Chapter 6 Notes

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 6

An Age of Empires: Rome and Han China, 753

An Age of Empires: Rome and Han China, 753

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.–330

.–330

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I0.

I0. Rome’’s CreRomes Creatiation oon of a Mef a Meditditerrerraneanean Eman Empipire, 7re, 75353BB..CC..EE.–330.–330CC..EE..

A0.

A0. GeoGeogragraphy phy and and ResResourourcesces 10.

10. Italy Italy and Siand Sicily acily are at a crre at a crossrossroads ooads of the Mef the Meditediterranerranean and san and serve as erve as a link a link   between Afric

 between Africa and Europe. Roa and Europe. Rome is at a me is at a crossroads of the Italian peninsula.crossroads of the Italian peninsula. 20.

20. ItalyItaly’’s naturas natural resourl resources inclces included nauded navigabvigable riversle rivers, forest, forests, iron, a mils, iron, a mild climated climate,, and enough arable land to support a

and enough arable land to support a large population of farmers whose surpluslarge population of farmers whose surplus  product and labor could be exploited by the

 product and labor could be exploited by the Roman state.Roman state. B0.

B0. A A RepRepublublic oic of Farf Farmermers, 7s, 753–53–3131BB..CC..EE..

10.

10. RomRome was e was inhinhabiabited ated at let least ast as eaas early arly as 10s 100000BB..CC..EE. According to legend it was. According to legend it was

ruled by seven kings between 753

ruled by seven kings between 753 BB..CC..EE. and 507. and 507 BB..CC..EE. Kingship was eliminated. Kingship was eliminated

in 507

in 507BB..CC..EE. when representatives of the senatorial class of . when representatives of the senatorial class of large landholderslarge landholders

overthrew the last king and established a republic. overthrew the last king and established a republic. 20.

20. The cenThe centers of pters of politolitical poical power werwer were the two ce the two consuonsuls and thls and the Senate Senate. In prace. In practice,tice, the Senate made laws and

the Senate made laws and governed.governed. 30.

30. The RomaThe Roman famin family conly consistsisted of seved of several geeral generatnerations liions living uving under thnder the absoe absolutelute authority of the oldest living male, the

authority of the oldest living male, the paterfamilias paterfamilias.. 40.

40. SociSociety was ety was hierhierarchiarchical. Famcal. Familieilies and is and indivndividualiduals were ts were tied tied togethogether byer by  patron/client relationshi

 patron/client relationships that institutionalized inequality and gave ps that institutionalized inequality and gave both sides of both sides of  the relationship reason to cooperate and to support the status quo.

the relationship reason to cooperate and to support the status quo. 50.

50. Roman Roman women women had rehad relatilatively mvely more freore freedom thedom than Grean Greek womeek women, but n, but theitheir legalr legal status was still that of a

status was still that of a child, subordinate to thechild, subordinate to the  paterfamilias paterfamilias of her own or her of her own or her  husband’

husband’s family. Eventually procedures evolved which made it s family. Eventually procedures evolved which made it possible for possible for  some women to become independent after the

some women to become independent after the death of their fathers.death of their fathers. 60.

60. RomanRomans worss worshipehiped a large nd a large number oumber of superf supernatunatural spiral spirits as writs as well as mell as major goajor godsds such as Jupiter and Mars.

such as Jupiter and Mars. Proper performance of ritual ensured that Proper performance of ritual ensured that the godsthe gods continued to favor the Roman state.

continued to favor the Roman state. C0.

C0. ExpaExpansionsion in in n Italy Italy and and the the MeditMediterraneerraneanan 10.

10. Rome beRome began to exgan to expandpand, at first s, at first slowly lowly and thand then very ren very rapidly apidly in the tin the third ahird andnd second centuries

second centuries BB..CC..EE. until it became . until it became a huge Mediterranean empire. Possiblea huge Mediterranean empire. Possible

explanations for this expansion include greed, aggressiveness, the need for  explanations for this expansion include greed, aggressiveness, the need for  consuls to prove themselves as military commanders during their single year consuls to prove themselves as military commanders during their single year inin office, and a constant fear of

office, and a constant fear of being attacked.being attacked. 20.

