REDUCING SUBSTANCE USE
RISKS AND HARMS
S U M M A R Y
Impact and scale of the issue
The overall cost of substance use in NL in 2002 was estimated at $737 million.1 Tobacco accounted for 49.3% of these costs compared to 33.5% for alcohol and 17.2% for illegal drugs. 1 Health care expense is the greatest direct cost associated with substance use, with an annual price tag of $176 million.1
Research suggests that residents of Newfoundland and Labrador and Eastern Health region have engaged in harmful patterns of alcohol consumption. Based on a 2004 Canadian Addictions Survey, respondents from NL were more likely to exceed low‐risk drinking guidelines than other provinces.2 In the same survey, 35.5% of respondents from this province reported monthly heavy drinking.2 Such a pattern is associated with an increased risk for a variety of alcohol‐related harms.
In addition to harmful patterns of alcohol consumption, there is a perceived increase in availability and use of illicit drugs among our residents. In a survey conducted with recreational drug users in St. John’s, 50‐56% of respondents reported that ecstasy and cocaine were very easy to obtain.3 The earlier a person starts using a drug, the greater their risks for problems later in life.4 In the Eastern Health region, youth have acknowledged substance use as a fact of life at the high school level.5 According to the 2007 NL Student Drug Use Survey, respectively alcohol, cannabis and tobacco are the three most commonly used substances by junior and senior high school students.6 The average age of onset for alcohol use in 2007 was 12.9 years, 13.5 for cannabis and 12.6 years for tobacco.6 This study also found that 35.3% of students in Newfoundland and Labrador who had sexual intercourse reported having had unplanned sexual intercourse under the influence of a substance on at least one occasion in the course of the year. Forty‐six percent of Level III students report having done so, compared to 27.1% in Grade 9.6
In Canada, 21% of deaths, 25% of potential years of life loss and 19% of days spent in the hospital are related to substance use. Many people who use substances are faced with a combination of chronic disease such as cirrhosis of the liver or cancer, and acute conditions such as accidents and violence.7
The costs of addiction per person increase as services become more intense and specialized and the incidents of chronic disease and accidents increase. Preventing substance use and gambling among youth will reduce the incidence of problems and harms from using, and will promote healthy development with informed, healthy choices lasting into adulthood.2
Degree of Health Inequality
A number of sub‐populations have been identified to be at particular risk from alcohol and other substance use. Demographic factors including age and socioeconomic status may pose particular vulnerabilities with respect to problematic substance use concerns. Other health inequalities have been shown to be associated with individuals with mental illness, women and seniors.
There are special populations of youth that have been shown to be at increased risk for heavy and problematic use of substances. According to the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse (2007), these special populations include: “…runaway and street‐involved youth; youth in custody; adolescents with co‐occurring disorders; sexually abused and exploited youth; gay, lesbian, bisexual, and questioning teens; and First Nations, Inuit, and Métis youth (p.17).”8
Low socio‐economic status can increase substance use while substance use can also serve to lower one’s socioeconomic status.9
Having either a substance use problem or a mental health problem increases the likelihood of having the other.10 According to Regier et al (as cited by Skinner & O’Grady, 2007) a person with a mental health disorder is almost three times more likely to have a substance use disorder at some time in his or her life than a person who does not.10
Women experience greater vulnerability to the physical health impacts of substance use,
greater impact from life transitions, and are more likely to use substances to improve mood and to cope with problems.11 Because girls and young women are entering childbearing years, their substance use patterns also carry the risk of impacting the fetus if they become pregnant.11
As we age, our bodies change both inside and out. Older adults cannot metabolize alcohol and other drugs in the same capacity as younger adults. As a result, older adults are therefore more vulnerable to the negative effects of alcohol and other drug use.12
Evidence that health promotion and prevention action can bring
about change
The evidence for minimizing use and reducing harm from alcohol and other substances is supported through supply and demand reduction, as well as, harm reduction activities.
Price and physical availability have been identified as two of the most crucial factors influencing the use of substances by young people.4 Grube and Nygaard4 state that restricting access is generally associated with decreased use. They identify that consistent enforcement of alcohol sales laws along with associated media coverage has been effective in reducing rates of alcohol and tobacco use and sales to minors.
Demand reduction may be pursued through universal and targeted prevention measures.9 Supported universal demand reduction activities include: parent and family programming, school programming, workplace policy and programming, community strategies and social marketing and mass media. Supported targeted demand reduction activities include: family, school and brief interventions.
A consistent theme among a number of researchers is the value of parent education and parent management programs from birth through to adolescence. Family‐strengthening approaches that support ways parents can effectively praise, supervise, discipline and communicate with their children are crucial in preventing later drug use.13
There is evidence to support the role of schools in prevention of use and reduction of harm in relation to substance use. The following activities have demonstrated prevention effectiveness: school preparation programs, school drug education, school environment, and other broader comprehensive school health programming including school services and partnerships.9,14,15,16,17
A comprehensive approach to substance education includes helping students understand and interact with a range of factors related to their family, cultural, economic, political, social and physical environments. The social skills and values that students learn from their teachers through engagement in the school community may be the most valuable in helping them avoid harm related to substance use.15
Addressing problematic substance use in the workplace should involve a comprehensive workplace drug and alcohol policy. Such policy should include awareness and education
programs, supervisor training, employee assistance programs and access to assistance and tools to investigate policy violations.18 Other evidence based strategies for workplace prevention programs include education and health promotion programs which promote healthier environments while teaching improved wellness and personal health practices.19
Community mobilization efforts have been known to be effective particularly in relation to addressing community norms around substance use and in working to restrict access to licit and illicit drugs.14 Social environments can have a major impact on substance use behaviour;
therefore, providing healthy substance‐free environments should be a priority for all communities.
