UNIT 5 - DEVELOPMENT PPT 10.16.12.pptx

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Major Issues

• _{Nature/Nurture: How do both}

influence our development?

• _{Continuity/Stages: Is}

development a gradual and continuous process, or more like separate stages?

• _{Stability/Change: Do early}

personality traits persist through life, or do they change?

Prenatal Development

• _{Women are born with all}

the eggs they will ever have

• _{Men only begin to produce}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Sperm that reach the egg}

release a digestive enzyme which eats away at

protective coating of egg

• _{Only one sperm may enter}

through coating; the rest are blocked

• _{Sperm and egg nucleus fuse}

in less than 12 hours

• _{Very few zygotes (fertilized}

eggs) survive beyond 2 wks

• _{At 10 days after conception,}

zygote attaches to wall of uterus

• _{Inner cells of the zygote}

become and embryo

• _{Organs form and heart}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{At 9 wks the embryo}

becomes a fetus, when it is unmistakably human

• _{At 6 months the fetus has a}

chance for survival outside the body of mother; also begins to hear sounds of mother

• _{Babies prefer sound of}

mother’s voice over others

• _{Placenta – transfers}

nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus

• _{Teratogens – harmful agents}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Use of alcohol during}

pregnancy may prime baby to like alcohol

• _{Fetal Alcohol Syndrome}

(FAS) – affects 1 in 800

babies, it is the physical and cognitive abnormalities

caused by a pregnant

woman’s consumption of alcohol

• _{Zygote: conception to 2}

weeks

• _{Embryo: 2-8 weeks}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

The Competent Newborn

• _{Rooting reflex: baby will}

turn toward a touch in search of a nipple

• _{Sucking reflex: a series of}

tonguing, swallowing, breathing that enables a baby to eat

• _{What can babies see, hear,}

smell and think?

– Habituation: a decrease in responding with repeated stimulation

– As babies respond less, it tells us that some learning has already taken place

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Infant focus on other’s faces}

first, then on the body

• _{We prefer to look at objects}

8-12 inches away; same

distance from nursing infant to mother’s eyes

• _{Infants prefer the smells}

and sounds of their mother

Infancy and Childhood

• _{Humans are born with most}

of the brain cells they will ever have

• _{Ages 3-6: most rapid}

growth in brain is in frontal lobes, responsible for

rational planning

• _{Association Areas: last}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Infancy and Childhood

• _{At puberty,}_pruning_{of nerve}

cells shuts down excess connections and

strengthens others

• _{Maturation sets the course}

for development; experience adjusts it

Motor Development

• _{Sequence of physical motor}

development is universal and is based on the

maturation of the nervous system:

– _{Roll over} – _Sit

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Motor Development

• _{Identical twins usually begin}

to crawl on same day (= genetics)

• _{Development of the}

cerebellum helps us to walk around age 1

• _{Toilet training too early}

won’t do any good; muscular and neural

coordination isn’t there yet

Infant Memory

• _{Earliest memories are}

usually after 3rd_birthday

(most are at 3.5 years)

• _{Hippocampus and frontal}

lobes (memory parts) are not fully mature

• _{3-month old babies have}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive Development

• _{Jean Piaget (1896-1980) –}

worked in Paris developing children’s intelligence tests

– Found that incorrect answers were similar among children

– Said children reason differently than adults

– Said a child’s mind develops through a series of stages

Cognitive Development (Piaget) • _{Schemas: concepts or}

mental molds into which we pour our experiences

• _{Assimilation: interpreting}

our new experience in terms of existing schemas

• _{Accommodation: adapting}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Dev. • _{Sensorimotor (Birth-2 yrs)}

– Experience world through senses/actions

– Object Permanence/Stranger Anxiety

• _{Preoperational (2-6 yrs)}

– Representing things with words/images

– Intuitive (not logical) thinking

– Pretend Play/Egocentrism

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Dev.