20. DuriDuring the fing the first starst stage of expge of expansiansion, Romon, Rome conque conquered thered the rest of Ie rest of Italy (by taly (by 290290

B

B..CC..EE.). Rome won the support of the people of Italy by granting them Roman.). Rome won the support of the people of Italy by granting them Roman

citizenship. As citizens, these people then had

citizenship. As citizens, these people then had to provide soldiers for to provide soldiers for the militarythe military.. 30.

30. In the nIn the next staext stages of exges of expansipansion, Rome fon, Rome first dirst defeateefeated Carthd Carthage to gaage to gain conin controltrol over the western Mediterranean and Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain (264–202

over the western Mediterranean and Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain (264–202 BB..CC..EE.)..).

 Next, between 200 and 30

 Next, between 200 and 30 BB..CC..EE., Rome defeated ., Rome defeated the Hellenistic kingdoms to takethe Hellenistic kingdoms to take

over the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Between 59 and 51

over the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Between 59 and 51 BB..CC..EE., Gaius., Gaius

Julius Caesar conquered the Celts of Gaul. Julius Caesar conquered the Celts of Gaul. 40.

40. The RomaThe Romans usns used locaed local elitl elite groupe groups to admins to administeister and tax tr and tax the varihe various proous provincevincess of their rapidly

of their rapidly expanding and far-flung empire. A Roman governor, who servedexpanding and far-flung empire. A Roman governor, who served a single one-year term in

a single one-year term in office, supervised the local administrators. This systemoffice, supervised the local administrators. This system was inadequate and prone to corruption.

was inadequate and prone to corruption. D0.

10.

10. As Rome As Rome expanexpanded, thded, the socie social and al and econoeconomic bmic bases of ases of the Romthe Roman repan republiublic inc in Italy were undermined. While men from independent farming families were Italy were undermined. While men from independent farming families were forced to devote their time to

forced to devote their time to military service, large landowners bought up their military service, large landowners bought up their  land to create great estates

land to create great estates calledcalled latifundialatifundia. This meant both a decline . This meant both a decline in Rome’sin Rome’s source of soldiers and a

source of soldiers and a decline in food production, asdecline in food production, as latifundialatifundia ownersowners  preferred to grow cash crops

 preferred to grow cash crops like grapes rather than staple crops such like grapes rather than staple crops such as wheat.as wheat. 20.

20. Since sSince slave llave labor waabor was cheap is cheap in an expan an expanding nding empire, empire, ItaliItalian peasan peasants, dants, driven oriven off ff  the land and not employed by

the land and not employed by thethe latifundialatifundia, drifted into the cities where they, drifted into the cities where they formed a fractious

formed a fractious unemployed underclass.unemployed underclass. 30.

30. As the iAs the indepndependenendent farmint farming famig family that ly that had been had been the trathe traditiditional soonal source ource of f  soldiers disappeared, Roman commanders built their armies from men

soldiers disappeared, Roman commanders built their armies from men from thefrom the underclass who tended to give their loyalty, not to the Roman state, but to underclass who tended to give their loyalty, not to the Roman state, but to their their  commander

commander. This led to generals . This led to generals taking control of politics, to civil wars, andtaking control of politics, to civil wars, and finally to the end of

finally to the end of the republican system of government.the republican system of government. 40.

40. JuliJulius Caesaus Caesar’s grar’s grandnendnephew Ocphew Octaviatavian (also knn (also known as own as AuguAugustusstus) took pow) took power iner in 31

31BB..CC..EE., reorganized the Roman government, and ruled as a ., reorganized the Roman government, and ruled as a military dictatormilitary dictator..

After Augustu

After Augustus died, s died, several members of several members of his family succeeded him. his family succeeded him. However,However, the position of emperor was not necessarily hereditary; in the

the position of emperor was not necessarily hereditary; in the end, armies choseend, armies chose emperors.

emperors. E0

E0.. An An UrUrbaban n EmEmpipirere 10.

