L has taught since 1964 at the University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign, where he is now Professor Emeritus of Music and Anthropology. His research interests have been Native American music, the music of Iran, improvisation, and, recently, the intellectual history of ethnomusicology. Among his several books, the best known is The Study of Ethnomusicology (revised edition, 2005), and the most recent is Becoming an Ethnomusicologist: A Miscellany of Inﬂuences (2013). Recipient of several honorary doctorates, he is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and, in 2012, received the Haskins Prize of the American Council of Learned Societies.

RE G U L ABU R C K H A R D TQU R E S H Iis Professor Emerita of Music at the University

of Alberta, where she is also a member of the Religious Studies Advisory Council, a Research Fellow at folkwaysAlive!, and the Director of the Canadian Centre for Ethnomusicology. Her research interests include musical agency, poetics and politics, diaspora and globalization, South Asia, Canada, and Islam. Among her major publications are Suﬁ Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Context, and Meaning in Qawwali (1986, 1995), Music and Marx: Ideas, Practice, Politics (2002), and Master Musicians of India: Hereditary Sarangi Players Speak (2007). She is a Fellow of the Royal Canadian Society.

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RO N A L D RA D A N O teaches ethnomusicology at the University of

Wisconsin-Madison. His books include New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton’s Cultural Critique (1993) and Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music (2003). He is currently at work on a book, tentatively titled Properties of Animation: The Racial Feeling of US Black Music, and on a co-edited collection, Audible Empire: Music, Global Politics, Critique. He co-edits the book series “Reﬁguring American Music” (Duke University Press) and “Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology” (University of Chicago Press).

SU Z E L AN A RE I L Y is a Reader in Ethnomusicology and Social Anthropology

and Associate Director of the Latin American Studies Forum at Queen’s University Belfast. Her publications include the monograph Voices of the Magi: Enchanted Journeys in Southeast Brazil (2002), and the edited volumes Brazilian Musics, Brazilian Identities (2000) and The Musical Human: Rethinking John Blacking’s Ethnomusicology in the Twenty-First Century (2006). She has produced a website/ CD-Rom based on John Blacking’s ethnography of the Venda girls’ initiation school.

TI M O T H Y RO M M E N is Associate Professor of Music at the University of

Pennsylvania. He specializes in the music of the Caribbean, with research interests that include folk and popular sacred music, popular music, critical theory, ethics, mobility studies, diaspora, and the intellectual history of ethnomusicology. He is the author of “Mek Some Noise”: Gospel Music and the Ethics of Style in Trinidad (2007), which was awarded the Alan P. Merriam Prize by the Society for Ethnomusicology in 2008, and of “Funky Nassau”: Roots, Routes, and Representation in Bahamian Popular Music (2011).

KA Y KA U F M A N SH E L E M A Y is the G. Gordon Watts Professor of Music and

Professor of African and African American Studies at Harvard University. Her recent publications include Pain and Its Transformations: The Interface of Biology and Culture (co-edited with Sarah Coakley, 2007), Creating the Ethiopian Diaspora, a special double volume of the journal Diaspora (co-edited with Steven Kaplan, 2011), and Soundscapes: Exploring Music in a Changing World (3rd edn, 2013). Her 2009 article “The Power of Silent Voices, Women in the Syrian Jewish Musical Tradition” was awarded the Society for Ethnomusicology Jaap Kunst Prize. She was the national Phi Beta Kappa/Frank M. Updike Memorial Scholar for 2010–11.

W . AN T H O N YSH E P P A R Dis Professor of Music and Department Chair at Williams

College and Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of the American Musicological Society.

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His interests include twentieth- and twenty-first-century opera, film music, vocal timbre, and cross-cultural influence and exoticism. He has received the ASCAP Deems Taylor Award, the Kurt Weill Prize, and the Alfred Einstein Award, and his research has been supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Philosophical Society, and the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. He is author of Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theater (2001) and is completing Extreme Exoticism: Japan in the American Musical Imagination.

JO N A T H A N P . J . ST O C K is Professor and Head of the Department of Music at

University College Cork, Ireland, having recently served at the University of Sydney as Associate Dean for Research, Sydney Conservatorium of Music. His current research interests include the history of Chinese music, everyday musical life in Taiwan, and research ethics. He is author of two books on music in China and one world-music education textbook, as well as articles in these subject areas and in the ﬁelds of English traditional music, music analysis, and ﬁeldwork methods.