• _{Concrete Operational (7-11)}

– _{Logical thinking about}

concrete events

– _{Arithmetical operations}

– _{Conservation/Mathematical}

• _{Formal Operational}

(12-Adult)

– _{Abstract reasoning} – _{Abstract logic}

– _{Potential for mature moral}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Sensorimotor Stage

• _{Object Permanence:}

awareness that things exist even when not perceived

– Birth-6 mos. - babies lack object permanence

– 8 mos. - babies begin to remember things no longer seen

– Development today seen as continuous and unfolding gradually

Sensorimotor Stage

• _{After habituating to an}

object in the shape of a cube, babies stared longer at a similar object

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Preoperational Stage

• _{Piaget’s idea of prior to age}

6 or 7, children are too young to perform mental operations

• _{Conservation – principle}

that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape

• _{Egocentrism – difficulty}

perceiving things from another’s point of view

– Covering one’s own eyes in order for others not to see us

– Holding a picture upside down while showing it to another person

– Realizing that YOU have a

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Curse of Knowledge:}

assumption that others see what you see, and others understand what you

understand

• _{Theory of Mind: people’s}

ideas about their own and others’ mental states and the behaviors they might predict

– _{The ability to read intentions} – _{Understanding what made a}

playmate angry

– _{Understanding what made a}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) – Russian psychologist who said children internalize

their culture’s language and rely on inner speech

• _{Talking to themselves helps}

children control their

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Concrete Operational Stage

• _{From age 6 or 7 to age 11} • _{Children begin to grasp}

conservation and mathematical

transformations (example: cutting a full pizza into 6 or 8 pieces, which is more

pizza?)

Formal Operational Stage

• _{Age 12 to Adulthood} • _{Abstract thinking using}

imagined realities and symbols

• _{Systematic reasoning begins}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Reflections on Piaget

• _{His sequence was correct;}

ages may vary

• _{Today (contemporary)}

development is seen as more continuous than Piaget may have thought

Reflections on Piaget

• _{Vygotsky confirmed a child’s}

mind grows through

interaction with the social environment; parents and others provide a scaffold for children to reach higher

levels of thinking

• _{Young children are}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Social Development

• _{Infants come to prefer}

familiar faces and voices

• _{Stranger Anxiety develops}

around 8 months; when a new face doesn’t fit into an existing schema, the baby becomes distressed

• _{By 12 months, infants}

typically cling to a parent when frightened or expect separation (this is

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Origins of Attachment

• _{Harry & Margaret Harlow: at}

the University of Wisconsin, they bred and raised

monkeys for learning studies:

– _{Babies were sep. from mothers} shortly after birth

– _{Cheesecloth blanket was put in} baby monkey’s cages

– _{When blankets were taken to} be laundered, monkeys

became distressed

• _{Harlow’s recognized intense}

attachment to the blankets – This contradicted the idea

that attachment was based on source of nourishment

– Experimented to see baby monkey’s attachment

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Harlow’s experiment}

presented two fake monkeys (artificial mothers):

– _{Bare wire cylinder with a}

wooden head and attached feeding bottle

– _{Foam rubber and terry cloth}

but no bottle

• _{Harlow’s Findings:}

– The baby monkeys

overwhelmingly preferred the contact comfort of the cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing mother

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Human babies are also}

attached to parents who are warm and who rock and

feed them

• _{Much parent-infant}

interaction occurs through touch (soothing or arousing)

• _{Human attachment shows a}

need for a “safe-haven” from which to explore

• _{Familiarity – attachments}

based on familiarity are formed during a critical period (an optimal period during which events must take place in order to

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Imprinting – process by}

which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life (ex: geese)

• _{Konrad Lorenz (1937)}

worked to imprint ducks; they followed him around as if he were their mother (difficult to reverse)

• _{Children do NOT imprint} • _{Exposure to people and}

things fosters fondness – _{Reread the same books} – Watch the same movies

– _{Eat familiar foods}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Attachment Differences