10. AbouAbout 80 pert 80 percent of tcent of the 50 to 6he 50 to 60 mill0 million peoion people of thple of the Roman Eme Roman Empire wepire were rurre ruralal farmers, but the empire

farmers, but the empire was administered through and for a network of was administered through and for a network of cities andcities and towns. In this sense, it was

towns. In this sense, it was an urban empire. Rome an urban empire. Rome had about a million residents,had about a million residents, other large cities (Alexandria, Antioch, and Carthage) had

other large cities (Alexandria, Antioch, and Carthage) had several hundredseveral hundred thousand each, while many Roman towns had populations of several

thousand each, while many Roman towns had populations of several thousand.thousand. 20.

20. In RomeIn Rome, the upp, the upper classer classes livees lived in eled in elegant, wgant, well-bell-built, wuilt, well-aell-appoippointed honted houses;uses; many aristocrats also owned country villas. The poor lived in dark,

many aristocrats also owned country villas. The poor lived in dark, dank, fire-dank, fire- prone wooden tenements in squalid slums built in the low-lying parts of

 prone wooden tenements in squalid slums built in the low-lying parts of the citythe city.. 30.

30. ProviProvincial ncial towns towns imitatimitated Romed Rome both ie both in urban urban plann planning ning and in and in urbanurban administration. The local elite, who served the interests of Rome,

administration. The local elite, who served the interests of Rome, dominateddominated town councils. The local elite also served their communities by using their  town councils. The local elite also served their communities by using their  wealth to construct amenities such as aqueducts, baths, theatres, gardens, wealth to construct amenities such as aqueducts, baths, theatres, gardens, temples, and other public works and entertainment projects.

temples, and other public works and entertainment projects. 40.

40. Rural Rural life ilife in the Rn the Roman Emoman Empire ipire involnvolved loved lots of hts of hard woard work and rk and very lvery littlittlee entertainment. Rural people had little contact with representatives of the entertainment. Rural people had little contact with representatives of the government. By the early centuries

government. By the early centuries CC..EE., absentee landlords who lived in the., absentee landlords who lived in the

cities owned most rural land, while the

cities owned most rural land, while the land was worked by tenant farmersland was worked by tenant farmers supervised by hired foremen.

supervised by hired foremen. 50.

50. ManufManufacturacture and tre and trade flade flourisourished unhed under thder the “pax re “pax romanaomana.” Grai.” Grain had tn had to beo be imported to feed the huge cit

imported to feed the huge city of Rome. Rome y of Rome. Rome and the Italian towns (and later,and the Italian towns (and later,  provincial centers) exported glass, metalwork,

 provincial centers) exported glass, metalwork, potterypottery, and , and other manufactures toother manufactures to the provinces. Romans also imported Chinese silk and Indian and Arabian spices. the provinces. Romans also imported Chinese silk and Indian and Arabian spices. 60.

60. One oOne of the eff the effects fects of the of the Roman ERoman Empirmpire was Roe was Romanimanizatiozation. In thn. In the weste western paern partrt of the Empire, the Latin

of the Empire, the Latin language, Roman clothing, and the Roman lifestyle werelanguage, Roman clothing, and the Roman lifestyle were adopted by local people. As time passed, Roman emperors gradually extended adopted by local people. As time passed, Roman emperors gradually extended Roman citizenship to all free male

Roman citizenship to all free male adult inhabitants of the empire.adult inhabitants of the empire. F0

F0.. ThThe Rie Rise se of of ChChririststiaianinityty 10.

10. JesuJesus lived is lived in a socien a society marty marked by resked by resentmenentment agait against Romanst Roman ruln rule, whice, which hadh had inspired the belief that a Messiah would arise

inspired the belief that a Messiah would arise to liberate the Jews. When Jesusto liberate the Jews. When Jesus sought to reform Jewish religious practices, the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem sought to reform Jewish religious practices, the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem turned him over to the Ro

20.

20. After thAfter the execute execution, Jesion, Jesus’ us’ discdiscipleiples contis continued to spnued to spread his tread his teachieachings; thngs; they alsoey also spread their belief that Jesus had been

spread their belief that Jesus had been resurrected. At this point, the target of resurrected. At this point, the target of  their proselytizing was their fellow Jews.

their proselytizing was their fellow Jews. 30.