MA R T I NST O K E Sis King Edward Professor of Music at King’s College, London.

He is also Honorary Professor of Arts and Cultural Studies at the University of Copenhagen. His research interests lie in Europe and the Middle East, particularly in Turkey and Egypt. His The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music (2010) was awarded the Alan Merriam Prize from the Society for Ethnomusicology. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 2012.

TI M O T H Y D . TA Y L O R is Professor in the Departments of Ethnomusicology and

Musicology at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is the author of Global Pop: World Music, World Markets (1997), Strange Sounds: Music, Technology and Culture (2001), Beyond Exoticism: Western Music and the World (2007), and The Sounds of Capitalism: Advertising, Music, and the Conquest of Culture (2012), and is the co-editor, with Mark Katz and Tony Grajeda, of Music, Sound, and Technology in America: A Documentary History of Early Phonograph, Cinema, and Radio (2012). He is currently writing a book on capitalism, music, and social theory.

BO N N I EC . WA D Eis Professor of Ethnomusicology at the University of California

at Berkeley. She has published widely on India, including Music in India: The Classical Traditions (1979), Khyāl: Creativity within North India’s Classical Music Tradition (1984), and Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India (1998). She has held the Chambers Chair in Music and the Richard and Rhoda Goldman Distinguished Chair in Interdisciplinary Studies, and has twice served as Chair of the Department of Music, as well as Dean of the College

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of Letters and Science at Berkeley. She is a past president of the Society for Ethnomusicology.

BE N N E T TZO Nis Professor of Music at Durham University. He is General Editor

of Nineteenth-Century Music Review (Cambridge University Press) and the book series “Music in Nineteenth-Century Britain” (Ashgate). His research interests include nineteenth- and twentieth-century musical culture, with particular interest in British science, theology, and intellectual history. He has published The English Plainchant Revival (1999), Music and Metaphor in Nineteenth-Century British Musicology (2000), and Representing Non-Western Music in Nineteenth-Century Britain (2007), and is currently writing Evolution and Victorian Musical Culture (Cambridge University Press).

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History books are themselves the products of long and complex histories, and The Cambridge History of World Music is no exception. The origins of the book responded to discussions during the 1990s about whether world music, still regarded by many as a music without history, could be contained by and in a volume of history or histories. Initial discussions about the shape and contents of the book inevitably navigated a series of queries about where the sources of history might be. Would the volume’s narratives borrow from world or universal history? From the world domination of the West and the response of postcolonialism? From national folk musics or transnational popular musics? From the institutions that mass produce music on a global scale or those that disseminate knowledge about all musics? Because the common models of historiography and music historiography, not least because of their depend-ence on the privileged position of music literacy in the histories of Europe and North America, oﬀered few answers to these questions, it became neces-sary to reframe the questions, indeed, the very ways in which we think about the ontologies of music historically. Questions and discussions, therefore, accompanied this book at every stage, newly posed by each contributor, most often with substantial doubt about the viability of any kind of history of world music. So it was that the book grew, not out of the ascription of order to music already occupying a place in a history whose outlines were familiar to the West. The challenge embraced by the contributors was that of moving beyond the familiar outlines to explore the writing of music history and music histor-iography anew. It is the ways in which this challenge was embraced by the many who shaped this book that I gratefully acknowledge here.

At the moment of my ﬁrst conversation with Penny Souster of Cambridge University Press at the 1997 IMS Congress in London, she expressed an unwavering conviction that the Cambridge Histories would provide a home for world music, not because of the familiarity of parallel projects, but rather because of the possibilities of rethinking music historiography that a history of world music would set in motion. I have been no less indebted for the strength of conviction from Cambridge University Press to Victoria Cooper, Penny’s

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successor, both at the Press and in her stewardship of this project. Vicki truly believed in this project, and I can only hope the book honors her belief. I express my deepest gratitude to both Vicki and Penny for their support. That support has also depended on the marvelous assistants in Humanities at the Press, whose patience I tested far too often. In its ﬁnal stages, the book has beneﬁted enormously from the assistance of Fleur Jones and Jessica Ann Murphy, whose practicality and wisdom I gratefully acknowledge. During copyediting I was very fortunate indeed to work with Jan Baiton, whose attention to detail and generous spirit always made the book better.