• _{Strange Situation}

Experiment: laboratory playroom testing how

children react to mother’s and stranger’s presence,

absence, and then presence again

• _{Mary Ainsworth (1979) –}

designed the Strange Situation

• _{Secure Attachment (60% of infants)}

– child plays comfortably in mother’s presence

– gets distressed when mother leaves

– seeks contact with mother on her return

• _{Insecure Attachment}

– less likely to explore surroundings

– child clings to mother

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Sensitive and responsive}

mothers (those who respond to babies at appropriate

times) had infants who were

securely attached

• _{Insensitive and unresponsive}

mothers (those who respond to babies when they felt like it) had infants who were

insecurely attached

• _{Does attachment come}

from nature or nurture? – Temperament = nature

• _{Easy babies – cheerful,}

relaxed, predictable

• _{Difficult babies – irritable,}

intense, unpredictable

– _{Parenting Styles = nurture} • Intervention programs can

increase parent sensitivity, therefore effecting

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Historically mothering a}

child has meant nurturing and fathering a child has meant impregnating

• _{Children who are nurtured}

by both tend to achieve more in school

• _{Anxiety over separation}

from a parent peaks around 13 months, then declines

• _{Basic Trust – the sense that}

the world is predictable and reliable (Erik Erikson 1902-1994)

• _{Erikson said basic trust}

develops from early

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Attachment styles affect our}

adult relationships

• _{Securely attached people}

exhibit less fear of failure and a greater drive to

achieve

Deprivation of Attachment

• _{Babies abandoned in}

Romanian orphanages during 1980s appeared shockingly like Harlow’s monkeys

– _Withdrawn

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Research on primates}

confirms the “abuse-breeds-abuse

phenomenon”

– _{Mothers who were deprived}

or isolated in their youth tended to neglect, abuse, or even murder their offspring

• _{In humans, most abusive}

parents were neglected or battered as children; true for murderers too

• _{ALTHOUGH…most abused}

children do NOT later

become violent criminals or abusive parents; most are resilient and become

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Abused or traumatized}

children show changes in brain’s level of serotonin, which calms aggressive impulses.

• _{Child sexual abuse exposes}

those children to health problems, psychological

disorders, substance abuse, and criminality.

Disruption of Attachment

• _{Separation from families cause}

children to become upset, withdrawn, and despairing.

• _{Courts will almost always try}

to leave children placed with family

• _{Foster care situations which}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Disruption of Attachment

• _{With the death or}

separation from a spouse, detachment takes time.

Daycare and Attachment

• _{A good daycare situation}

does NOT disrupt a child’s normal attachment.

• _{Good Daycare = warm,}

supportive interactions with adults in a safe, healthy, and stimulating environment.

• _{Bad Daycare = boring and}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Daycare

• _{Time spent in daycare puts}

children at:

– Slightly advanced thinking and language skills

– Increased rates of aggression and defiance

Daycare

• _{More influential than time}

at daycare:

– Child’s temperament

– Parents’ sensitivity

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Attachment

• _{In some African cultures, a}

baby is passed among

several women prior to the mother ever holding it;

helps to develop strong multiple attachments

Self-Concept

• _{Self-concept is our}

understanding and

evaluation of who we are; by age 12 most children have developed this.

• _{Mirror images fascinate}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Self-Concept

• _{Children who form a more}

positive self-concept are more:

– Confident

– Independent

– Optimistic

– Assertive

– Sociable

Self-Concept

• _{There are virtually NO}

differences in the

self-esteem levels of adopted children compared to

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Parenting Styles

• _{1. Authoritarian – impose rules}

and expect obedience

• _{2. Permissive – submit to their}

child’s desires; make few demands and use little punishment

• _{3. Authoritative – both}

demanding and responsive; set rules and enforce them, but also explain reasons for rules and encourage discussion (BEST ONE!)