30. The taThe target orget of prosef proselytilytizing chzing changed fanged from Jewrom Jews to nons to non-Jews i-Jews in the 40n the 40s–70s–70ss CC..EE..

First, Paul of

First, Paul of TTarsus, an Anatolian Jewarsus, an Anatolian Jew, discovered that non-Jews , discovered that non-Jews (gentiles) were(gentiles) were much more receptive to the teachings of Jesus than Jews were. Second, a Jewish much more receptive to the teachings of Jesus than Jews were. Second, a Jewish revolt in Judaea (66

revolt in Judaea (66 CC..EE.) and the subsequent Roman reconquest destroyed the.) and the subsequent Roman reconquest destroyed the

original Jewish Christian community in Jerusalem. original Jewish Christian community in Jerusalem. 40.

40. ChriChristianstianity grew sity grew slowly flowly for two cenor two centurituries, develes, developinoping a hierarcg a hierarchy of prieshy of priests andts and  bishops, hammering out a commonly accepted theological doctrine, and resisting  bishops, hammering out a commonly accepted theological doctrine, and resisting

the persecution of Roman officials. By the late

the persecution of Roman officials. By the late third centurythird century, Christians were a, Christians were a sizeable minority in the Roman Empire.

sizeable minority in the Roman Empire. 50.

50. The exThe expansipansion of Chon of Christristianiianity in tty in the Romahe Roman Empin Empire camre came at a time at a time whene when Romans were increasingly dissatisfied with their

Romans were increasingly dissatisfied with their traditional religion. Thistraditional religion. This dissatisfaction inspi

dissatisfaction inspired Romans to become red Romans to become interested in a variety of “interested in a variety of “mysterymystery cults” and universal creeds that had their origins in

cults” and universal creeds that had their origins in the eastern Mediterranean.the eastern Mediterranean. G0.

G0. TTechnechnology ology and and TrTransfoansformatirmationon 10.

10. The RomThe Romans wans were expere expert miert military litary and ciand civil envil enginegineers. ers. AmonAmong theig their r  accomplishments were: bridge-building, ballistic weapons, elevated and accomplishments were: bridge-building, ballistic weapons, elevated and underground aqueduct

underground aqueducts, the use of s, the use of arches and domes, and the arches and domes, and the invention of invention of  concrete.

concrete. 20.

20. FollFollowinowing Aug Augustgustus’ us’ deatdeath, the army wah, the army was organs organized primized primarily foarily for defensr defense. Thee. The Rhine-Danube frontier was protected by a string of

Rhine-Danube frontier was protected by a string of forts; long walls protectedforts; long walls protected the frontiers of North Africa and Britain. On the eastern

the frontiers of North Africa and Britain. On the eastern frontier, the Romansfrontier, the Romans fought for centuries against the Parthians. Neither side made

fought for centuries against the Parthians. Neither side made any significantany significant gains.

gains. 30.

30. The staThe state systte system constem constructeructed by Aud by Augustgustus workus worked well uned well until whatil what histot historians carians callll Rome’

Rome’s “third-century crisis.” The s “third-century crisis.” The symptoms of this crisis symptoms of this crisis were frequent changewere frequent change of rulers, raids by Ger

of rulers, raids by Ger man tribesmen from across the Rhine-Danube frontier, andman tribesmen from across the Rhine-Danube frontier, and the rise of regional power when

the rise of regional power when Rome seemed unable to guarantee security.Rome seemed unable to guarantee security. 40.

40. Rome’Rome’s economy s economy was undwas underminermined by thed by the high coe high cost of dest of defensefense, debas, debasement of tement of thehe currency and consequent inflation, a disruption of trade, reversion to

currency and consequent inflation, a disruption of trade, reversion to a barter a barter  economy

economy, disappearance of the , disappearance of the municipal aristocracy of the provincial cities, andmunicipal aristocracy of the provincial cities, and a movement of population out of the

a movement of population out of the cities and back into the rural cities and back into the rural areas.areas. 50.