Two institutions – one historically old, the other relatively young – have been particularly important for the ways in which they provided the intellec-tual foundations for CHWM. As the book took shape, it was my privilege to work increasingly at the Phonogram Archive at the Berlin Ethnology Museum. So steeped in the historical reassessment of world music since the rise of recording technologies is the Phonogram Archive that research at the archive, in Berlin and beyond throughout the world, provides a laboratory for histor-iography itself. I benefited from remarkable hospitality in Berlin, especially in the projects in which I share with the director, Lars-Christian Koch. The study of world music at the University of Chicago began in earnest in the late 1980s when ethnomusicology was established in the Music Department. As ethnog-raphy took students and colleagues farther afield into the world, the historical grounding upon which we all stood also responded. The historiographic imagination of former and current students and colleagues from Chicago (among them, Vicki Cooper) fills the pages of CHWM, and I should like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude. I am particularly indebted to my Chicago colleagues in ethnomusicology: Melvin L. Butler, Travis A. Jackson, Kaley Mason, and (as ever, even in London) Martin Stokes. As the book took shape, I also benefited from a series of marvelous graduate assistants, and I could not be more grateful to them: Suzanne Wint, Jaime Jones, Rachel Adelstein, Andrea F. Bohlman, Rumya Putcha, and Michael A. Figueroa.

The contributors to CHWM have shaped its histories and multiplied its historiographies to a remarkable degree. They bring their own disciplinary alignments, and they write of world musics in distinctively diﬀerent ways. Some have felt a conviction that a larger historical project for world music was long overdue; others have remained suspicious of such a project even as they helped to shape it. The book that they have collectively realized is massive in scope and sweeping in erudition. My heartfelt thanks go to all the contributors, for your patience and for your willingness to take on history so boldly.

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The pages of the present book powerfully bear witness to the ways in which music histories are ultimately histories of human beings, their labors and their loves, and the ways in which music is intimately and indelibly imprinted upon labor and love. In the historical longue durée of my personal music history, the labor and love of Ben, Andrea, and Christine accompany me every day.

Philip V. Bohlman Oak Park and Berlin

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Introduction: world music’s histories

I give the strange and bitter and yet ennobling thanks for the monumental groaning and soldering of two great worlds, like the halves of a fruit seamed by its own bitter juice, that exiled from your own Edens you have placed me in the wonder of another, and that was my inheritance and your gift.

Derek Walcott, “The muse of history” (1990) How little is really civilized in a civilized people? And how might we account for this condition? And to what degree does this provide a measure of happiness? That is to say, to the happiness of individual beings, for the abstraction that an entire people can be happy, when any part thereof suﬀers, is a paradox, or more to the point an illusion that reveals itself as such, even when we ﬁrst observe it.

Johann Gottfried Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit

The paradox of history and world music

There are those who believe that world music does not and cannot have history. In the division of the world between the West and the rest, so these naysayers would have it, history is the domain of the West, and even when history is extended to the rest, it is a history that is not their own. Similarly, the music of the West, at least as it is imagined, performed, ordered, taught, and inherited by the generations, is a music that is inherently historical, if not for the very fact that it survives in notated and literate forms, however conven-tional or experimental (see, e.g., Taruskin 2005, which takes the commitment to literacy as its point of historical departure). The questions of inheritance and survival are diﬀerent, so the belief in an alterity that parses the world between the West and the rest has it, when they pertain to world music. The oral is coupled with the traditional, not least in the commitment to oral tradition, and context is valued even more than text. World music may also possess its own forms of temporality, but they do not cohere around the canons of historiography that privilege both the West and the modernity it has claimed as its own since the rise of printing in the ﬁfteenth century.

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The paradox attending the assertions and anxieties that world music does not have history is the purview of neither the West nor the rest, but rather of the common ground of history they share and the connections between them that, in the twenty-ﬁrst century, but surely long before, have ceased being a matter of reasonable debate (Nettl and Bohlman 1991). History is a matter to be “celebrated” and “proclaimed,” if we take seriously the etymology of the Greek root in the name for the muse of history, Clio (κλείω). By extension, we might observe that historians of Western music are primarily interested in celebrating selfness – their music history, the world wherein they live – and the historians who engage with world music, barely removed from their more accustomed designations as ethnographers (and ethnomusicologists), are primarily interested in proclaiming otherness – recognizing the integrity of the music in worlds inhabited by others.