Parenting Skills

• _{Children with highest}

self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence have warm, concerned,

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence

• _{Adolescence – the transition}

period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

• _{G. Stanley Hall (1904) –}

described adolescence as a tension between biological maturity and social

independence; a period of “storm and stress”

Physical Development

• _{Adolescence begins with}

puberty

• Primary Sex Characteristics: – Reproductive organs and external

genitalia

• _{Secondary Sex Characteristics:}

– Nonreproductive traits like:

• Breasts and hips in girls

• Facial hair and deepened voice in boys

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Menarche – first menstrual}

period for girls

• _{Spermarche – first}

ejaculation for boys

• _{Both mark major sexual}

developments during puberty

Psychological Consequences of Early Maturation

• _{In Boys:}

– _{Stronger and more athletic} – _{More popular, self-assured,}

independent

– _{Risks include alcohol use,}

delinquency, and premature sexual activity

• _{In Girls:}

– _{Associate with older kids} – _{Suffer teasing and sexual}

harassment

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Brain of an Adolescent

• _{Brain increases connections}

up to puberty, then begins pruning process

• _{Frontal lobes continue to}

develop in teens; growth of myelin enables better

communication

• _{Results: improved}

judgment, impulse control, and ability to plan long term

Brain of an Adolescent

• _{In 2005 the U.S. Supreme}

Court declared juvenile death penalities

unconstitutional

– _{Reason: the teen’s brain is}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{During early teen years,}

reasoning is self-focused

• _{Discerning right from wrong}

and developing character are critical in childhood and adolescence

Developing Morality

• _{Lawrence Kohlberg (1981,}

1984) – sought to describe the development of moral reasoning; said we go

through 3 stages:

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Preconventional Morality –}

prior to age 9, obeying rules to avoid punishment or to gain rewards

• _{Conventional Morality –}

caring for others, upholding laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules

• _{Postconventional Morality –}

weighing alternatives and making personal choices based on universal

standards of justice and

human rights, not only laws or customs

– This stage is the most

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Disgust – felt when we see}

people engaged in

degrading or subhuman acts

• _{Elevation – a tingly, warm,}

glowing feeling in the chest, when seeing people display exceptional generosity,

compassion, or courage

• _{Moral Dilemmas}

– _{Moral judgment is thinking}

plus gut-level feeling

– _{Most believe that harm}

caused by an action is worse than harm caused by failing to act

– _{When brain areas responsible}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Character education}

programs today teach empathy and delayed

gratification, and produce kids who are:

– _{Socially Responsible} – _{Academically Successful} – _Productive

• _{Erik Erikson (1963) – said}

that each stage of life

presents a crisis that needs resolution.

– _{Took special interest in}

adolescents struggle for identity

– _{Our social identity is the part}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _Self-Esteem

– Mid teen years – it drops

– Late teens and twenties – it rebounds

– Survey of teens found they are happiest when with

friends and unhappiest when alone

– Most adolescents say they like their parents

• _{Emerging Adulthood}

– Period during early twenties

when many children lean heavily on parents

– Independence began occurring later when education become compulsory

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Earlier sexual maturity}

today as result of: – Increased body fat

– Weakened parent-child bonds

• _{Physical abilities crest in}

mid-20s:

– Muscular strength

– Reaction time

– Sensory keenness

– Cardiac output

• _{Athletes tend to notice the}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Aging brings:}

– Diminished vigor

– Decline in fertility

• _{Menopause usually}

experienced around age 50

– Men experience no

equivalent to menopause

– Only at age 75 do most men and women report little

sexual desire

• _{With increasing life}

expectancy comes

heightened demand for nursing homes, hearing aids, and other things elderly people use.

• _{Females tend to outlive}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Why can’t we live forever?}

– Chromosome tips called telomeres wear down

– Aging cells die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas

– Evolutionary biologists say that our species survives best when we raise our young and then stop consuming

resources

• _{Chronic anger and}

depression increase risk of ill health and premature death

• _{Death-Deferral}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Sensory Abilities Reduced}

by Aging:

– Visual sharpness

– Muscular strength

– Reaction time

– Stamina

– Vision

– Sense of smell

– Hearing

– Eye’s pupil shrinks with aging

• _{Aging adults are:}

– More susceptible to

life-threatening illness like cancer or pnemonia

– Less likely to experience short-term ailments like the flu or common cold

• _{Older workers have lower}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Aging slows neural processing} • _{Brain regions important to}

memory atrophy with aging

• _{Atrophy of frontal lobes late in}

life (inhibition control) explains blunt questions

• _{Exercise promotes}

neurogenesis in the

hippocampus (memory); also helps maintain telomeres

(chromosome tips)