50. The The empemperoeror Dir Dioclocletietian (ran (r. 28. 284–34–30505CC..EE.) saved the Roman .) saved the Roman state by instituting astate by instituting a

series of reforms that included price

series of reforms that included price controls and regulations that required certaincontrols and regulations that required certain  people to stay in their professions and to

 people to stay in their professions and to train a son to succeed train a son to succeed them. Some sidethem. Some side effects of these reforms include a

effects of these reforms include a flourishing black market and a growing feelingflourishing black market and a growing feeling of resentment against the government.

of resentment against the government. 60

60.. CoConsnstatantntinine (e (rr. 3. 30606–3–377 CC..EE.) formally ended the persecution of .) formally ended the persecution of Christians andChristians and

 patronized the Christian church, thus contributing to the rise of Christianity as  patronized the Christian church, thus contributing to the rise of Christianity as

the official religion of the empire. Constantine also transferred the

the official religion of the empire. Constantine also transferred the capital of thecapital of the empire from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed

empire from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople.

Constantinople. II0.

II0. The The OriOrigingins of Ims of Imperperiaial Chil China, 2na, 22121BB..CC..EE.–220.–220CC..EE..

A0.

A0. ResResourources ces and and PopPopulaulatiotionn 10.

10. China iChina is a largs a large regioe region marken marked by sigd by signifinificant ecocant ecologilogical, tocal, topograpographicaphical,l,  biological, and

 biological, and climatic diversityclimatic diversity.. 20.

20. The twThe two most imo most importaportant resont resources turces that suhat supportpported the imed the imperiaperial Chinel Chinese statse state weree were agricultural production and labor. Agricultural production in China

agricultural production and labor. Agricultural production in China was intensivewas intensive and was taxed by the

the Yangzi Valley, which began to be linked to the centers of political power  the Yangzi Valley, which began to be linked to the centers of political power  (Chang’an and Luoyang) by canals.

(Chang’an and Luoyang) by canals. 30.

30. Both tBoth the Qin anhe Qin and the Han d the Han govergovernmentnments expls exploiteoited the labd the labor powor power of ruraer of rural Chinl Chinaa  by demanding that peasant families supply men for

 by demanding that peasant families supply men for labor and for service in labor and for service in thethe military

military. A periodic census and regularly updated records . A periodic census and regularly updated records of land and of land and householdshouseholds enabled officials to collect the proper amount of taxes,

enabled officials to collect the proper amount of taxes, labor service, and militarylabor service, and military service.

service. 40.

40. ThrouThroughoughout antiqt antiquityuity, the Han Chin, the Han Chinese peopese people expanle expanded at the exded at the expense of otpense of other her  ethnic groups. Han expanded into areas that were

ethnic groups. Han expanded into areas that were suitable for settled agriculture.suitable for settled agriculture. They did not expand into areas that

They did not expand into areas that were suitable only for nomadic economies.were suitable only for nomadic economies. B0.

B0. HieHierarrarchychy, Obed, Obedienience, ance, and Beld Belief ief  10.

10. The famiThe family was ly was the basthe basic uniic unity of socty of societyiety. The fam. The family was cily was conceionceived of as aved of as ann unbroken chain of generations including the ancestors as well as the

unbroken chain of generations including the ancestors as well as the currentcurrent generations. A

generations. Ancestors were thought to take an active ncestors were thought to take an active interest in the affairs of theinterest in the affairs of the current generation, and they were routinely consulted, appeased, and venerated. current generation, and they were routinely consulted, appeased, and venerated. 20.

20. The teThe teachinachings of Congs of Confuciufucius were a fus were a fundamenndamental sotal source of vurce of values alues for famifor familyly,, social, and political organization. Confucius regarded hierarchy as natural and social, and political organization. Confucius regarded hierarchy as natural and  placed absolute authority in the hands of the father. Family members were  placed absolute authority in the hands of the father. Family members were

thought of as part of the

thought of as part of the group, not as individuals. Confucius also believed thatgroup, not as individuals. Confucius also believed that  people would properly fulfill their roles if they were

 people would properly fulfill their roles if they were correctly instructed andcorrectly instructed and imitated good role models.

imitated good role models. 30.