The paradox is evident the moment a historical project shifts beyond the celebration of selfness, as the Cambridge History of World Music does. There is no grand narrative that accelerates as individual chapters move from our past to our present. There is no body of repertory or canon of theoretical treatises that the contributors to this volume share or, for that matter, that provides any measure of underlying unity to what world music at a given historical moment meant to any given self or other. The paradox of a history of world music also mutes the celebration that might accompany this volume as the considerable undertaking that it is. Cautionary tales ﬁll every chapter; self makes an appear-ance only to be subject to criticism. Rather than Clio singing celebratory praises, the muses whose voices resonate in the following pages come from times and places in which the historical narratives were unsettled and multivalent.

The muses who proclaim world-music history may possess the attributes of sacred avatars, who move between cosmological and lived-in worlds in South Asia or between the earth and the dreamworlds of indigenous peoples. The muses of world-music history must also bear witness to the West, proclaiming the injustices of the past but seeking a narrative of reconciliation borne by remembering the violence of racism and colonialism. In Derek Walcott’s ﬁguration in the opening epigraph, Clio gives way to the new muse of history, who seeks a language that liberates the past from enslavement (Walcott 1995). In modern Jewish historiography, drawing upon biblical allegory, it is the “angel of history” who enters as the promise of modernity disintegrates into racism and oppression in the twentieth century. For a twentieth-century critic like Walter Benjamin (1892–1940), confronting history during the rise of fascism, it is not so much a speech-act that reroutes the relation of Jewish to European modernism, but rather the struggle necessitated by wrestling with

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the angel, not unlike the prophet Elijah with the Angel of Death (Benjamin 2010; see also Mosès 2009). The allegorical muses who enunciate world history, thus, embrace the paradox whereof they are born, searching narrative for action and investing historiography with the power to suture parts to a greater whole. And so, too, the Cambridge History of World Music was born of the paradox that there are still those who want world music to have no history. The history constituted by the chapters that follow may contain different narratives about different musics and music cultures, but it is not difference that provides the overarching method of the volume. Taking the chapters together, the volume gathers narratives from which history emerges – as action, as historiography. Accordingly, we bear witness to a shift in narrative strategy that connects the disciplines dedicated to the study of world music: in order to rescue world music from alterity, we shift our efforts from history to historiography. The contributors insist that the paradox of world-music history can be productive because it opens possibilities for a music historiography that reaches far beyond simple celebration and proclamation. As a whole, this volume represents the common ground, liberated from the schism between the West and the rest, yet contested by the histories lived by the many rather than the few.

Moments of world-music history

History does not become world history by chance, but rather there are moments in which the subject formations of history acquire global dimensions. In the history of world music, the early twenty-first century has been one of those moments. The chapters of this volume reflect what I should like to call history’s global moment. Contact and encounter are particularly critical for the emergence of global moments. The circulation of culture between the Mughal expansion into South Asia, for example, formed moments of exchange, which, in turn, led to the historical conditions necessary for Indian classical music, not least the canonization of a music theory based on mode, or rāga, and the musician lineages, gharānās, that provided the foundations for the trans-mission of classical music knowledge and practice, thereby investing it with history (see chapter by Wade in this volume). The encounter between Africa and the Western Hemispheres, too, calibrated history and music history in different ways, mapping it onto the historical contact zones of the Black Atlantic and Golden Atlantic (see Rommen and Reily). Moments of encounter were disruptive, but they also led to new forms of connection, with history flowing in several directions across these. The spread of music theory in the medieval Islamic world (see Blum) and sacred musical practices in Islam until Introduction: world music’s histories 3

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the present (see Qureshi) were historiographically signiﬁcant for the new types of narratives they made possible.

Global moments of music history also arose during the displacement that results from power imbalance, the attempts of one culture, nation, or empire to remake the world in its image (see chapters by Beckerman, Castelo-Branco, and Kartomi in this volume). The spread of empire created many of the global moments that we attribute to the making of the West. Critically, however, the spread of music and music history often accompa-nied the spread of empire (see Cook, Cooley, Jones, and Zon). With attrib-utes of both exchange-value and use-value in Marxian terms, African, Indian, and African American musics ﬂowed as commodities along the borders of empires, reinscribing them for the history of world music (see Manuel, Mason, and Marshall and Radano). The contact zones exposed by colonial expansion also provided possibilities for the rise of indigenous narratives of music history, which might lead to revitalization, revival, and resistance (see Diamond, Illari, Barz, Fox, and Middleton).