• _{Dementia & Alzheimer’s}

– Dementia = mental

disintegration or erosion by strokes, brain tumors, or alcohol dependence

– Alzheimer’s = first memory deteriorates, then reasoning

• Symptoms = loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce ACh

(acetylcholine)

• _{Physically active non-obese}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Teens and Twenties: time}

we experience many memorable firsts

• _{Younger people do better}

when asked to “recall” things, but when asked to “recognize” things older and younger people were equal

• _{Remembering seems to}

depend on the type of

information we are trying to retrieve:

– _{Meaningless information-}

younger people are better (nonsense syllables, etc.)

– _{Meaningful information –}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Aging and Intelligence

• Wechsler (1972) said “the

decline of mental ability with age is part of the general aging process of the organism as a whole”

– Cross sectional study = different people at one time

• _{In 1980s study found that “until}

late in life, intelligence remained stable”

– Longitudinal study = same people over a period of time

• _{Today we recognize two}

kinds of intelligence: – Crystallized – our

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

– Fluid – our ability to reason speedily and abstractly;

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Terminal Decline – the}

near-death drop in a person’s mental ability (based on proximity to death)

• _{Age of early 40s signifies}

transition to middle adulthood

– This is where the popular “midlife crisis” is said to occur

• _Unhappiness • _{Job dissatisfaction} • _Divorce

• _Anxiety • _Suicide

– _{NO evidence that such things are} triggered by this age range

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Social Clock – the culturally}

preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

– _{Varies from era to era and}

culture to culture

• _{Two dominant aspects of}

adulthood:

– 1. Intimacy = forming close relationships

– 2. Generativity = being productive and supporting

future generations

• _{Also termed “love and}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{When will adult bonds of}

love most likely survive? – When both people…

• _{Have similar interests and}

values

• _{Share emotional and}

material support

• Are willing participants in intimate self-disclosure

• Seal their relationship with marriage or other legal commitment

• _{Will “test driving” marriage}

reduce the divorce rate? – Those who cohabit before

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{90% of heterosexual adults}

get married

• _{Marriage IS a predictor of}

happiness, health, sexual satisfaction, and income

• _{At least five-to-one ratio of}

positive to negative

interactions is encouraged

• _{Relationship must be}

somewhat equitable

• _{Empty Nest – when children}

are fully raised and moved away from home

– For most couples this is time to refocus on their

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Work – helps to define who}

we are. (“Who are you?” and “What do you do?”)

• _{Happiness is having work}

that fits your interest, provides a sense of

competence, and gives a feeling of accomplishment

• _{When people are asked}

what part of their past they would most like to change, the most common answer is “taken my education more seriously and worked

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

• _{Happiness is slightly higher}

among young and older adults, slightly lower at middle adulthood

• _{Amygdala shows}

diminishing activity in older adults in response to

negative events (no change in response to positive

events)

• _{At all ages, bad feelings}

associated with negative events fade faster than good feelings.

• _{As years go by, feelings}

(54)

UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Death and Dying

• _{Most difficult separation is}

from a spouse

• _{Grief is more severe when}

death of loved one comes suddenly and unexpected

• _{Integrity is a feeling that}

one’s life has been

meaningful and worthwhile

Continuity and Stages

• Both are actually true

• _{Those who focus on experience}

and learning see development as a slow, continuous process

• _{Those who emphasize biological}

maturation see development as series of stages or steps

• _{We all take a different amount}

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UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT

Stability and Change

• _{Personality – evidence}

found for both stability and change

– Temperament is more stable than other characteristics

– First 2 years of life are NOT a good predictor of traits

– We all change with age, becoming more

self-disciplined, stable, agreeable, and self-confident

• _{End of Unit 5 Development}