30. AccorAccording tding to the ido the ideals oeals of the uppf the upper claser classes, womses, women weren were to cooke to cook, take car, take care of e of  household chores, respect their parents-in-law, and obey their

household chores, respect their parents-in-law, and obey their husbands. Lower-husbands. Lower-class women may have been less constrained. Marriages were arranged, and a class women may have been less constrained. Marriages were arranged, and a new wife had to prove

new wife had to prove herself to her husband and to herself to her husband and to her mother-in-law throughher mother-in-law through hard work, obedience, devotion, and by bearing sons.

hard work, obedience, devotion, and by bearing sons. 40.

40. ChineChinese belise believed in a neved in a number oumber of natuf nature spirire spirits to whts to whom they som they sacrifiacrificed. Unuced. Unusualsual natural phenomena were regarded as ill o

natural phenomena were regarded as ill o mens. The landscape was thought tomens. The landscape was thought to channel the flow of evil and

channel the flow of evil and good power, and experts in fengshui (geomancy)good power, and experts in fengshui (geomancy) were employed to identify the most fortunate location and orientation for  were employed to identify the most fortunate location and orientation for   buildings and graves.

 buildings and graves. C0.

C0. ThThe Fire First Chst Chineinese Emse Empirpire, 22e, 221 – 201 – 2011 BB..CC..EE..

10.

10. AftAfter ther the We Warrarring Sing Stattates Peres Period (iod (480480–22–2211 BB..CC..EE.), the state of Qin united China..), the state of Qin united China.

Factors that enabled Qin to accomplish reunification may include: the ability and Factors that enabled Qin to accomplish reunification may include: the ability and ruthlessness of the Qin

ruthlessness of the Qin ruler, Shi Huangdi and his ruler, Shi Huangdi and his prime minister, Li Si; Qin’sprime minister, Li Si; Qin’s location in the Wei valley with its predominantly rural

location in the Wei valley with its predominantly rural population of independentpopulation of independent farming households; and Qin’s experience in mobilizing manpower for

farming households; and Qin’s experience in mobilizing manpower for irrigationirrigation and flood-control projects, which had

and flood-control projects, which had strengthened the central government.strengthened the central government. 20.

20. Upon unUpon unitiniting Chinag China, the Qin est, the Qin establisablished a stronhed a strong centrag centralized stlized state on the Leate on the Legaligalistst model. Shi Huangdi and Li Si

model. Shi Huangdi and Li Si suppressed Confucianism, eliminated rival centerssuppressed Confucianism, eliminated rival centers of authority

of authority, abolished primogeniture and , abolished primogeniture and slaveryslavery, and , and constructed a ruralconstructed a rural economy of free

economy of free land-owning/tax-pland-owning/tax-paying farmers. They aying farmers. They standardized weightsstandardized weights and measures, knit the empire together with

and measures, knit the empire together with roads, and defended it with a roads, and defended it with a longlong wall.

wall. 30.

30. The opThe oppresspressive native nature of thure of the Qin rege Qin regime and iime and its exorts exorbitabitant demannt demands fods for taxes ar taxes andnd labor led to a nu

labor led to a number of popular rebellions that overthrew the dynasty after thember of popular rebellions that overthrew the dynasty after the death of Shi Huangdi in 210

death of Shi Huangdi in 210 BB..CC..EE..

D0.

D0. ThThe Loe Long Rng Reigeign of n of the the Han Han (20(2066 BB..CC..EE.–220.–220CC..EE.).)

10.

10. Liu BanLiu Bang, a peasg, a peasant whant who defeato defeated all oted all other conher contesttestants foants for contrr control of Chol of China,ina, established the Han dynasty. The Han established a

established the Han dynasty. The Han established a political system that drew onpolitical system that drew on  both Confucian philosophy and Legalist techniques.

20.