The power of national narratives of music is by no means a privilege of the West, for their contribution to world history may be to serve as the models for national music histories outside the West, as in the cases of Korea and China (see the chapters by Howard and Stock in this volume; cf. also Sheppard). Historiography, too, has had global dimensions, in the twenty-ﬁrst century no less than at earlier global moments. Music entered Arabic writing on music in various forms, as theoretical structure and narrative discourse (see Blum), but also in sweeping attempts to write universal histories; for example, that of the fourteenth-century polymath and Muslim intellectual Ibn Khaldūn (1332–1406), whose Muqadimmah (prolegomenon), or introduc-tion to universal history, contains some of the most incisive observaintroduc-tions about the musics of diﬀerent African peoples in comparison with the music of Islam prior to the rise of the West (Ibn Khaldun 1958). For Ibn Khaldūn the historical task coalesced around the philological and the ethnographic – in other words, the impulse to collect music in many forms and fragments:

At the beginning of Islam, singing belonged to this discipline. . . Abû l-Faraj al-Isfahânî wrote a book on songs, the Kitâb al-Aghânî. In it, he dealt with the whole of the history, poetry, genealogy, battle days, and ruling dynasties of the

Arabs. (Ibn Khaldun 1958)

As Stephen Blum richly illustrates in his chapter in the present volume, the history of Muslim peoples and places has never been without music history. Global moments, such as the 1932 Cairo Congress on Arab Music, are not merely the products of colonial encounter, but rather the moments

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at which Muslim musicians and intellectuals turn their historical gaze on the West (see Congress of Cairo 1934; see also Koch on Hornbostel in this volume).

A historiography of world music necessarily embraces the universal histories written from the perspectives of other worlds, even universes. The great Bengali writer, musical scholar, and intellectual Sourindro Mohun Tagore (1840–1914) wrote extensively about all aspects of South Asian music, espe-cially in books on rāga and organology, but he devoted himself also to an understanding of world music; for example, in his own sweeping Universal History of Music (Tagore 1963), which includes a history of European music that is no less detailed than it is seemingly idiosyncratic for the Western reader. In a historiography of world music, nonetheless, the views on universal history that we gather from Ibn Khaldūn and S. M. Tagore are just as critical to a historical discourse as any others (see Nettl in this volume).

Global moments bear witness to the force of materiality and commodity exchange, conditions particularly evident in the history of world music. The world musics that reached Europe during the Age of Discovery, for example, did so not in small measure because of the rise of print technology and the subsequent revolution in the representation of music (see, e.g., Fig. 0.1). The history of recording technology unfolds in relatively strict counterpoint with the history of world music itself, anchoring it in the materi-ality of wax cylinders, long-playing records, magnetic tape, audio and video cassettes, and the digital media of CDs and MP3s (see Manuel and Taylor, this volume). The foundation of sound archives not only followed the transforma-tion of recording materials, but also stimulated innovatransforma-tion and experimenta-tion (see Koch), which in turn led to the new materials that revoluexperimenta-tionized the dissemination of world music (see Jackson).

The Cambridge History of World Music bears witness to the global moment of music history that we encounter and shape as our own. The globalization of world music has not effected the end of history (see, e.g., Bohlman 2002), but rather it has made it possible to muster new historical discourses and turn them toward different historiographic ends. The conflict at postcolonial contact zones, the unequal distribution of power, the atavism of racism, and the worldwide exchange of musical materials, all these remain conditions in a world history of the present. If the history of world music that follows succeeds in focusing criticism on the contact zones that converge as the global moment of our own era, and if its authors point toward the ways in which action can be meaningful, we shall have made considerable progress toward a historiography that takes all the musics of the world as its subject matter.

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Technologies of subject formation

Technology – old, new, aging, changing, alienating, mediating – provides one of the most persistent accompaniments to the production of world-music history. Every chapter in this volume bears witness to technology as a critical mode of historical change. In some chapters, technology functions indirectly to transform the object “music” to the subject “music history”; for example, when recordings are gathered in archives or produced for distribution as global commodities. In other chapters, the technologies of reproduction and dissem-ination are implicit in the definition of new musical objects; for example, as a three-minute piece on a wax cylinder but explicit in the formation of new musical subjects, the religious rites or dances of the colonized organized as discrete cultures. In still other chapters, technology has a presence so direct that the historical narrative follows technological change in the first order, musical change in the second. The diverse forms and conditions of technology that connect these chapters notwithstanding, all are linked because technology makes music historical by locating it in time and place. If, indeed, we speak of multiple technologies and multiple musics, their multitude nonetheless sug-gests the very possibility of a common ground afforded by history in the contexts of the global.