There is little evidence that mass media campaigns when used in isolation are effective. When used in combination with other prevention strategies however, such initiatives have the potential to encourage less harmful substance use behaviors and influence attitudes and perceived norms.9, 14
Evidence has supported targeted demand reduction activities involving families, schools and the use of screening and brief interventions. The Strengthening Families for the Future program is one of the most effective universal and selective family‐oriented programs from a
problematic substance use prevention perspective.13 Brief interventions are often completed by health professionals through the use of screening tools to identify people with hazardous substance use patterns.9 There is strong evidence for the effectiveness of brief intervention in primary care and hospital settings.4 The use of electronic screening tools and brief
interventions through the internet has shown effectiveness in helping individuals address and reduce hazardous alcohol use.4
Harm reduction seeks to lessen the harms associated with substance use without necessarily requiring a reduction in use.4 The specific goals of harm reduction can be achieved through eliminating or reducing use, reducing risky patterns of use or promoting safer use.4
Rhodes (2008) describes outreach as a method of health education and service provision that aims to increase awareness of risks to health, encourage changes in behavior and sustain positive lifestyle changes.20 Outreach is an integral part of specialized services for youth, older adults, pregnant and parenting women, people with concurrent mental health problems, and for those living and/or working on the street.9
Evidence has supported the use of motivational interviewing with pregnant women who use substances.21 The goal of motivational interviewing is to help clients explore their ambivalence about their substance use, and can be accomplished by helping clients examine the costs and benefits associated with their substance use.21 Zilberman et al (2006) suggests that pregnancy itself may create a window of opportunity to reach women.21
As part of implementing a comprehensive national alcohol strategy, Canada has adopted new low‐risk drinking guidelines initiated by the National Alcohol Strategy Advisory Committee.22 If these guidelines were adopted by all Canadians, total compliance with these guidelines would
reduce the annual numbers of alcohol‐related deaths in Canada by approximately 4600.22 It is hoped that these guidelines, along with other regulatory and policy strategies, will support positive changes in drinking behavior.22
Research by Hawks et al. and the Transportation Research Board as cited in Roberts (2008) has shown that zero tolerance for blood alcohol levels when combined with extensive and targeted random stopping and awareness campaigns, leads to a reduction in road traffic crashes
involving young or probationary drivers.9 In our province, administrative sanctions are in place for drivers with blood alcohol concentrations under 0.08 to 0.05. Administrative sanctions also require zero blood alcohol concentrations for novice drivers. Continued support and promotion of community awareness around these laws and sanctions are important. “Public education has made some gains in reducing impaired driving and consequent harms over the past few
decades and warrants continuation.” 4
“Because needle sharing remains the single most important risk factor for spreading HIV and other infectious diseases within injection drug using (IDU) populations, needle and syringe programs which aim to reduce sharing continue to be an important harm reduction measure in Canada and around the world.”9
Safer Bar programs have been proven to reduce aggression and violence in drinking
establishments without attempting to change drinking patterns (Roberts, 2008). Strategies associated with effectiveness include: staff training at licensed premises; enforcing regulations as it pertains to serving underage or intoxicated clients; restriction of liquor outlet density to reduce competition; and development of a system that publicly monitors and tracks serious alcohol‐related harms associated with drinking at licensed premises.4
Opportunities and capacity to address the issue
Strengthening Families for the Future Program
Families and Schools Together (FAST)
Promotion of low‐risk drinking guidelines
Kids and Drugs Program
Community Addictions Prevention/Mental Health Promotion Grant
Addictions Development & Training Program
Workplace substance use education & consultation
PARTY Program (Prevent Alcohol and Risk‐Related Trauma in Youth)
Community Addictions Awareness Group (Rural Avalon)
Parenting and Social Marketing Working Group
Regional Sexual Health Committee
Provincial Addictions Prevention/Mental Health Promotion Consultants Teleconference
Transitions to Work Program (Partnership with Ability Employment Corp. and AES)
Parent Communications Campaign
National Addictions Awareness Week, e.g. MAZE activity with schools
Stakeholder Support
Eastern School District, e.g. Safe & Caring Schools & Healthy Students, Healthy Schools
Community Youth Network
Community Centre Alliance (St. John’s and Marystown)
Royal Newfoundland Constabulary Drug Awareness Service
Royal Canadian Mounted Police ‐ Drugs & Organized Crime Awareness
NL Safety Services
AIDS Committee of NL
Addictions Treatment Services Association‐ ATSA*
Community Addictions Awareness Group (Rural)
Department of Child Youth and Family Services, e.g. Family Resource Centres
Seniors Resource Centres
Memorial University of Newfoundland & Labrador (MUN Wellness & Counseling Centre)
College of the North Atlantic (Student Development & Student Support Services)
Planned Parenthood‐Newfoundland and Labrador Sexual Health Centre
Newfoundland & Labrador Liquor Corporation
Regional Health Authorities‐ Central Health, Western Health & Labrador‐Grenfell Health
Department of Health & Community Services
Motor Vehicle Registration Division
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)
Eastern Regional Wellness Coalition
Wellness Coalition Avalon East
St. John’s & Surrounding Area FASD (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder) Working Group
A complete list of references can be obtained from the background paper ‘Working in Health Promoting Ways: Where we Live, Work, Learn and Play’ which is available on the Intranet (Eastern Health employees only) or www.easternhealth.ca