20. After a pAfter a period oeriod of consof consolidalidationtion, the Han w, the Han went thrent through a pough a perioeriod of terrid of territoriatoriall expansion under Emperor Wu (r. 140–87

expansion under Emperor Wu (r. 140–87 BB..CC..EE.). During the Western Han period.). During the Western Han period

(202

(202BB..CC..EE.–8.–8CC..EE.) the capital was at .) the capital was at Chang’an. During the Eastern Han (23–22Chang’an. During the Eastern Han (23–22 C

C..EE.) the capital was at .) the capital was at Luoyang.Luoyang.

30.

30. ChangChang’an was a’an was an easily n easily defendefended waded walled cilled city witty with easy ach easy access to gcess to good arood arableable land. The population in 2

land. The population in 2 CC..EE. was 246,000. Other cities and . was 246,000. Other cities and towns imitated thetowns imitated the

urban planning of Chang’an. urban planning of Chang’an. 40.

40. The elThe elite of Chite of Chang’an lang’an lived iived in elegan elegant mulnt multisttistoried horied houses aouses arrangrranged on broed on broad,ad, well-planned boulevards. They dressed in fine silks, were connoisseurs of art and well-planned boulevards. They dressed in fine silks, were connoisseurs of art and literature, and indulged in numerous entertainments. The common people lived literature, and indulged in numerous entertainments. The common people lived in closely packed houses

in closely packed houses in largely unplanned, winding alleys.in largely unplanned, winding alleys. 50.

50. The empThe emperor was seror was supremupreme in the ste in the state and iate and in socin societyety. He was reg. He was regarded aarded as the Sons the Son of Heaven, the link between heaven a

of Heaven, the link between heaven a nd the human world. Emperors were nd the human world. Emperors were thethe source of law. But anything that went seriously wrong could be interpreted to source of law. But anything that went seriously wrong could be interpreted to mean that the emperor was

mean that the emperor was guilty of misrule and that he guilty of misrule and that he was losing the Mandatewas losing the Mandate of Heaven. Emperors lived in seclusion, surrounded by a

of Heaven. Emperors lived in seclusion, surrounded by a royal retinue thatroyal retinue that included wives, family, servants, courtiers, and officials.

included wives, family, servants, courtiers, and officials. 60.

60. The cenThe central gotral governmevernment was rnt was run by twun by two chief oo chief officfficials anials and includ included a numbded a number of er of  functionally specialized ministers. Local officials collected taxes, drafted

functionally specialized ministers. Local officials collected taxes, drafted menmen for corvée labor and military service,

for corvée labor and military service, and settled local disputes. Most people hadand settled local disputes. Most people had no contact with the central government.

no contact with the central government. 70.

70. Local oLocal officfficials weials were supplre supplied by a class oied by a class of moderaf moderately weately wealthylthy, educate, educated locald local landowners whom historians refer to

landowners whom historians refer to as the “gentras the “gentryy.” The .” The gentry adoptedgentry adopted Confucianism as their ideology and pursued careers in the

Confucianism as their ideology and pursued careers in the civil service.civil service. E0

E0.. TTecechnhnolology ogy anand Td Traradede 10.

10. In the fiIn the field of meeld of metallutallurgyrgy, China ad, China advancevanced from brd from bronze to ionze to iron by aron by about 5bout 50000

B

B..CC..EE. Rather than make . Rather than make wrought-iron goods (as the Romans did), Chinesewrought-iron goods (as the Romans did), Chinese

ironworkers melted the iron and used molds to

ironworkers melted the iron and used molds to make harder and more make harder and more durabledurable cast-iron and steel tools and weapons.

cast-iron and steel tools and weapons. 20.

20. OtheOther technolr technologicogical innoval innovatioations of the Han perions of the Han period includd include the crossbe the crossbowow, cavalry, cavalry,, the watermill, and

the watermill, and the horse collar. New transportation and communicationsthe horse collar. New transportation and communications technology included a road system, courier systems for carr

technology included a road system, courier systems for carr ying governmentying government communications, and canals.

communications, and canals. 30.

30. The HaThe Han perion period also sd also saw sigaw significnificant groant growth in twth in the size ahe size and numbnd number of urber of urbanan areas. Somewhere from 10 to 30 percent of the population of Han China lived in areas. Somewhere from 10 to 30 percent of the population of Han China lived in towns.

towns. 40.