From a historiographic perspective, technology acquires historical potential because of the ways it combines the objective and subjective qualities of music, and it is because of this potential and the attempts to realize it that we can speak about the narrative inﬂuence of technology across the longue durée of world-music history. In the broadest sense, the most fundamental transforma-tion wrought by technologies is that from oral to written traditransforma-tion (and in this transformation, too, ethnomusicologists would insist on the multiple forms of orality and literacy). Acts of writing, transcribing, printing, sound recording, and reproducing all result from the ways in which technology is permitted to intervene (see Brady 1999). By transforming the oral to the written, those employing technology recalibrate the relation of music to time, making it possible to represent and describe music in new ways, with speech or images about music, which combine to create discourse about music.

Technology repositions music, not only from the moment of performance to the symbols on paper that are meant to approximate it, but also from one place in the world to another. Already in the intervention of technology at this fundamental stage of historical discourse, the acts that render the oral as literate reveal the persistent belief that technology can and should advance and improve. It changes because of a belief that it mediates in order to close the gap between the oral and the written, the distant and the intimate, the musics

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of the other and those we claim for the self. These acts on music become the stuﬀ of world-music history.

That the acts on music technology makes possible are both local and global, individual and collective, personal and political, is critical to the ways in which the contributors to this volume examine the impact of technology on world music. In North American ethnomusicology, the possibilities opened by wax-cylinder recording equipment launches history by recording the acts of early collector-scholars – Alice Fletcher and Frances Densmore best known among them – responding to the initial endeavors of Walter Fewkes, recording Passamaquoddy music in 1889, and Benjamin Ives Gilman, recording Javanese, Turkish, Kwakiutl, and South Sea Islander music at the World’s Columbian Exposition of Chicago in 1893 (see Nettl 2010, 3–21). During the four years between these ﬁrst acts of recording, the move from the metaphysics of technology that gathered individual songs to those capable of contextualizing music as a global narrative could not be more direct.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the technologies of wax-cylinder recording created both past and future for the musics of the world (see Klotz 1998). For the collector and the archivist – for example, Carl Stumpf and Erich Moritz von Hornbostel, founders of the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv in 1900 (see Koch and Jackson in this volume) – it was this metahistorical potential that transformed new uses of technology into new discourses of world music. For Carl Stumpf, educated as a psychologist, the technologies of the archive led to a type of experimentation, a reconfiguration of parts and wholes from through-out the world as local recording endeavors near Berlin were archived together with the recordings from colonial and other expeditions. For Hornbostel, the transferral from wax cylinders to the copper galvanos on which field recordings were stored – and thereafter the destruction of the wax cylinders in order to negate the seemingly reverse historical direction produced by disintegrating surfaces – suggested new possibilities for making world music available for future generations (see Ziegler 2006). From 1900 to 1913, Hornbostel repro-duced recordings from the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv and packaged them for distribution as the Demonstration Collection, above all sustaining their function for scientific comparison and study, complete with fieldnotes, com-mentary, and transcriptions (see Hornbostel 1963). Drawing upon the same archival materials a generation later, Hornbostel compiled the set of recordings known as Music of the Orient, which were disseminated commercially in 1934 on 78 rpm discs on the Odeon label, intended for more general consumption (see Hornbostel 1979). Both sets were later re-recorded on LP technology by the Ethnic Folkways label, extending their historical scope in the second Introduction: world music’s histories 7

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half of the twentieth century to a growing public interested in the folk-music revival, but especially the expanding discipline of ethnomusicology.

If Hornbostel’s Berlin recording projects became a history of world music in and of themselves, with technology providing the historical discourse in which they lived and changed, the work of early Jewish-music scholars turned to technology to provide the musical data that would speak for themselves in oral and written forms. The recording projects of Abraham Zvi Idelsohn and Robert Lachmann provide the historical contexts in Ruth Davis’s chapter in this volume, both foundational for the understanding of the past and present histories of the Jewish people, for millennia in diaspora, but in the twentieth century gathering in Israel. Both Idelsohn and Lachmann depended on the technological discourses emerging in Berlin – Idelsohn more indirectly, but Lachmann in close association. From 1911 to 1913, Idelsohn conducted ﬁeld-work in Jerusalem, largely within Jewish communities from across the North African, Middle Eastern, and Central Asian diasporas, which he systematically transcribed, with the aid of early tone measurement technologies, mapping the two-millennia diaspora in the printed volumes of the Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies (Idelsohn 1914–32). From the perspective of the reception history that followed, it might be possible to say that Idelsohn “invented modern Jewish music” from the recordings of the past, for this is how his recordings (e.g., in archival and library collections in Israel) were often used; in the twenty-ﬁrst century, CD technology, once again, makes it possible to analyze and study the Idelsohn recordings, and to place them in a new history of world music (Lechleitner 2005).

In her chapter, Ruth Davis shows how technology enabled Robert Lachmann to create a different historical discourse, in which Jewish musicians (and communities) interacted with neighboring musical practices not only in the diaspora but also in the historical and modern lands of Israel in the Levant (Lachmann 1940; cf. Davis 2013, and Davis in this volume). Recording tech-nology served Idelsohn and Lachmann, working with related materials at the same moment in history, in very different ways, generating historical dis-courses about Jewish music, ancient and modern, that provide very different contexts for Middle Eastern history, even in the twenty-first century.

Technology played a particularly important role in the mid-twentieth century, when the disciplinary heterogeneity of comparative musicology (vergleichende Musikwissenschaft) underwent the transition to the relative disciplinary unity that would be called ethnomusicology in the early 1950s, soon thereafter becoming the name for the ﬁeld devoted primarily to world music. This foundational moment followed the global devastation of World War II and the rapid path into the postcolonial era, but the paradigm shift that accompanied the rise of

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ethnomusicology was also closely allied to the technological revolution made possible by long-playing records and magnetic tape recording in the 1940s. These two technological innovations together made it possible 1) to do fieldwork in vastly more intensive and extensive ways and 2) to disseminate the results of ethnographic work in recorded anthologies that could be analyzed scientifically, stored in archives throughout the world, and experienced by listeners with very different interests and needs. Just as printed collections of folk song proliferated after Herder’s late eighteenth-century anthology (see the chapter by Bohlman in this volume), so too did recorded collections of world music proliferate rapidly as the postcolonial era was ushered in.

The discourses of object and subject – what ethnomusicologists study and how they go about studying – follow surprisingly disjunct paths in the founda-tional years of ethnomusicology. Disciplinary discourse takes shape cautiously in the Ethno-Musicology Newsletter (Vol. 1, December 1953), the publication that documented and consolidated the membership of what would become the Society for Ethnomusicology in 1955, but as a historical text it provides an interesting focus of the debates about gathering world music and distilling a common historiography from its many forms. The discussions that fill the pages of the Society of Ethnomusicology’s earliest publication most commonly concern themselves with institution-building. That the early discourse of the SEM was about the “who” rather than the “what” of ethnomusicology, mark-ing a shift from object to subject, is increasmark-ingly apparent in each consecutive mimeographed Newsletter. The number of individuals receiving the Newsletter increases issue by issue, expanding to 472 in the fourth number (April 1955). Alan P. Merriam, the editor, endeavors to be as inclusive as possible, with reports, comments, and letters in French and German as well as English. Bibliographies, field reports, and descriptions of technical problems appear together, providing discursive witness to the eclectic scholars allying them-selves with the call for an in-gathering that appears on almost every page. Not surprisingly, it is in the final issue of the mimeographed Newsletter in 1955 that the call for the foundational meeting of the SEM appears. It was telling that, instead of a keynote address, there would be an ethnographic film to symbolize and formalize the foundational moment itself:

ORGANIZATIONAL MEETING. There will be an organizational meeting for the purpose of forming an ethno-musicological society, at the 54th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, November 17–19, at the Sheraton Plaza Hotel, Boston.

The meeting will be held in the evening, Friday, November 18, in Parlor 133 at the hotel, following the American Anthropological Association banquet and the showing of an ethnographic ﬁlm.