40. LongLong-dis-distance cotance commermmerce was a sigce was a signifinificant pacant part of the Hrt of the Han econan economyomy. The mos. The mostt important export was silk, and the most i

important export was silk, and the most i mportant export route was the Silk Roadmportant export route was the Silk Road through Central Asi

through Central Asia. The Chinese government sought to control this route ba. The Chinese government sought to control this route b yy sending armies and colonists to

sending armies and colonists to Central Asia.Central Asia. F0

F0.. DeDeclclinine oe of tf the he HaHan En Empmpiriree 10.

10. The HaThe Han Empirn Empire’e’s major ss major security ecurity probproblem was tlem was the nomhe nomadic triadic tribes on itbes on its norts northernhern  border

 border. Nomadic groups were usually s. Nomadic groups were usually small, but during the Han, the Chinesemall, but during the Han, the Chinese faced a confederacy of

faced a confederacy of nomads called the Xiongnu. China attempted to deal withnomads called the Xiongnu. China attempted to deal with the Xiongnu threat by strengthening its defenses (particularly its cavalry) and by the Xiongnu threat by strengthening its defenses (particularly its cavalry) and by making more compliant nomads into

making more compliant nomads into “tributaries.”“tributaries.” 20.

20. The HaThe Han Empin Empire was re was undermundermined ined by a numbby a number of faer of factorsctors. Firs. First, the et, the expensxpense of e of  defending the northern borders was a tremendous financial burden. Second, defending the northern borders was a tremendous financial burden. Second, nobles and merchants built up large landholdings at the expense of the nobles and merchants built up large landholdings at the expense of the smallsmall farmers. These large landholders were able to resist taxation and beca

farmers. These large landholders were able to resist taxation and beca meme independent of government control. Third, the

 broke down and the central government had to

 broke down and the central government had to rely on mercenaries whoserely on mercenaries whose loyalty was questionable.

loyalty was questionable. 30.

30. ThesThese factore factors compous compounded by fanded by factioctionalism analism at courtt court, offic, official corrial corruptiuption, peason, peasantant uprisings, and nomadic attacks led to the fall

uprisings, and nomadic attacks led to the fall of the dynasty in 220of the dynasty in 220 CC..EE. China. China

entered a period

entered a period of political fragmentation that lasted of political fragmentation that lasted until the late until the late sixth centurysixth century.. III0

III0.. ImpImperierial Paraal Parallellelsls A0

A0.. SiSimimilalarirititieses 10.

10. The HaThe Han and Roman and Roman Empiren Empires were ss were similaimilar in respr in respect to thect to their famileir family struy structurecture and values, their patterns of land tenure,

and values, their patterns of land tenure, taxation, and administration, and in their taxation, and administration, and in their  empire building and its consequences for the identity of the

empire building and its consequences for the identity of the conquered areas.conquered areas. 20.

20. Both emBoth empires pires faced cfaced common ommon problproblems in tems in terms oerms of defenf defense, anse, and found found theid their r  domestic economies undermined by their

domestic economies undermined by their military expenditures.military expenditures. 30.

30. Both emBoth empires pires were ovwere overrun errun by new pby new peopleoples who es who were thwere then deeen deeply inply influenfluenced byced by the imperial cultures of Rome and of China.

the imperial cultures of Rome and of China. B0

B0.. DDififfefererenncecess 10.

10. In ChiIn China, the impna, the imperiaerial model wl model was revias revived and ved and the terthe territoritory of the Hry of the Han Empiran Empire re-e re-unified. The former Roman Empire was never

unified. The former Roman Empire was never again reconstituted.again reconstituted. 20.

20. HistHistoriaorians have tns have tried to eried to explaxplain thiin this diffs differencerence by poine by pointing tting to diffo differencerenceses  between China and the Roman world in

 between China and the Roman world in respect to the concept of the respect to the concept of the individual,individual, the greater degree of social mobility in Rome than in Han China, and the

the greater degree of social mobility in Rome than in Han China, and the different political ideologies and religions of the