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As the Newsletter has depended on its readers’ contributions of news, ideas and bibliography, so any organization will depend on their presence and help in selecting oﬃcers and an editorial board to continue ETHNO-MUSICOLOGY and to implement any other enterprises the society may undertake. (Ethno-Musicology Newsletter [1955], 1)

Object and subject continue to occupy diﬀerent levels of discussion in the early years of the Society for Ethnomusicology, even with the establishment of the society itself and the transformation of the Newsletter as a medium of commu-nication into a forum for the publication of research. In Ethnomusicology Newsletter 7, Willard Rhodes writes “On the Subject of Ethno-Musicology” (Rhodes 1956). It might have seemed as if Rhodes should refer to object rather than subject, thus taking a step toward clarifying what the members of the new society would study, hence, what kind of world music. Rhodes does, however, mean “subject,” and after a historical summary of fundamental queries of comparative study, he explicitly stakes out a subjective position that many maintain until the present – ethnomusicology is what ethnomusicologists do, and what they do worldwide:

What of the future of ethno-musicology? The answer lies with every worker in the discipline. We can make it what we will. The world is our laboratory and the achievement of the past, though notable, is small in relation to that which remains to be accomplished. The vastness of our subject matter with its world-wide distribution oﬀers unlimited opportunities for the specialist. (Ibid., 7)

In a survey and census of the central disciplinary writings in the Newsletter and the journal during the foundational years of the Society for Ethnomusicology, we rarely encounter discourse that limits and focuses the object of study. There are articles that on their surfaces would seem to call for more focused approaches to well-defined objects (e.g., Mieczyslaw Kolinski’s “Ethnomusicology, Its Problems and Methods”; Kolinski 1957), but these reveal themselves to be open calls for more breadth rather than increased specification. This was true also of the frequent discussions of technology that provided the base for much discussion in the Newsletter, for it was the kind of recording machine the ethnographer brought to the field, and the technical guidelines in which record-ings were made, that in turn led to the translation tools that turned object to subject.

Whether or not the discussions of object and subject, technology and transmission, really constituted a discourse of world history is diﬃcult to say. The contributors to the early newsletters and journals were deliberately cautious about building their ﬁeld around a discourse that was too narrow. Their caution may have grown from their experiences in other scholarly

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societies; for example, a growing centrality of Western art music in the American Musicological Society that seemingly pushed non-Western musics to the periphery. It is also possible that they intentionally redirected their deﬁnitions from the center to the peripheries, where they developed as dis-courses of in-betweenness, accommodating multiple disciplinary possibilities and searching for ways in which the gap between object and subject might best be closed. The expansion of technology provided one crucial way in which that search was carried out.

There are media theorists, nonetheless, who claim that technology widens rather than narrows the gap between object and subject, and the inﬂuence of such theorists has left its impact on the history of world music. The alienation of the art object that Walter Benjamin attributed to the “age of mechanical reproducibility” (Benjamin 2008), in which technology produced commodities that are the same, seemed capable of spreading across the soundscapes of world music (cf. Sharma 2000; Das Gupta 2007; Suisman and Strasser 2010). World music, especially when reduced to the commodities circulated by transnational recording industries, would increasingly bear witness to a media culture acces-sible only through technological means. Any history of world music, it fol-lowed, would be reduced to temporal stasis, in which object and subject had no other connection than the mediation of the reproducing technology.

As modernism modulated to postmodernism in the closing decades of the twentieth century, the question of technologies’ capacity to connect object to subject shifted to the growing possibility of an even greater alienation and displacement (Greene and Porcello 2005). R. Murray Schafer described the ﬁssures of postmodern soundscapes as schizophonia (Schafer 1977), and Steven Feld took the criticism of technological alienation several steps far-ther, applying it as schizmogenesis to the popular musics called variously “world beat” and “world music” (Feld 1994). Neither Schafer nor Feld blamed technology itself for bringing about the ruptures opening in the history of world music, even as they observed that, to a certain degree, world music had inevitably become a phenomenon of multisitedness. Therein, once again, lay the historical paradox; in this case, whether technol-ogy would connect the sites or short-circuit them. Mark Katz (2010) has argued most convincingly for a force of global change that leaves its impact on the very ontologies of music in the twenty-ﬁrst century. Whereas music changes, according to Katz, the subject positions of both musicians and listeners, producers and consumers, change along with music. Timothy Taylor, however, draws upon extensive media data to illustrate the ways in which internet sites determine how and to which world musics any given use of media technologies might be connected, that is, to consume the music that Introduction: world music’s histories 11